14.

RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

RELATIONS
In the Arrow Diagram that follows, we define a
In mathematics, we study relations between two sets relation between the set {1, 2, 3, 4} and the set {3, 6,
of numbers, where members of one set are related to 9, 12} as ‘multiply by 3’. Notice that 1 is mapped
the other set by a rule. Relations are also described as onto 3, 2 onto 6, 3 onto 9 and 4 onto 12. The arrows
mappings. When we map a set of numbers onto are drawn from the set X to the set Y.
another set of numbers, we often express the rule for
the mapping using mathematical relationships instead
of words.

Representing relations – Arrow diagrams and

m
Ordered pairs

co
An Arrow Diagram is often used to represent a
relation. The members of each set are listed inside an
enclosed shape and arrows are drawn to connect
related members. For a relation to exist between the

.
hs
sets, there must be a rule connecting pairs of
elements and this rule must hold for all mappings
from set X to set Y.

In the example, shown below, we define a relation

between the set {4, 5, 6, 7} and the set {9, 10, 11, at The mapping can also be represented as the set of
ordered pairs:
(1, 3) (2, 6) (3, 9) (4, 12).
m
12} as ‘add 5’. Notice that 4 is mapped onto 9, 5 onto
10, 6 onto 11 and 7 onto 12. This is shown by In the mapping below, the members are related to the
drawing arrows to connect members of the set X to
s
rule. ‘´ 2 and then +1’. We may say that x is mapped
the members Y. onto 2x + 1. This can be represented as the set of
as

ordered pairs.
(7, 15) (8, 17) (9, 19) (10, 21)
sp
.fa
w
w
w

We refer to the members of the set X as the input and A relation exists between two sets of numbers if we
members of the set Y as the output. The direction of can find a rule that maps members of the first set
the arrows is always from the input to the output. (domain) onto members of the second set
(codomain). The rule must hold for all possible pairs
The mapping can also be represented as the set of that are connected. So that when we select a value of
ordered pairs: x, also called an input, and apply the rule of the
(4, 9) (5, 10) (6, 11) (7, 12). relation, we obtain the y value, also called the output.
We can also refer to the y value as the image of the x
The ordered pair preserves the directional property of value.
the relation. It is consistent with the order of points
plotted on a Cartesian Plane represented by (𝑥, 𝑦).

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Defining a relation codomain. If this is not so, then the range is a subset
of the codomain.
Based on our discussion so far, there are three
conditions that must be present when a relation exist, By defining Y as a set of even numbers {2, 4, 6, 8},
these are: we can have the situation where the range is equal to
• Two sets are involved. the codomain.
• There must be a clear rule describing the
relationship.
• There is a directional property, that is, the
relation is defined from one set called the
domain on to another set called the
codomain.

m
Codomain and Range

co
Now assume we define a relation from the set,
X= {1, 2, 3, 4} to the set, Y = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8}.

.
We will define the relation as x ® 2 x . The arrow

hs
diagram is shown below. Notice that some members
of the set Y are not outputs. These are the odd
numbers 3, 5 and 7.

The subset of Y consisting of the even numbers {2, 4, at Range is equal to the codomain
m
6, 8} is called the range.
Example 1
The entire set, Y, is called the codomain. A relation is represented by the ordered pairs shown
s
below:
(1, 5) (2, 7) (3, 9) (4, ?) ( ?, 23)
as

i. State the rule for the relation.

ii. What is the image of 4?
sp

iii. What is the input for an output of 23?

.fa

Solution

i. By inspection, the rule for the relation is 2x +

w

3.
w

ii. The image of 4 is calculated by substituting x

= 4 in 2x+3
2(4) + 3 = 11. The image of 4 is 11.
w

Range is a subset of the codomain iii. When the output, y = 23.

2x + 3 = 23
2x = 23 - 3 = 20 a
The range is defined as those members of the x = 20 ÷ 2 = 10.
codomain that are ‘used’, that is they are connected The input is 10.
to some member of the domain by the rule that
defines the relation. They are also the output values
or the images of the input values.

If all the members of the codomain are connected to

members of the domain, then the range is equal to the

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Types of Relations A relation is one to one if no two elements of the
domain have the same image in the codomain.
Let the set 𝐴 ={2, 4, 5}and the set 𝐵 = {6, 8, 10}.
We define a relation from the set A to the set B as “is Example 2
a factor of”. This relation is illustrated below. For each of the examples below, state the type of
relation.
A B (i) (ii)

2 6
4 2
4 8 −2
1
−3
5 10 3

m
9

co
In this relation,
• an element of A (2) is associated with more than (iii)
one element of B (6, 8, 10).

.
• more than one element of A (2 and 5) is

hs
associated with one element of B (10)

A relation is one to many if an element of the

domain is mapped onto more than one element of
the codomain. at
m
(iv)
A relation is many to one if, two or more elements
of the domain have the same image in the
s
codomain.
as

If a relation has both one to many and many to

one associations, then the relation is many to
sp

many

The relation “is a factor of” has both of the above

.fa

Solution
types of relationships. This is an example of a many
to many relation.
i. Each member of B is related to only one
w

member of A, we conclude that this relation

We now define a relation from a set A= {1, 2, 3} to a
is one-one.
set B = {5, 6, 7} such that “B is four more than A”.
ii. There is at least one example of one-many
w

The arrow diagram for this relation is shown below.

relationships, we conclude that this relation
is one-many.
w

iii. There is at least one example of a one-many

relationship, and at least one example of a
many-one relationship, we conclude that
this relation is many-many.
iv. Since there is at least one example of a
many-one relationship, we conclude that
Note that it is not possible to have one member of A
this relation is many-one.
associated with more than one member of B. Also,
two members of A cannot be associated with one
member of B. Such a relation is said to be one to
one.

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Example 3

A relation, R is defined by the set of ordered pairs;

(−3, 2), (−2, 4), (0, 5), (−2, 6) Andrew Gill
(i) List the members of the domain.
(ii) List the members of the codomain. Julien
Cindy
(iii) What type of relation is R? Michael
Kwame Deb
Solution Barton
(i) Members of the domain are {−3, −2, 0}
(ii) Members of the codomain are {2, 4, 5, 6}
(iii) We can draw an arrow diagram to represent

m
the relation.
Examples and non-examples of a function

co
2 This is a one to one
−3 function.

.
The range is the same
4

hs
as the codomain.
−2
5
0
6
at This is a one to one
function.
m
The range is a subset of
the codomain.
The arrow diagram shows one example of a one-
s
to-many relation. We conclude that this relation is
as

one-to-many.

This is a many to one

function.
sp

Relations and Functions The range is a subset of

the codomain.
A function is a relation that has exactly one
.fa

output for each input in the domain.

This mapping is not a
The following are characteristic features of a function
w

function.
defined from a set X to a set Y: Each member of the
• Every member of X is mapped onto one and domain is associated
w

only one member of Y with two distinct

• An input cannot have more than one output. members of the co-
w

• Two or more members of the set X can be domain. It is a one-

mapped onto the same member of the set Y many relation.

In the real world, we may think of a function as a This mapping is not a

mapping onto the set of sons (X) to a corresponding function.
set of biological mothers (Y). Each son will be At least one member of
2 t
associated with one and only one mother, and two or the domain is not
more sons can be associated with the same mother f associated with any
5
but one son cannot be associated with two or more member of the co-
7
mothers. This is shown in the arrow diagram below. n domain.
9
Functions form a subset of relations that are one-one
or many-one.

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Notation The graph of a relation provides a visual method of
determining whether it is a function or not. The graph
We can describe a function using mathematical of the relation shown in example 4 above shows that
notation, written as 𝑓(𝑥), read ‘f of x’. The letter f the image of −𝟐 is both 1 and 3. This relation cannot
stands for the function itself and x for the input be a function because it has a one-many mapping.
number. Three notations are illustrated below.
Example 5
𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1 or A function is defined as
𝑓: 𝑥 → 2𝑥 + 1 or y = 2x2 + 3, where x = {–1, 0, 1, 2, 3}.
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1 (i) Calculate the output values for this function.
(ii) Draw an arrow diagram for the function.
Using any of the above examples, we can calculate (iii) Sketch the graph of y = 2x2 + 3
the output for a given input. When x = 1,

m
Solution
𝑓(1) = 2(1) + 1 = 3 (i) Substitute the input values to find the output
𝑓: 1 → 2(1) + 1 = 3 values.

co
𝑦 = 2(1) + 1 = 3 y = 2(−2)2 + 3 = 8 + 3 = 11
y = 2(-1)2 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
If we have more than one function, we can use

.
another letter, say g or h so that we can write, for y = 2(0)2 + 3 = 0 + 3 = 3

hs
example: y = 2(1)2 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
y = 2(2)2 + 3 = 8 + 3 = 11
𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1

Representing relations and functions graphically

at (ii) The arrow diagram is shown below.
m
Functions of any type as well as relations can be 3
s
represented graphically. We merely plot the ordered −2
pairs using the Cartesian plane. −1
as

5
0
Example 4 1
11
Draw the graph of the relation represented by the 2
sp

set of ordered pairs

(−2, 1), (−2, 3), (0, −3), (1, 4), (3, 1)
.fa

(iii) The graph is shown below.

Solution
w
w
w

In example 5, there are no one-many mappings, that

is, no value on the domain (or x-axis) is mapped onto
more than one image point. This indicates that the
graph represents a function.

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Vertical Line Test for a function The inverse of a function
In a function, an input cannot have more than one A function maps a set of points from a set X onto a
output. A member of the domain must be assigned to set Y using a given rule. For example, if the rule is
a unique member of the range. A vertical line drawn “multiply x by 2”, a function, 𝑓: 𝑥 ⟶ 2𝑥 can be
through any input must be associated with only one represented by the set of ordered pairs:
output, intersecting the graph only once. If a vertical
line cuts the graph more than once then the graph (1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8), (5, 10)
does not represent a function.
The domain for 𝑓(𝑥) is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
The range for 𝑓(𝑥) is {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

If we were to interchange the domain and the range,

m
we will have the following set of ordered pairs:

(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4), (10, 5)

co
The domain for the new function is {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
The range for the new function is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

.
hs
The new function which maps members of the range
onto members of the domain is called the inverse of
𝑓(𝑥), written as 𝑓 => (𝑥). The rule for this function is

at >
“divide by 2”, expressed as 𝑓 => (𝑥) = ? 𝑥.
−1
The inverse of f, denoted f (x) is the rule that
m
maps members of the range back onto members of
Horizontal Line Test for a One to One Function the domain.
s
In a similar fashion, we can develop a test for a one-
as

If 𝑓 maps 𝑥 onto 𝑓(𝑥) such that

one function. Since each member of the domain is
f : x → f (x) , then
associated with one and only one member of the
codomain, horizontal lines drawn through image the inverse of 𝑓 maps 𝑓(𝑥) back onto 𝑓 such that
sp

points should cut the graph only once. f −1 (x) : f (x) → x

This is illustrated in the diagram below.
If a horizontal line intersects a graph at most once,
.fa

then the graph represents a one-to-one function.

w
w
w

This graph represents a This graph does NOT

one to one function since represent a one to one Conditions for an inverse to exist
the horizontal lines cut function since the
the curve once. horizontal lines cut the For a function to have an inverse, there must be a one
Each input is associated curve more than once. to one correspondence between the members of X
with one output. Two input values are and Y. We already know that all functions are one-
associated with the same one but the function must also be onto, that is - all
output value. the y values must be associated with an X value, in
other words, there must be no unused output values.

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To determine the inverse of a function Composite functions
Consider the function, f (x ) = 3x + 2 , x is a real Sometimes it is necessary to obtain a single function
number. We can think of the function as a sequence that is equivalent to two functions. We refer to the
of operations, illustrated below. single function as the composite of the two separate
functions.
Start with 𝑥, multiply by 3 then add 2 to the result.
This is represented symbolically as A composite function is a combination of two
𝑥 ⟶ 3𝑥 ⟶ +2 functions, where we apply the first function and the
output is used as the input into the second function.
To obtain the rule for the inverse, we reverse the
process. In doing so, what was done last must be In combining two functions, we must note that the
done first. We always start with x. order (commutative property) is important. We must

m
first understand order as it applies to composite
Start with 𝑥, subtract 2 then divide the result by 3. functions before making observations about the
This is represented symbolically as commutative property.

co
𝑥−2
𝑥 ⟶ 𝑥−2 ⟶ Notation for composite functions
3

.
Consider the following functions:

hs
The above method is useful in finding the inverse of x+3
simple functions. For more complex ones, the f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 and g(x) =
2
following steps are followed. We are interested in obtaining a function that

Step 1: Rewrite the function letting y = f (x) at combines both functions in the order:
𝑓(𝑥) followed by 𝑔(𝑥) or f followed by g.
m
So f (x) = 3x + 2 is written as y = 3x + 2
This means that 𝑓(𝑥) is the first function and 𝑔(𝑥) is
s
the second function. In writing this, we place the first
Step 2: Make x the subject
function, 𝑓, to the left of 𝑥 and the second function g,
y-2
as

=x to the left of 𝑓(𝑥). Hence, in summary,

3
Step 3: Replace y by x to get f -1 f followed by g written as 𝒈[𝒇(𝒙)] read as “g of f(x)”.
sp

x-2
f -1 ( x ) =
3 A more shortened form is 𝒈𝒇(𝒙), read as “g of f(x)”.
.fa

Example 6 Commutative Property

@A=>
Find the inverse of the function f(x) = AB?
Let us now apply the above principles to evaluate
𝑔𝑓(5).
w

Solution We first find 𝑓(5), f (5) = 2(5) + 1 = 11 .

w

@A=>
Let y = AB? The output is now the input into 𝑔(𝑥), so we need
𝑔(11)
w

Next we make x the subject. 11 + 3 14

y(x + 2) = 3x – 1 g (11) = = = 7.
2 2
xy + 2y = 3x – 1 This process is illustrated in two separate diagrams.
xy – 3x = −1 – 2y
x(y – 3) = −1 – 2y
x(3 – y) = 1 + 2y [multiply by −1]
>B?C
x=
@=C
Replacing y by x on the right side to obtain
>B?A
f-1(x) =
@=A

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Therefore, We may now use this function to evaluate say, 𝑔𝑓(7)
𝑔𝑓(5) =𝑔[𝑓(5)} = 𝑔[11] = 7 in one step.
𝑔𝑓(7) = √7 + 2 = √9 = ±3
We now evaluate 𝑓𝑔(5)
JB@
First, calculate 𝑔(5), 𝑔(5) = =4 Example 7
?
The functions g and f are defined as:
x+3
𝑓𝑔(5) =𝑓[𝑔(5)} = 𝑓[4] = 2(4) + 1 = 9 f ( x ) = 2 x + 1 and g ( x ) =
2
𝑓𝑔(5) ≠ 𝑔𝑓(5) Derive the composite function 𝑔𝑓(𝑥)and 𝑓𝑔(𝑥).
What conclusion can be made with respect to the
At this point, we may conclude that, when the order commutative property?
is reversed when combining two functions, the result

m
is not the same.
Solution

co
The function gf is called a composite function,
which is equivalent to a combination of f(x) and gf (x) = g[ f (x)]
then g(x). We can say that the function gf (x) = g[2x + 1]

.
means to perform f first and then g second. (2x + 1) + 3

hs
=
2
2x + 4
Deriving the Composite Function =
2

Sometimes we are required to derive an algebraic at fg(x) = f [g(x)]

m
expression for a composite function. That is, we é x + 3ù
require one expression that will generate any output = fê
for a given input. In such a case, we will be given ë 2 úû
s
both functions and the order in which the functions æ x + 3ö
= 2ç +1
è 2 ÷ø
as

are to be carried out. For example, consider the

functions: = x + 3+1
= x+4
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥
sp

Conclusion
To determine the composite function 𝑔𝑓(𝑥), we can Since 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓𝑔(𝑥)
carry out the following procedure.
.fa

Reversing the order of the operations affects the

result. Hence, the commutative property does not
Step 1: hold.
The order is f then g, so we write
w

𝑔𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)]
Example 8
w

Step 2: Given
We replace 𝑓(𝑥) by its rule, that is (𝑥 + 2) 𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = , where 𝑥𝜖𝑅, 𝑥 ≠ 2.
w

𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑔[𝑥 + 2] 𝟐=𝒙

Evaluate 𝑓𝑓(3)

Step 3:
We now apply the rule for the function, g, which can Solution
be read as ‘take the square root’ of the input. Since
the input is (𝑥 + 2), we write: 1
f (3) = = -1
𝑔[𝑥 + 2] = √𝑥 + 2 2-3
1 1
\ ff (3) = f (- 1) = =
2 - (- 1) 3
\ gf (x ) = x + 2

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The composition of inverse functions The above illustration shows that 𝑓 => 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥,
because
We saw in the previous section that the commutative
property is not obeyed in functions. For example, if f f(x) f-1(x)
and g are two functions, then fg ≠ gf. However, there 1 2 1
is an exception to this rule when evaluating the
composition of a function and its inverse. In this case,
f(x) f-1(x)
𝑓𝑓 => (𝑥) = 𝑓 => 𝑓(𝑥) 2 5 2
We will use an example to illustrate the above rule.
f(x) f-1(x)
Let us define a function, f(x) = 3x – 1 3 8 3

We find 𝑓 => using the following steps

m
In a similar fashion, we could illustrate that
Let y = 3x – 1

co
𝑓𝑓 => (𝑥) = 𝑥
Making 𝑥 the subject, we have
CB> Hence,
x=

.
@

hs
𝑓𝑓 => (𝑥) = 𝑓 => 𝑓(𝑥)
AB>
Hence 𝑓 => (𝑥)= @

𝑓𝑓 => (𝑥)= 𝑓[
AB>
@
] = 3(

AB>
AB>
@
) -1 = x

(@A=>)B> at
m
𝑓 => 𝑓(𝑥)= 𝑓 => R S = =x
@ @

Hence, 𝑓𝑓 => (𝑥) = 𝑓 => 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

s
as

We can also illustrate why this is so by considering

the images of three points as shown below.
sp

𝑓(𝑥) = 3(𝑥) − 1 𝑥+1

𝑓 => (𝑥) =
3
𝑓(1) = 3(1) − 1 = 2 2+1
.fa

=> (2)
𝑓 = =1
3
𝑓(2) = 3(2) − 1 = 5 5 + 1
𝑓 => (5) = =2
3
w

𝑓(3) = 3(3) − 1 = 8 8+1

𝑓 => (8) = =3
3
w

Now we examine the arrow diagrams for the function

w

and its inverse.

f(x) f-1(x)

1 2 2 1

2 5 5 2

3 8 8 3

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