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Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism

Volume 2016, Article ID 9104792, 5 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/9104792

Research Article
A High Protein Diet Has No Harmful Effects: A One-Year
Crossover Study in Resistance-Trained Males

Jose Antonio, Anya Ellerbroek, Tobin Silver, Leonel Vargas, Armando Tamayo,
Richard Buehn, and Corey A. Peacock
Exercise and Sport Science Laboratory, Nova Southeastern University, Davie, FL, USA

Correspondence should be addressed to Jose Antonio; [email protected]

Received 1 July 2016; Accepted 20 September 2016

Academic Editor: Michael B. Zemel

Copyright © 2016 Jose Antonio et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of a high protein diet over a one-year period. Fourteen healthy
resistance-trained men completed the study (mean ± SD; age 26.3 ± 3.9 yr; height 178.5 ± 8.4 cm; and average years of training
8.9 ± 3.4 yr). In a randomized crossover design, subjects consumed their habitual or normal diet for 2 months and 4 months and
alternated that with a higher protein diet (>3 g/kg/d) for 2 months and 4 months. Thus, on average, each subject was on their
normal diet for 6 months and a higher protein diet for 6 months. Body composition was assessed via the Bod Pod. Each subject
provided approximately 100–168 daily dietary self-reports. During the subjects’ normal eating phase, they consumed (mean ± SD)
29.94 ± 5.65 kcals/kg/day and 2.51 ± 0.69 g/kg/day of protein. This significantly increased (𝑝 < 0.05) during the high protein phase
to 34.37 ± 5.88 kcals/kg/day and 3.32 ± 0.87 g/kg/day of protein. Our investigation discovered that, in resistance-trained men that
consumed a high protein diet (∼2.51–3.32 g/kg/d) for one year, there were no harmful effects on measures of blood lipids as well as
liver and kidney function. In addition, despite the total increase in energy intake during the high protein phase, subjects did not
experience an increase in fat mass.

1. Introduction 1.4–2.0 g/kg/day for physically active individuals is not only

safe, but may improve the training adaptations to exercise
It has been postulated that the consumption of a high protein training” [4]. Furthermore, scientists have used different
diet may cause harmful effects, particularly in the kidneys. definitions of “high” protein intakes. For instance, protein
Approximately a century ago, investigators found “at least intakes greater than 15-16% of total energy, as high as 35%
some or very severe” renal damage in a small group of rats on
of total calories, or intakes that exceed the RDA have been
a high protein diet in which one kidney had been removed [1].
postulated as reaching the threshold of what constitutes a
Other work on rodents found no evidence of renal damage;
“high protein” diet [5]. We would posit that basing a diet on
however, they did find that rats receiving a high protein diet
experienced renal hypertrophy [2]. Notwithstanding, a more percentages is misleading. That is, if one were to consume a
recent rat study reported that 30 days of very high whey pro- hypoenergetic diet of 1000 kcal in which 35% of the calories
tein supplemented diet (i.e., 6 human-equivalent 20 g doses were derived from protein, then that would amount to a
per day) did not adversely affect blood and/or histological paltry 87.5 grams of protein. Instead, high protein diets should
markers of liver or kidney health and instead may improve always be defined as the amount of protein consumed per
liver health when compared to rats not receiving protein [3]. unit body weight. It is our contention that high protein diets
The challenge with determining the effects of high protein should necessarily exceed 2.0 g/kg/d. Previous work from our
diets on measures of health is the lack of agreement with laboratory discovered that an eight-week period of heavy
what constitutes a “high” intake of protein. At least in athletic resistance training coupled with high protein consumption
populations, the International Society of Sports Nutrition’s (>3.0 g/kg/d) results in improvements in body composition
position stand on protein states that “protein intakes of [6]. Furthermore, at least in the short term, high protein
2 Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism

intakes had no harmful side effects [6, 7]. However, long-term Table 1: Body composition and training volume.
longitudinal data are lacking in terms of the effects of high
protein diets. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to Baseline Normal High
examine the effects of high protein consumption in a group Weight kg 84.05 ± 10.20 84.55 ± 10.73 85.18 ± 11.04
of resistance-trained young males over a 1-year period. Fat mass kg 11.42 ± 3.13 12.39 ± 3.85 12.30 ± 3.26
FFM kg 72.63 ± 9.19 72.15 ± 8.41 72.73 ± 9.65
% body fat 13.59 ± 3.21 14.48 ± 3.48 14.49 ± 3.59
2. Methods and Materials
Volume load∗ 50,160 ± 17,510 48,684 ± 19,436 51,023 ± 20224
2.1. Participants. Fourteen resistance-trained male subjects Data are mean ± SD. There were no significant differences between groups.
∗
volunteered for this investigation (racial/ethnic background: Volume load is equal to the mean total amount of weight lifted (kg) each
week.
10 white males, 3 black males, and 1 Pacific Islander). Subjects
took part in a randomized crossover trial in which they
consumed their habitual (i.e., normal protein) or high protein
Each subject was tested at least twice per visit. Data from
diet for two months and four months, respectively. The order
the Bod Pod include body weight, percent body fat, fat-free
in which they consumed their normal or high protein intakes
mass, and fat mass. All testing was done with each subject
was randomized. Subjects followed their normal and high
at approximately the same time of day for each of the five
protein intake phases for a total of 6 months, respectively.
testing sessions. Although hydration status was not assessed,
Subjects came to the laboratory on five occasions. They
each subject was tested in an identical manner throughout the
were tested at baseline and then subsequently after two 2-
investigation. The Bod Pod was calibrated the morning of the
month periods and two 4-month periods of following the
testing session as well as between each subject.
respective diet. The extra protein consumed by each subject
was obtained primarily from whey protein powder, which was
provided to each subject at no cost (Dymatize ISO-100 with 2.4. Blood Analysis: Comprehensive Metabolic Panel and Blood
25 grams of protein, 1 gram of carbohydrate, and zero grams Lipids. Subjects presented in a fasted state at a local Quest
of fat per serving of one scoop). However, subjects did not Diagnostics facility on five separate occasions. A blood
have to consume the extra protein as powder; instead, they lipid and comprehensive metabolic panel was done. This
could consume whatever extra protein source they preferred. includes the following measures: glucose, blood urea nitrogen
Nova Southeastern University’s Human Subjects Institutional (BUN), creatinine, glomerular filtration rate, BUN/creatinine
Review Board in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration ratio, sodium, potassium, chloride, carbon dioxide, calcium,
approved this study and written informed consent was total protein, albumin, globulin, albumin/globulin ratio, total
obtained prior to participation. bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, alanine transaminase, aspar-
tate transaminase, total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol,
2.2. Food Diary. Subjects kept a diary (i.e., three days per and the total cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein choles-
week for one year) of their food intake via a smartphone terol ratio. Quest Diagnostics performed each test according
app (MyFitnessPal) equaling ∼150 daily food logs over the to the standard operating procedure of the company.
treatment period. The use of mobile apps for dietary self-
reporting has been previously used [6–9]. Every subject had
previous experience with this mobile app. The MyFitnessPal 2.5. Training Program. Each subject followed their own
app is a database comprised of over 5 million foods that strength and conditioning program. The investigators were in
have been provided by users via entering data manually regular contact with each subject to ensure that each subject
or by scanning the bar code on packaged goods. Thus, completed a training log. The volume load (i.e., total weight
the data themselves are primarily derived from food labels lifted per week) was determined for each treatment period.
(i.e., nutrition facts panel) derived from the USDA National
Nutrient database. 2.6. Statistics. A 2-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
used to analyze the data with 𝑝 < 0.05 considered as
2.3. Body Composition. Height was measured using standard significant. The data that were compared were baseline and
anthropometry and total body weight was measured using the mean of the normal treatment period [combined 2-
a calibrated scale. Body composition was assessed by whole month and 4-month treatment] as well as the mean of the
body densitometry using air displacement via the Bod Pod high protein treatment period [combined 2-month and 4-
(COSMED USA, Concord, CA). All testing was performed month treatment]. Data are expressed as the mean ± SD. The
in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. Subjects statistical analysis was completed using Prism 6 GraphPad
were instructed to come into the lab after a 3-hour fast and no Software (La Jolla, California).
exercise 24 hours prior to assessment. They voided prior to
testing. Subjects were tested while wearing only tight fitting 3. Results
clothing (swimsuit or undergarments) and an acrylic swim
cap. Subjects were instructed to wear the same clothing for The data for body composition are shown in Table 1. The
all testing. Thoracic gas volume was estimated for all subjects data for nutritional intake are shown in Table 2. Subjects
using a predictive equation integral to the Bod Pod software. consumed more absolute and relative calories and protein
Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism 3

Table 2: Dietary intake. are associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease,
cancer, and all-cause mortality [14–16]. On the other hand,
Baseline Normal High the cholesterol intake of our subjects was twice as high as the
Kcal 2452 ± 571 2511 ± 479 2919 ± 562∗ typical recommendation of 300 mg per day [17]. The notion
CHO g 229 ± 75 226 ± 64 241 ± 71 that high cholesterol intakes have a deleterious effect on blood
PRO g 196 ± 92 214 ± 76 284 ± 90∗ lipid markers of cardiovascular disease is not supported by
Fat g 83 ± 35 83 ± 22 91 ± 23 our data.
Kcal/kg/d 29.40 ± 7.19 29.94 ± 5.65 34.37 ± 5.88∗ Prior work from our laboratory has shown that consum-
CHO g/kg/d 2.78 ± 0.94 2.74 ± 0.89 2.87 ± 0.94 ing protein (2.3–3.4 g/kg/d) in amounts that are 3-4 times
PRO g/kg/d 2.31 ± 1.03 2.51 ± 0.69 3.32 ± 0.87∗ greater than the RDA results in a similar FFM increase
for both the normal and high protein groups [6]; however,
Fat g/kg/d 1.00 ± 0.41 0.99 ± 0.26 1.07 ± 0.23
the high protein group lost more fat mass compared to the
Cholesterol mg 535 ± 336 425 ± 242 602 ± 310
normal protein group in spite of the fact that they consumed
Sodium mg 3042 ± 1360 3228 ± 1069 3562 ± 964 on average ∼400 kcals more per day over the treatment
Sugars g 55 ± 38 56 ± 22 62 ± 22 period. This is in contrast with the current study that showed
Fiber g 26 ± 15 29 ± 13 31 ± 13 no change in body composition. The primary difference
Data are mean ± SD. ∗ Significant difference (baseline versus high and normal between the current study and the aforementioned one is
versus high; 𝑝 < 0.05). that subjects in the current study did not purposely alter
CHO: carbohydrate, d: day, g: gram, kcal: calorie, kg: kilogram, and PRO:
their training program. On the other hand, subjects in our
protein.
previous study were subjected to a different training stimulus
(i.e., periodized resistance-training program) than they had
been accustomed to. Inasmuch as the focus on our current
during the high protein phase (𝑝 < 0.05). There were no work was on the markers of health, subjects in the current
significant differences between the normal and high groups study were instructed to not alter their training regimen. An
in any measure of health or body composition (Tables 3 and examination of their volume load shows indeed that they did
4). It should be noted that one subject completed 6 months not make any significant alterations in training volume. Thus,
on the high protein phase and only 2 months on the normal one would speculate that, without significant changes in the
protein phase. He did not complete the final 4 months of the training stimulus, the mere provision of extra protein would
normal protein phase due to geographic relocation. Thus, for likely not lead to changes in body composition. Conversely,
this particular subject, we compared the mean of his normal the mere addition of extra protein calories also will not lead
(2 months of data) and high protein phases (6 months of to gains in fat mass.
data).

4.1. Limitations. One might speculate that a limitation of

4. Discussion this investigation is that the subjects were young males who
had several years of resistance-training experience and were
This is the first randomized controlled trial that has exam-
regularly consuming a high protein diet at baseline. However,
ined the effects of a high protein diet in resistance-trained
the fact that they increased their protein intake by ∼32%
subjects over a 1-year treatment period. In brief, we found
and still had no deleterious side effects is further evidence
no deleterious effects of a high protein diet (2.51–3.32 g/kg/d)
that a high protein diet in exercise-trained individuals is
over a 1-year period. Prior work from our lab has shown
indeed safe. The small sample size may also preclude one
that consuming a high protein diet in the short term has no
from applying the results from this study to other populations
harmful effects on any clinical measure (i.e., blood lipids and
(i.e., sedentary men or women). Nonetheless, we would posit
comprehensive metabolic panel) [6, 7].
that the only populations that would consume a high protein
The subjects in the current investigation alternated
diet are athletes (e.g., highly trained endurance and strength-
between their normal or habitual protein intake and a high
power athletes). Thus, the need to apply our data to other
protein intake. It should be noted however that even their
populations may be a moot point.
normal protein intake would be considered high by other
investigators [5, 11, 12]. Thus, our study does not support the
notion that protein intakes 3-4 times greater than the current 5. Conclusions
RDA cause any harmful effects.
Moreover, the amount of dietary fiber consumed by our In male subjects with several years of experience with
subjects was ∼30 grams per day. This is in contrast with the resistance training, chronic consumption of a diet high in
average fiber intake in the United States of ∼16 grams per protein had no harmful effects on any measures of health.
day [13]. Thus, it is a falsehood to promote the idea that high Furthermore, there was no change in body weight, fat mass,
protein diets are mutually exclusive with a diet that is also or lean body mass despite eating more total calories and
high in fiber. Our subjects showed no harmful effects of a protein. Contrary to popular belief, the consumption of a
hyperenergetic, high protein diet and this (i.e., blood lipids, high protein diet is not mutually exclusive with a diet high
renal and hepatic function, etc.) may have been due partially in fiber nor does the consumption of cholesterol above the
to their fiber intake. It is known that higher fiber intakes standard recommendations result in any untoward effects on
4 Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism

Table 3: Blood lipids.

Baseline Normal High Reference range

Total cholesterol mg/dL 158 ± 28 146 ± 21 151 ± 26 125–200
HDL-C mg/dL 48 ± 15 48 ± 12 45 ± 11 > or = 40
TG mg/dL 61 ± 18 62 ± 24 64 ± 18 <150
LDL-C mg/dL 98 ± 33 86 ± 18 92 ± 22 <130
Cholesterol/HDL-C ratio 3.9 ± 3.0 3.5 ± 1.6 3.5 ± 0.9 < or = 5.0
Data are mean ± SD. There were no significant differences between groups. C: cholesterol, dL: deciliter, HDL: high-density lipoprotein, LDL: low-density
lipoprotein, mg: milligram, and TG: triglycerides.

Table 4: Comprehensive metabolic panel.

Baseline Normal High Reference range

Glucose mg/dL 84 ± 11 87 ± 13 85 ± 9 65–99
BUN mg/dL 22 ± 6 22 ± 5 22 ± 4 7–25
Creatinine mg/dL 1.1 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.1 1.1 ± 0.2 0.60–1.35
eGFR 95 ± 19 101 ± 17 98 ± 16 #
BUN/creatinine ratio 20 ± 5 21 ± 5 20 ± 3 6–22
Sodium mmol/L 139 ± 2 139 ± 1 138 ± 1 135–146
Potassium mmol/L 4.3 ± 0.4 4.4 ± 0.3 4.3 ± 0.2 3.5–5.3
Chloride mmol/L 103 ± 1.7 102 ± 1.5 102 ± 1.7 98–110
CO2 mmol/L 28 ± 2 28 ± 2 28 ± 2 19–30
Calcium mg/dL 9.6 ± 0.2 9.6 ± 0.2 9.7 ± 0.3 8.6–10.3
Total protein g/dL 7.2 ± 0.3 7.1 ± 0.4 7.1 ± 0.3 6.1–8.1
Albumin g/dL 4.6 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 0.2 3.6–5.1
Globulin g/dL 2.5 ± 0.3 2.6 ± 0.3 2.6 ± 0.3 1.9–3.7
Alb/Glob ratio 1.8 ± 0.2 1.8 ± 0.2 1.8 ± 0.2 1.0–2.5
Total Bili mg/dL 0.7 ± 0.4 0.8 ± 0.6 0.7 ± 0.3 0.2–1.2
Alkaline phosphatase U/L 64 ± 17 67 ± 17 66 ± 16 40–115
AST U/L 28 ± 9 27 ± 6 31 ± 13 10–40
ALT U/L 28 ± 18 26 ± 8 31 ± 15 9–46
Data are mean ± SD. There were no significant differences between groups. Alb: albumin, ALT: alanine transaminase, AST: aspartate transaminase, Bili:
bilirubin, BUN: blood urea nitrogen, eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate, g: grams, Glob: globulin, mmol: millimoles, L: liter, and mg: milligrams. #
indicates a value > or = 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 .

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protein hydrolysate-based supplement in rats,” Journal of the
Jose Antonio Ph.D. is the CEO of the International Society of
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Sports Nutrition (ISSN). Dymatize is a sponsor of the ISSN.
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