COMPUTER ORGANIZATION & ARCHITECTURE

The internal architectural design of computers differs from one system model to another.
However, the basic organization remains the same for all computer systems. The following five
units also called the functional units correspond to the five basic operations performed by all
computer systems.
Functional Units in a Computer System:
 1.Input Unit
 2.Output Unit
 3.Storage Unit
 4.Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 5.Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 6.Control Unit

Input Unit
Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be performed
on the supplied data. The input unit that links the external environment with the computer system
performs this task. Data and instructions enter input units in forms that depend upon the
particular device used.
In short, an input unit performs the following functions.
1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
Output Unit
The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplied information and
results of computation to the outside world. Thus it links the computer with the external
environment. As computers work with binary code, the results produced are also in the binary
form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world, it must be converted to human
acceptable (readable) form. This task is accomplished by units called output interfaces.
In short, the following functions are performed by an output unit.
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence cannot
be easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
Storage Unit
The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have to
be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results produced
by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system
before being passed on to the output units. Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the
computer must also be preserved for ongoing processing. The Storage Unit or the primary / main
storage of a computer system is designed to do all these things. It provides space for storing data
and instructions, space for intermediate results and also space for the final results.
In short, the specific functions of the storage unit are to store:
1. All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing (received from input
devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside the
computer. It controls all internal and external devices, performs Arithmetic and Logical
operations. The operations a Microprocessor performs are called instruction set of this processor.
The instruction set is “hard wired” in the CPU and determines the machine language for the
CPU. The more complicated the instruction set is, the slower the CPU works. Processors differed
from one another by the instruction set.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of the instructions take place during the processing operations. All calculations are
performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU. The data and instructions,
stored in the primary storage prior to processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU
where processing takes place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate
results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage until needed
at a later time.
Control Unit
By selecting, interpreting, and seeing to the execution of the program instructions, the control
unit is able to maintain order and directs the operation of the entire system. Although, it does not
perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central nervous system for
the other components of the computer. It manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It
obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and
issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute them.
Types of Buses in a Computer System

1. Data Bus:
Data bus is the most common type of bus. It is used to transfer data between different
components of computer. The number of lines in data bus affects the speed of data transfer
between different components. The data bus consists of 8, 16, 32, or 64 lines. A 64-line data bus
can transfer 64 bits of data at one time.

2. Address Bus:

Many components are connected to one another through buses. Each component is assigned a
unique ID. This ID is called the address of that component. It a component wants to
communicate with another component, it uses address bus to specify the address of that
component. The address bus is a unidirectional bus.

3. Control Bus:
Control bus is used to transmit different commands or control signals from one component to
another component. It is also used to transmit control signals like ASKS (Acknowledgement
signals).