Model Question paper set1 2018

15EC654
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi
MODEL QUESTION PAPER – Set I
6th Semester, B.E (CBCS) EC/TC
Course: 15EC654-Digital Switching System

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 80

Note: (i) Answer Five full questions selecting any one full question from each Module.
(ii) Question on a topic of a Module may appear in either its 1st or/and 2nd question.
Module-1 Marks
1 a. Explain in brief the operation of a four wire circuit used in two way transmission. 10

b. Explain in brief regulations, standards in a telecommunication network 6

OR
2 a. Explain in brief PCM primary multiplex group. 8

b. Define the terms dB, dBW and dBm. 3

c. An amplifier has an input resistance of 600 and a resistive load of 75 . When it 5

has an r.m.s input voltage if 100mV, the r.m.s output current is 20mA. Find the gain
in dB.
Module-2
3 a. List out the difference between Message and circuit switching 6

b. What is the significance of distribution frames? Explain the operation of distribution 10

frames.
OR
4 a. What are the functions of Switching System? 8

b. Explain the basic call processing in DSS. 8

Module-3
5 a. Derive the Erlang’s second distribution equation in case of switching systems for a 10
Finite queue capacity.
b. During the busy hour a group of trunks is offered 100 calls having an average 6
Duration

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

of 3 min; one call fails to find a disengaged trunk. Find the traffic offered to the group
and the traffic carried by the group.
OR
6 a. Find the grade of service when a total of 30E is offered to the 2 stage switching 6
network and the traffic evenly distributed over the 10 outgoing routes. Also find
traffic capacity if B ≤ 0.01.
b. Define: a) GOS b) Busy hour c) CCR d) BHCA 4

c. Design a 3 stage fully interconnected network for 600 incoming trunks and 100 6
outgoing trunks that will make use of switches of size 5 x 5. Determine the number
of cross points required.
Module-4
7 a. An S-T-S network has 10 incoming and 10 outgoing highways. Each of which 10
conveys 32 PCM channels between incoming and outgoing space switches; there are
20 lines containing time switches. During the busy hour, the network is offered 200E
of traffic and it can be assumed that this is evenly distributed over the outgoing
channel. Estimate the grade of service obtained if,

i) Connection is required to a particular free channel on a selected

outgoing highway (mode 1)
ii) Connection is required to a particular outgoing highway, but any free
Channel on it may be used (mode 2)

b. With flow diagram, discuss call forwarding feature. 6

OR
8 a. With a neat diagram, explain the operation of time switch implementation and 8
bilateral synchronization system.
b. Explain in brief, basic software architecture used in DSS. 8

Module-5
9 a. Explain in brief the software process matrices and describe the defect analysis with 10
an example.
b. Explain the concept of embedded patcher. 6

OR
10 a. Explain in brief system outage and its impact on DSS reliability. 8

b. Explain in brief generic switch hardware architecture. 8

2 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

1a).Explain in brief the operation of a four wire circuit used in two way transmission. 10M

The four-wire circuit is shown in figure 1.1. In all circuit amplifiers are used to compensate the attenuation
of the transmission path, but most amplifiers are unidirectional. Hence it is necessary to provide a separate
channel for the go and return directions of transmissions therefore it is called as four-wire circuit.

Fig 1.1 Four wire circuit

 The ends of the four-wire circuit are connected to a two wire line leading to a telephone.
 In four-wire circuit, a signal is circulate round the complete loop. This results in continuous
oscillations known as singing unless sums of the gains in two directions were less than zero.
 To avoid singing effect, the two wire line end is connected to the Four-wire circuit end with hybrid
transformer and a line balance network.

Principle of operation

 The output signal from the receiver amplifier causes equal voltages to be induced in the secondary
windings of transformer T1.
 The equal current flows through in the primary winding of the transformer T2 only if the
impedances of the two-wire line and the line balance are equal.

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

 Here no input signal is applied to the input of the send amplifier, because the windings are
connected in anti-phase; thus no EMF is induced in the secondary winding of transformer T2
 The output power from the receive amplifier divides equally between the two-wire line and line
balance.
 When a signal is applied from the two-wire line, the cross connection between the transformer
windings results in zero current in the line balance impedance.
 The power divides equally between the input of the send amplifier and the output of the receive
amplifier, where it has no effect.
 In each direction of transmission, the price for avoiding singing is thus 3dB, along with 1dB loss in
transformer.
 The impedance of the two wire line varies with frequency. The design of balance network is
important to match the impedance over the frequency bands. The simple balanced network may be
of 600 Ohm or 700 Ohm.

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1b) Explain in brief regulation, standards in telecommunication Network 6M

Regulation

In most countries the telecommunication operating companies are privately owned and efforts have been
made to state ownership. In USA, the customer can only obtain local service from the regional Bell
operating company, they can choose long distance carrier to use. Tariffs are regulated by Federal
Communication Commission with the help of Public Utilities Commissions of individual states.

In Britain, both British Telecom and Mercury Communications provide local and trunk services. Cable
television companies have been licensed to provide telephone services to their customers. Also, three
competing cellular mobile radio companies have been established. The office of the telecommunications
(OFTEL) was setup by government’s regulatory body.

Telecommunication network is still a monopoly in most countries or under central government controlled.
In European Union, the EU commission has issued an Open Network Provision (ONP) Directive which
requires the telecommunication operators of member states to allow other service providers fair and equal
access to leased lines. Similar requirement is introduced in USA, known as Open Network access.

Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) and Department of Telecommunication (DOT) are taking
care of the regulation activities along with other service providers.

Standards
The work of ITU is carried through two main bodies:
1. The ITU telecommunication sectors (ITU-T): formerly called as the Comite Consultatif
Telegraphicque et Telephonique (CCITT).

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

Its function includes

 the study of technical questions,
 operating methods and
 tariffs for telephony,
 telegraphy and
 data communications.
2. The ITU radio communication sectors (ITU-R): formerly called as the Comite Consultatif
International des Radio communication (CCIR).
Its function are
 Studying all technical and operating questions relating to radio communication,
 including point-to-point communications,
 mobile services and
 broadcasting.
Associated with International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB), which regulates the
assignment of radio frequency to prevent interference between different transmissions.

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OR
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2a). Explain in brief PCM primary multiplex group 8M

The PCM primary multiplex group

Telephone channels are combined by TDM to form an assembly of 24 or 30 channels. This is called as
primary multiplex group.

30-channel PCM frame format

 The length of the frame is 125 𝜇s corresponding to the sampling intervals.

 The frame is divided into 32 timeslots of each of 8-digits
 Total bit rate=8K Hz*8*32=2.048Mbit/s
 Time slots 1 to 15 and 17 to 31 are each allotted to a speech channel. Each slot contains 8 bits D1-
D8. D1 is used for polarity and D2- D8 used for speech amplitude.
 Time slot 0 is used for frame alignment
 Time slot 16 is used for signaling. Each bit of channel 16 are shared between the 30 channel by
process called as multi-framing.
 As shown in figure1.2 Frame 0 is used for multi-frame alignment frame 1-15 is divided into 30
channels and each channel uses four bits.
 A single signaling channel operates at 2 Kbit/s
 Four independent signaling channels at 500 bit/s
 Here time slot 16 provides the common signaling channel at 64 Kbit/s.

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

24 channel PCM frame format

 The 24 channel PCM frame format is shown in figure1.3

 The length of the frame is 125 𝜇s corresponding to the sampling intervals.
 The basic frame contains 193 bits.bit rate= 193*8 Kbit/sec=1.54 Mbit/sec.
 The first bit is used for framing and is called the F-bit.193rd bit is used for alternate frames for
multi- frame alignment. All others from 24 used for speech channels. Each time slot is of 8-bit.
 On add numbered frames, the F bit takes on the alternating pattern 1,0,1,0  it is pattern for frame
alignment.
 The even numbered frames carry the pattern 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0 it defines 12-frame multi-frame.
 Frames 6 and 12 of the multi-frame bit D8 of each channel time slot is used for signaling instead of
speech.
 This process of bit stealing causes a small degradation in quantizing distortion.
 Here the 193rd bit in alternate frame provides common signaling channel at 4 Kbit/s

Figure 1.2 30 channel PCM frame format

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure1.3. 24 channel PCM frame format.

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2b). Define the terms dB, dBW and dBm. 3M

dB: dB is defined as the logarithmic unit of measuring the power ratios.

𝑝2
𝐺 = 10 log10
𝑝1

dBm: (sometimes dBmW or decibel-milliwatts) is an abbreviation for the power ratio in decibels (dB) of the
measured power referenced to one milliwatt (mW).

𝑃
𝐺 = 10 log10
1𝑚𝑊
dBW or decibel-watt is a unit of power in decibel scale, referenced to 1 watt (W). The power in decibel-
watts (P(dBW)) is equal to 10 times base 10 logarithm of the power in watts (P(W)):

𝑃
𝐺 = 10 log10
1𝑊

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

2c). An amplifier has an input resistance of 600 and a resistive load of 75. When it has an rms input
voltage of 100mV, the rms output current is 20mA.Find the gain in dB. 5M
(𝑣𝑖 )2 (100∗10−3 )2
𝑃1 = = = 16.7µW
𝑅𝑖 600 𝑤

𝑃2 = (𝐼𝑜 )2 𝑅𝑜 = (20 ∗ 10−3 )2 ∗ 75𝑊=30mW

𝑝2
𝐺 = 10 log10
𝑝1
30∗10−3
𝐺 = 10 log10 16.7∗10−6 =32.6dB

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Module 2
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3a). List out the difference between Message and circuit switching and packet switching 6M

Message switching Circuit Switching

Concept In message switching, each switch When we or our computer
stores the whole message and forwards places a telephone call, the
it to the next switch. Although, we switching equipment within
don't see message switching at lower the telephone system seeks
layers, it is still used in some out a physical path all the
applications like electronic mail (e- way from your telephone to
mail). the receiver’s telephone.
This technique is called
circuit switching.
Store and forward
transmission Yes No

Terminal Telegraph, teletype Telephone, modem

Terminal Telegraph, teletype Telephone, modem

Information Morse, ASCII Analog Voice or PCM

representation digital voice

Transmission system Digital over various media Analog and digital over
various media

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

Basic User and Transmission of telegrams (Telegraph Bidirectional real time

Network network) transfer of voice signals
(Telephone network)

Routing Manual routing Route selected during call

setup

Multiplexing Character multiplexing, message Circuit multiplexing

multiplexing

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3b).What is significance of distribution frames? Explain the operation of distribution frames. 10M

Many changes occur during the life of a telephone exchange. New customers join and old ones leave. As
the number of customers in an exchange increases or if customer move from one exchange area to other
exchange area, then in PBX number of lines may increase over 6 months or years from 4000 lines to an
ultimate 20,000 lines. Distribution frames in strowger exchange (step by step exchange) is shown in figure
3.1

 Growth of traffic may require additional switches in the exchange and more junctions to other
exchanges.
 Great flexibility is therefore required in the trunking of an exchange.
 This is obtained by inserting distribution frames into the permanent exchange cabling.
 Frames contain an array of terminal blocks and the terminals are linked in a less permanent fashion
by wires called jumpers.
 The main distribution frame (MDF) is the place where the cables of the customers’ distribution
network terminate.
 The arrangement of terminals on the line side of the MDF corresponds to the street cabling and so
reflects the geography of the area.
 In MDF the exchange terminals are arranged in directory number order.
 To guard the exchange apparatus against any high voltage surges on the external lines, protectors
and fuses are mounted on the MDF.
 The MDF also provides a convenient point of access for tasting lines and private circuits and
through junctions are strapped together at the MDF.

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure3.1 distribution frames in strowger exchange

 The intermediate distribution frame (IDF) is used to distribute incoming traffic evenly over the
group of first selectors.
 On the multiple side of the IDF, lines are arranged in the directory number order.
 On the local side, the order can be arbitrary to obtain the desired result.
 The terminals on the local side of the IDF are corresponds to equipment number (EN) of the lines
and customers uniselectors are connected to this side.
 IDF provides equipment number (EN) to directory number (DN) translation.
 Incoming calls for a customer terminate at final selectors on an outlet corresponding to the directory
number.
 The final selectors multiples are therefore connected to the multiple side of the IDF.
 A modern system provides DN to EN translation, in order to enable customers’ incoming traffic to
be redistributed in addition to their outgoing traffic.
 Between the ranks of selectors there are trunk distribution frames (TDF). These are used in the
telecommunication system to cater growth in traffic.

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OR
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10 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

4a). What are the functions of Switching System? 8M

1. Attending: the system must be continually monitoring all lines to detect call requests.
2. Information receiving: In addition to receiving call and clear signals the system must receive
information from the caller as to the called line required. This is called the address lines.
3. Information processing: the system must process the information received, in order to determine
the actions to be performed and to control these actions.
Since both originating and terminating calls are handled differently for different customers. Class
of service information has to be processed to in addition to the address information.
4. Busy testing: After processing the received information to determine the required outgoing circuit
the system must make a busy test to determine whether it is free or already engaged on another call.
5. Interconnection: For a call between two customers, three connections are made in the following
sequence.
a) A connection to the calling terminal
b) A connection to the called terminal
c) A connection between the two terminals (calling terminal and called terminal).
6. Alerting: Having made the connection, the system sends a signal to alter the called customer to the
call, e.g. by sending ringing customer‘s telephone.
7. Supervision: After the called terminal has answered the system continuous to monitor the
connection in order to be able to clear it down when the call has ended. When a charge for the call is
made by metering, the supervisory circuit sends pulses over the “P” wire to operate a meter in the
line circuit of the calling customer. This process is known as Calling line Identification.
8. Information sending: If the called customer’s line is located on another exchange the additional
function of information sending is required. The originating exchange must signal the required
address to the terminating exchange.

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4b). Explain the basic call processing in DSS 8M

Basic call processing

There are four types of calls processed through a digital switching system. They are

 Intra-LM calls
 Inter LM calls
 Incoming calls
 Outgoing calls

Intra-LM calls: It is a call within the digital switching system (DSS). For example when a customer goes
off -hook and dials a telephone number of another person who is connected to the same line module. Intra
LM call path is shown in figure 4.1a

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

The off-hook condition is detected by the line modules and service circuit provides the dial tone to the
calling customers. The LM requests the path through the switching matrix and processed by the interface
controller (IC), which in turn control the network control processor to assign the path. Consequently a path
is established between the called party and calling party through the switching matrix and the service circuit
provides the ringing tone.

Figure 4.1a intra LM call (calls inside the line module)

Inter LM calls: Inter line module call is nothing but a call processing between two DSSs. For example
when a customer goes off -hook and dials a telephone number of another person who is connected to
another line module. Inter LM call path is shown in figure4.1b

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure 4.1b Inter LM calls (calls outside the line module)

Outgoing calls: When a line module processes a call which has terminating equipment outside the central
office (CO), the LM requests for the path through the switching matrix to a trunk module via the interface
controller (IC). IC works with the NCP to establish a path to an outgoing trunk. Once a path is established
through the switching matrix, the trunk module (TM) connects a service circuit for the controlling the call
to the called CO.

The special functions such as DTMF and out pulsing are provided trunk service circuits. An outgoing call
from an originating office is an incoming call to a terminating office. The paths for the incoming and
outgoing calls are shown in figure 4.1c.

Incoming calls: when a TM detects incoming call, the trunk module requests for a path through the
switching matrix from the interface controller and the NCP. Once the path is detected the switching matrix
to LM that has the terminating line, the service circuit provides the ring to the called telephone equipment.

13 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure 4.1c incoming / outgoing call

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Module-3
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5a). Derive the Erlang’s second distribution equation in case of switching systems for a finite queue
capacity. 10M

The second Erlang distribution: The queuing system is shown in figure 5.1

Fig 5.1 Queuing system

Here traffic A is offered to a queuing system with N trunks. Here Erlang determined the probability of
encountering delay. Trunks are often called as servers

Erlang solution depends on the following assumptions

 Pure chance traffic

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

 Statistical equilibrium
 Full availability
 Calls which encounter congestion enter a queue and are stored there until a server becomes free.

The pure chance traffic implies that call arrivals and call terminations are independent random events.

The Statistical equilibrium implies that probabilities do not change during the period being considered i.e.
A < N. If A ≥ N, calls are entering the system at a greater rate than they leave. As a result, the length of the
queue must increase towards infinity. This is not statistical equilibrium.

Let x be the total number of calls in the system. Thus, when x<N, then x calls are being served and there is
no delay. When x>, all the servers are busy and incoming calls encounter delay; there are N calls being
served and x-N calls in the queue.
If x ≤ N:
There is no queue and the behavior of the system is the same as that of a lost-call system in the absence of
congestion. Thus
𝐴𝑥
P(x) = 𝑃(0)……………….(1)
𝑥!

If x≥N: The probability of a call arrival in a very short period of time, ⸹t, is given by

P(a)=A⸹t/h ………………….(2)

Where h is the mean service time

Thus the probability of a transition from x-1 to x calls in the system during ⸹t, is given by:

P(x-1x) = P(x-1) P(a) = P(x-1) A⸹t/h…………………………(3)

Since all servers are busy, only the N calls being served can terminate (instead of x calls in a lost- call
system). Therefore, the equation is given by

P(e)= N ⸹t/h……………………………(4)

And the probability of a transition from x to x-1 calls is given by:

P(xx-1) = P(x) P(e) = P(k) N ⸹t/h……………………….(5)

For statistical equilibrium

P(xx-1) =P(x-1x).

P(x) N ⸹t/h = P(x-1) A ⸹t/h

𝐴
P(x) =𝑁 P(x-1)………..(6)

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

𝐴𝑁
But P(N) = 𝑁! P(0)

𝐴 𝐴𝑁+1
P(N+1) =𝑁 P(N) = 𝑁.𝑁! P(0)

𝐴 𝐴𝑁+2
P(N+2) =𝑁 P(N+1) = 𝑁2 𝑁! P(0) and so on

In general, for x ≥ N:

𝐴𝑥 𝑁𝑁 𝐴 𝑥
P(x)=𝑁𝑥−𝑁 𝑁! 𝑃(0) = 𝑁! (𝑁) 𝑃(0) ----------(7)

If there is no limit to the possible length of Queue, the x can have any value between zero and infinity,
∞

∑ P(x) = 1
x=0

Thus from equations (1) and (7)

𝑁−1 ∞
1 𝐴𝑥 𝑁𝑁 𝐴 𝑥 𝐴 𝑘
= ∑ + ( ) ∑ ( ) − − − − − − − (8)
𝑃(0) 𝑥! 𝑁! 𝑁 𝑁
𝑥=0 𝑘=0

𝐴
Where k = x-N. Since 𝑁 ≤ 1 then
∞
𝐴 𝑘 𝐴 −1
∑ ( ) = [1 − ]
𝑁 𝑁
𝑘=0

𝑁−1
1 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑁 𝐴 −1
= ∑ + [1 − ]
𝑃(0) 𝑥! 𝑁! 𝑁
𝑥=0

1 𝑁 𝐴𝑁 𝐴𝑥
= [𝑁!(𝑁−𝐴) + ∑𝑁−1
𝑥=0 𝑥! ]……………………..(9)
𝑃(0)

Thus, P(x) is given by equations (1) or (7) depending on whether x ≤ N or x ≥ N

N is given by equation (9). This is called as second Erlang distribution
Probability of delay:
Delay occurs if all servers are busy, i.e. x ≥ N. Now from equation (9) the probability that are at least z calls
in the system (where z ≥N) is given by

P(x ≥ z)= ∑∞
𝑥=𝑧 𝑃(𝑥)
∞
𝑁𝑁 𝐴 𝑥
= 𝑃(0) ∑ ( )
𝑁! 𝑁
𝑥=𝑧

16 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

∞
𝑁𝑁 𝐴 𝑧 𝐴 𝑘
= 𝑃(0) ( ) ∑ ( )
𝑁! 𝑁 𝑁
𝑘=0

Where k = x-N
𝑁𝑁 𝐴 𝑧 𝐴 −1
P(x ≥ z)= 𝑃(0) (𝑁) (1 − 𝑁) ------- (10)
𝑁!

𝑁𝑁 𝐴 𝑧 𝑁
P(x ≥ z)= 𝑃(0) (𝑁)
𝑁! 𝑁−𝐴

The probability of delay is PD= P( x≥ N)

𝐴𝑁 𝑁
PD= 𝑃(0) -------- (11)
𝑁! 𝑁−𝐴

PD=E2,N (A)

Finite queue capacity:

A practical system cannot contain an infinite queue. Thus, when the queue has become full, calls that arrive
subsequently are lost. If the queue can only hold up to Q calls, then x ≤ Q+N is given by:
𝑁−1 𝑄
1 𝐴𝑥 𝑁𝑁 𝐴 𝑁 𝐴 𝑘
= ∑ + ( ) ∑ ( )
𝑃(0) 𝑥! 𝑁! 𝑁 𝑁
𝑥=0 𝑘=0

𝑁−1 𝐴
1 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑁 1 − (𝑁)𝑄+1
= ∑ + − − − − − − − (12)
𝑃(0) 𝑥! 𝑁! 𝐴
𝑥=0 1 − (𝑁 )

The loss probability can be estimated by first assuming that the queue capacity is infinite and then
calculating P(x ≥ Q+N)

𝑁 𝐴 𝑄+𝑁 𝑁
P(x ≥ Q + N) = ( ) 𝑃(0)
𝑁! 𝑁 𝑁−𝐴
Now
P(x ≥ Q+N) =
𝐴 𝑄
= (𝑁) 𝑃𝐷 …………………………(13)

Hence, the queue capacity, Q, needed to obtain an adequately low loss probability can be found

17 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

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5b). During the busy hour a group of trunks is offered 100 calls having an average duration of 3 min;
one call fails to find a disengaged trunk. Find the traffic offered to the group and the traffic carried
by the group. 6M

Traffic offered to the group

𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 ∗ ℎ 100∗3
AOT= = = 5E =traffic offered
𝑡 60

Traffic lost
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 ∗ ℎ 1∗3
AIC= = = 0.05 E
𝑡 60

Traffic carried= traffic offered-Traffic lost=5-0.05=4.95E

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OR
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6a). Find the grade of service when a total of 30E is offered to the 2 stage switching network and the
traffic evenly distributed over the 10 outgoing routes. Also find traffic capacity if B ≤ 0.01. 6M

By assuming 200 number of trunks

Here n=40 and g=5
Incoming trunk=outgoing trunk=200=N
Traffic offered=30E
Let Switch size be = 40x40
Number of switches =g=5
The link and trunk occupancies are a = b =A/N= 30/ 200 = 0.15 E.

For the two stage network= B = [1 - ( 1 - a)(1 - b)]g

B = [1 - ( 1 – 0.15)(1 - 0.15)]5 = [0.51] 5 = 0.001646

g
B = [1 - ( 1 - a)(1 - b)]
If a=b, g=5 and B= 0.01
B ≤ 0.01 = [1 - (1 - a)2]5
1 - ( l - a)2 ≤ 0.01
0.1 1

a ≤ 0.2242E
Thus offered traffic is given by,
A= a x number of links or outgoing links or outgoing trunks or incoming trunks

18 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

A= 0.2242x200
A ≤ 44.84 E
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6b). Define: a) GOS b) Busy hour c) CCS d) BHCA e) CCR 4M

a) GOS

The proportion of calls that is lost or delayed due to congestion is a measure of the service provided. It is
called as grade of service (B). For a lost call system, the grade of service, B can be defined as:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
B=𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑

Hence, also:
𝑇𝑟𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡
B=𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑

= Proportion of the time which congestion exists

= Probability of congestion

=Probability that a call will be lost due to congestion

Thus, if traffic A Erlangs is offered to a group of trunks having grade of service B, the traffic lost is AB and
the traffic carried= A-AB =A(1-B) Erlangs

The larger the grade of service, the worse is the service given. The grade of service is normally specified
for the traffic at the busy hour. At other times it is much better.

In practice, busy hour GOS can vary from, 1 in 1000 for cheap trunks inside an exchange to 1 in 100 for
interexchange connections and 1 in 10 for expensive international routes.

Dimensioning problem: It is the basic problem of determining the size of a telecommunication system.

b) Busy hour

Busy hour is a period of one hour, which corresponds to the peak traffic load. In figure 6.1 busy hour is
from 10 am to 11 am.

19 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure 6.1 Traffic variations during a day

c) CCS

Traffic intensity or simple traffic is defined as the average number of calls in progress.

The unit of traffic is Erlang [E], named after A.K Erlang the Danish pioneer of traffic.

On a group of trunks the average number of calls in progress depends on both the number of calls
which arrive and their duration.

In North America, traffic expressed in terms of hundreds of call seconds per hour (CCS).

1 hour= 3600 seconds

1 Erlang=36CCS

d) BHCA

In telecommunications, busy-hour call attempts (BHCA) is a teletraffic engineering measurement used to

evaluate and plan capacity for telephone networks. BHCA is the number of telephone calls attempted at the
sliding 60-minute period during which occurs the maximum total traffic load in a given 24-hour period
(BHCA), and the higher the BHCA, the higher the stress on the network processors.

A telephone exchange with a capacity of one million BHCA is estimated to handle 250,000 subscribers

e).CCR:

Call completion rate: The ratio of successfully completed calls to the total number of attempted calls.

Note: This ratio is typically expressed as either a percentage or a decimal fraction.

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20 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

6c). Design a 3 stage fully interconnected network for 600 incoming trunks and 100 outgoing trunks
that will make use of switches of size 5 x 5. Determine the number of cross points required 6M

Consider three stage switching network with M incoming lines and N outgoing lines. Let ‘m’ be the
number of inlets in the primary switch and ‘n’ be the number of outlets in Secondary switch.

M= 600 and N= 100 here

M>N
𝑀 600
Number of primary switches g1= 𝑚 = = 120
5

Number of Secondary switches g2= 120

𝑁 100
Number of tertiary switches g1= = = 20
𝑛 5

Number of switch modules required= 120+120+120

= 260

Number of cross points C3 = 2N √N + M

= 2 x 100 √100 + 600

= 5291.50
Say =5300
Both networks contain 5300 crosspoints. The design of the three stage network is shown in figure below.

Figure6.2 Design of three stage network

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21 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Module-4

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7a).An S-T-S network has 10 incoming and 10 outgoing highways. Each of which conveys 32 PCM
channels between incoming and outgoing space switches; there are 20 lines containing time switches.
During the busy hour, the network is offered 200E of traffic and it can be assumed that this is evenly
distributed over the outgoing channel. Estimate the grade of service obtained if,

i). Connection is required to a particular free channel on a selected outgoing highway (mode 1)

ii) Connection is required to a particular outgoing highway, but any free Channel on it may be used
(mode 2) 10M

Fig. 7.1 A S-T-S network

Let the Occupancy of A link is a

Occupancy of B link is b

Occupancy of outgoing trunks be c

i). Connection is required to a particular free channel on a selected outgoing highway (mode 1)

In this network the choice of secondary switches determines the A and B links

The probability of 1st link being busy =’a’

Probability of 1st link being free is =(1-a)

The probability of 2nd t link being busy =’b’

Probability of 2nd link being free is =(1-b)

Probability that both the links are free =(1-a) (1-b)

22 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology
 Model Question paper set1 2018

Probability that both the links are busy= blocking probability = (1-a) (1-b)

However there are g2 (k) secondary switches. Therefore the probability that all the g2 independent paths
are simultaneously blocked is:

Given Data: m=10, n=32, k=20 A=200E

B = [1 - ( 1 - a)(1 - b)]g2 here a=b

If a=b, then B = [1 - (1 - b)2]k

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 200
The occupancy of a link is 𝑏 = =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠 32𝑥20

b = 200/(32*20) = 0.3125

B = [1 - (1 – 0.3125)2]20

= (0.52735)20

= 0.0000027668
ii) Connection is required to a particular outgoing highway, but any free Channel on it may be used
(mode 2)

The probability of an outgoing trunk to be busy is = “c”

The probability of the outgoing trunk to be free is = “(1-c)”

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 200
The occupancy of a link is 𝐶 = =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑥 𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 32𝑥10

C = 0.625

The probability of blocking of a particular trunk is given by

= [1 - ( 1 - B1)(1 - c)]
The Probability of simultaneous blocking for g3 (n-tertiary trunks) independent paths is given by

= [1 - ( 1 -B1)(1 - c)]g3
= [1 -1-B1-c-B1c]n
Mode2, B2= [B1+(1-B1)C]n

B2= [B1 + (1-B1) C] n

= [0.00000276+ (1-0.00000276) x 0.625]32 = [0.625001035]32 B2= 2.93889x10-7

23 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

7b).With flow diagram, discuss call forwarding feature 6M

a. Feature flow diagrams

The features employed in the DSS are usually very complex. The functionality of features can be
understood with the help of Flow diagrams. The simplified flow diagram for one of the most commonly
used subscriber features; call forwarding is shown in figure 7.2. This feature has three modes of operation.
They are

 Feature Activation
 Feature Operation
 Feature De-activation

Feature Activation

The Feature is activated when the customer goes off-hook and dials an activation code. The software
checks for the correct validation code. If the activation code is wrong, the subscriber does not get the
second dial tone. If the activation code is correct, the subscriber gets a second dial tone and is allowed to
dial the call forwarding telephone number. The call-forwarded subscriber line is rung once, and the number
is recorded in the system memory for future use.

Figure 7.2 a) Feature Activation Figure b) Feature Operation Figure c) Feature De-activation

24 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Feature Operation
Here the subscriber receives a call on the line that has the CF features activated. The system rings the called
subscriber once and then forwards the call to a number previously recorded by the subscriber during feature
activation.
Feature De-activation
This feature can be deactivated when the subscriber goes off-hook and dials the deactivation code. If the
code is valid, the CF number is removed; otherwise, the deactivation request is ignored.
Feature interaction.
Due to hundreds of features supported by the modern DSS, feature interaction is necessary. One way to
overcome this is to conduct regression test on the software and the related hardware.
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OR
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8a).With a neat diagram, explain the operation of time switch implementation and bilateral
synchronization system 8M
Time Switch: The principle of Time switch is as shown in figure 8.1(a). It connects incoming n-channel
PCM highways to outgoing n-channels PCM highways. Since any incoming channels can be connected to
any outgoing channels.
It is equivalent to a space division cross point matrix with ‘n’ incoming and ‘n’ outgoing trunks as shown in
figure 8.1 (b).time slot interchange is carried out by means of two stores, each having a storage address for
every channels of PCM frame. The speech store contains the data of each incoming time slots at a
corresponding address.

Each address of the connection store corresponds to a time slot on the outgoing highways. Information is
read into the speech store cyclically in synchronism with the incoming PCM systems; however, random
access read out is used. The connection store has cyclic read-out, but writing is non cyclic.

To establish connection, the number (X) of time slot of an incoming channels is written into the connection
store at the address corresponding to selected outgoing channel(Y).During the cyclic scan of speech store,
the incoming PCM sample from channel X written into address X.

During each cyclic scan of connection store, the number X read out at the beginning of the time slot Y. This
is decoded to select address X of speech store, whose contents are read out and sent over the outgoing
highways.

25 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure 8.1 Time switching a) Time switch b)Space-division equivalent

Figure 8.2a Single ended bilateral

26 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure 8.2b Double ended bilateral network

Synchronizing links may be unilateral or bilateral. In the first case, there is master-slave relationship; the
clock frequency of the exchange influences the frequency of the other. In the second case, there is a mutual
relationship; each exchange influences the frequency of the other.

The principles of bilateral methods are shown in figure 8.2. In a single ended bilateral sync link, as shown
in figure 8.2(a) the above decision process is made at each end of the link. As a result, both exchange
clocks achieve the same average frequency. In a mesh of such synchronous nodes, the exchange would
mutually agree on a common frequency without being controlled by an overall master clock.

A disadvantage of single ended bilateral synchronous system is that phase comparators are unable to
distinguish between phase changes due to frequency drift and those due to changes in propagation time.
This disadvantage of single ended bilateral synchronous system is overcome by double ended system as
shown in figure 8.2(b)

This eliminates the influence of propagation-delay variations by subtracting the change in phase determined
at the end of link from that determined at the other end.

Let the phase error detected at exchange A be (A-B) + T, where (A-B) is the phase change due to
discrepancy between the clocks and T is that due to a change in propagation time. Then the phase change
detected at exchange B is (B-A) + T. Since (B-A) =-(A-B), the difference between the two
measurements is 2(A-B) and the T is eliminated. A signaling channel is required to carry the result
of phase comparison to the other end of link in order to make subtraction. For a bilateral link, a signaling
channel is needed in each direction as shown in figure 8.2(b).

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8b). Explain in brief, basic software architecture used in DSS 8M

Basic software architecture

Modern digital switching employs quasi-distributed hardware and software architecture. The software
employed in the modern digital switching system at different levels of control. Figure 8.3 shows the basic
software architecture of a typical digital switching system. Figure shows the levels of the control and

27 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

minimum software requirement at each level of control. Here both high-level and low-level details are
necessary to design the switching system.

1. Operating systems
Modern digital switching system consists of an operating system as a part of the software architecture,
operating systems (OS) may be defined as software that manages the resource of a computer system or
controls and tasks other programs.

These programs are also called as control programs, supervisory programs and monitor programs as a part
of the software architecture. There are different types of operating systems. They are

 Serial batch systems

 Multiprogramming system
 Time sharing system and
 Real time systems.

The OS employed by the DSS are Real time operating systems because modern DSS demands for the task
to execute in the real time. Typically the real time operating system of a DSS interacts with different layers
of the application required to support telephony features and functions. Most modern DSS uses quasi-
distributed architecture; the processor or the controller for each of the subsystem may use different OS.

28 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure 8.3 shows the basic software architecture of a typical digital switching system.

2. Kernal
The kernel of the operating system consists of those functions of an operating system that are primitive
to the system environment. It usually consists of the following functions.
 Process control and process scheduling
 Memory management
 Input and output control i.e. request from the terminal and buffers.
 Domain protection of main memory Read and write operations.

Most of real time operating system that controls the DSS use priority based scheduling mechanism.
Most DSS employs Kernels that reside in the main memory. The highest priority given to system
maintenance interrupts followed by other types of interrupts required for call processing and other
ancillary functions.

3. Database Management
The databases that are employed in the DSS are usually relational and sometimes distributed.
Distributed databases imply multiple databases requiring data synchronization. The relational databases

29 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

system uses the relational data model in which the relationships between files are represented by data
values in file records.
A record is a relational database is flat, i.e., a simple two dimensional arrangement of data elements.
The grouping of related data items is sometimes referred to as a tuple. A tuple containing two values is
called a pair. A tuple containing N values is called an N-tuple.

An example of relational database in case of DSS is a database, which cross references all the directory
names that are assigned to a line equipment of subscriber. When a subscriber goes off-hook, the
scanning equipment identifies the line equipment. The database is searched to find the particular
directory number that identifies all characteristics of the line.

4. Concept of generic program

The generic program contains all programs necessary for the switching system to functions. It consists
of operating system, common switching software, and system maintenance software and configuration
management of a central office (CO). The translation of the data between the customer premises and
CO side is provided by the telephone companies.
Most of the DSS have modular software structure. Most of the modular switching system employ
generic program concept. Due to growth in the software, it is very difficult to define the generic
program with respect to particular switching system.

Generally most of the switching system consists of base or core program that controls the basic
functionalities of the system and on the top of these programs reside the basic features and special
options required by the switching system. The quality and the performance of the switching system are
based in the reliability of the components used and stability of the software programs.

A group of telephone companies are sometime used to identify the generic program. Usually, this set of
programs can be labeled as a generic, base or core release for a DSS.

In general, generic program contain operating system, common switching software, system
maintenance software and common database(s) software for office data and translation data
management.

5. Software architecture for level 1 control

The lowest level of control in switching system architecture is level 1 control. This level consists of
lines, trunks and other low level functions and software at the level is a part of the switching software.
As shown in the figure 8.3, the interface controllers (ICs) are controlled by microcontroller and have a
small kernel controlling the hardware of the IC. IC will have small OS (level 3) to control and
scheduling the tasks.

The IC do diagnostics of lines and trunks and other peripherals associated with the hardware.
Diagnostic routines reside in central processor or in the IC itself. Central processor can run the
diagnostic routines program itself or request a fault-free IC to run it.

30 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

The interfaces will diagnostics and submit the result to the central processor. In any case of failures the
IC should have the ability to recovery locally and make the central processor to deliver better
performance.

6. Software architecture for level 2 control

The next level of the switching system architecture is named as level 2 control; this level is associated
with network controllers that may contain relational database or distributed database, customer
database, and service routines.
At this level the central processor (CP) are usually associated with the network control processors
(NCP). NCP is independent of the CP as shown in figure 8.3 the NCPs has their own OS has a kernel
that control the hardware and software functionalities of the NCP.

At this level of control the database system maintains the translation of the data between the subscriber
and parameter required to control the NCP. So at this level, system recovery is very crucial in order to
avoid failure of NCP, because that impact on the interfaces such as lines, trunks, and peripherals.

The NCP should have the ability to diagnosis and switch to working backup. The design of NCP
depends on the requirement raised by the DSS. The recovery mechanism in case of failure of NCP is
dependents on the requirement. Either a central NCP may responsible for recovery of all NCPs or
central processor is responsible.

The basic functionality of a NCP: When a subscriber goes off-hook, the interface receives an off-hook
notification from the line modules. The interface requests details on the subscriber, such as allowed
feature and application restriction for a call to process. The NCP maintains the subscriber database;
NCP queries its database for this information and passes it back to Interface Controller. This database is
supposed to be managed and kept up to date with the latest information for each subscriber.

7. Software architecture for level 3 control

The top level of switching system architecture is level 3, is usually associated with the central
processors of a DSS. These central processor are mainframe type computers, provides the all high-level
functions. These functions include the database management such as office data, high level subscriber
data, software patch level, feature control, maintenance data and system recovery in case of hardware
or software failures.
Modern DSS contains OS at this level 3; the OS is real time operating system and performs
multitasking (i.e., it can support more than one call at a time). Operating system is responsible for
database management, switching software, recovery software, feature control, traffic control and
interface with other components’ of the DSS.

Most central processor works as active/standby mode, because if one goes to standby mode other one
enters into active mode state, this improves the reliability of the DSS. In active/standby mode one CP is
always available to go into active mode if the active CP develops faults.

We have different mode like matched mode, hot standby and cold standby mode. However both should be
synchronized in order to carry the functionality in case of failure, then standby processor becomes active.

31 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

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Module-5

9a). Explain in brief the software process matrices and describe defect analysis with an example 8M

A strategy for improving digital switching system software quality is shown in figure 9.1. It is based on the
process metric, defect analysis and a continuous improvement program.

A good example of software metrics is Bellcore’s In Process Quality metrics. And the field metric is
Bellcore’s Reliability and Quality Measurements for Telecommunication systems. In this strategy as shown
in figure 9.1 we have four distinct processes, they are namely

 Program for software process improvement

 Software processes
 Metrics
 Defect analysis

Figure 9.1 a strategy for improving software quality

Program for software process improvement:

 It is the heart of the system.

 Software processes for the digital switching system are usually large and complex.

32 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

 These processes must be documented and base lined by putting them under a configuration
management system.
 Configuration management system will allow tracking of any changes to the process and help the
process administrator to better understand the impact.
 A process change does not always improve a process, but a continuous-improvement program (CIP)
improves the process.
 The CIP strategy varies for different processes, projects, or products. The strategy, in this model
assumes that the processes can be instrumented.
 The inputs to the improvement processes are the thresholds established for different metrics and
these are used to observe the impact of changes on all processes.
 A set of new thresholds is fed to the metric system, when the process is changed.
 This process is implemented continuously to improve the quality of the system software.

Software processes: The Software processes always relate to the software metrics, these include

 Software development process

 Software testing process
 Software deployment process
 Software maintenance process

Metrics:
There are five types of metrics for this strategy. This strategy can be adapted to work with any set of
available set of metrics.
Software development metrics:
 These metrics define measurements related to the life-cycle phases of a software development
process and measures the effectiveness of these processes.
 Typical life-cycle development phases include the software requirement process, high-level design,
low-level design, and software coding.

Software testing metrics:

 Software testing metrics measure the effectiveness Software testing process.
 Typical measurement include the number of test cases planned versus the number of cases executed,
testing effectiveness, coverage etc., applicable to all test life cycles.
 For DSS the test life-cycles include unit testing, integration testing, feature testing, regression
testing, and system testing.

Software deployment metrics:

 These metrics collected during the deployment of a release in the CO.
 The most effective metrics in this category are the application success metrics and the number of
patches applied at the time of deployment.
 The number of patches applied during the deployment process also must be minimized.

Software maintenance metrics:

33 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

 These metrics collected once the release is installed.

 The most important metrics are the number of software patches applied, number of defective
patches found, and effectiveness of the diagnostic programs.

Customer satisfactions metrics:

 These metrics collected from the customers of the DSSs.
 Examples are billing errors, cutoff during conversation, slow dial tone, and other digital switch
related problems.

Defect analysis

 A defect analysis is a base program for this strategy. It drives the continuous –improvement
program. After a release becomes functional in the field, it will eventually experience failures.
 Field failures are usually classified according to severity.
 Field failures that cause system outages are classified as critical, followed by less severe ones as
major or minor.
 A causal analysis of all failures-especially, critical and major ones –is conducted first. After causal
analysis, the causes of failure are generally categorized as software, hardware or procedural. This
strategy only explains the software processes.

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9b). Explain the concept of embedded patcher 8M

The frequency of generic releases for a DSS is usually limited to a few times a year. In these generic
releases all software corrections are incorporated via patches. Patches are a “quick fix” or program
modification without recompilation of the entire generic release.

In real time operational systems, it is difficult to install patches since system works continuously and
patches have to be applied without bringing the system down.

Embedded patcher concept

 The concept of resident patcher program is explained in this section.

 In first generation digital switches, field patching was performed by hard writing encoded program
instructions and data at absolute memory location.
 This technique is viable, created many problems in the operation of a digital switch.
 The mistakes were made in applying the wrong data to wrong addresses, patching incompatible
generic releases, and applying that are out of sequence.
 Embedded patcher programs that operate as software maintenance programs and reside in the digital switches
have overcome this problem.
 By using the proper design specification of Digital switching functions, coupled with exhaustive regressio0n
testing of software-hardware interfaces, we can reduce the number of patches in the field.

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 Model Question paper set1 2018

 The current state digital switching software requires large number of patches needing excessive maintenance
effort by the owner of digital switching system.

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OR

10a). Explain in brief system outage and its impact on DSS reliability 8M

The System outage and its impact on digital switching system reliability are discussed below. Digital
switch outage represents the most visible measure of switching system reliability and affect maintainability.
the causes of digital switch outages have been classified into four categories.

Software deficiencies

This includes software “bugs” that cause memory errors or program loops. These can be cleared only by
major initialization.

Hardware failure

This relates to simplex and/or duplex Hardware failure in the system which results in system outage.

Ineffective recovery

This includes failure to detect trouble until after service has been impaired. This will properly isolate faulty
unit due to shortcoming of the software and/or documentation.

Procedural error

These are “cockpit” or craft errors which have caused loss of service. Examples may include inputting
wrong translation data or taking incorrect action during repair, growth, and update procedures.

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10b). Explain in brief generic switch hardware architecture 8M

The hardware architecture of a hypothetical digital switch is shown in figure 10.1. It is based on quasi-distributed
control architecture. The architecture of a DSS is very complex with many subsystems. It consists of following main
modules.

a). Central processor: It is a primary processor in the digital switching system and it is always duplicated. The
function of central processor is to provide system wide control of the switching system. It supports secondary
processors, as network control processors (NCPs).

The CP control the high level functions of the switch and supports operation, administration, and maintenance
(OA&M) functions. The CP controls the system recovery process during critical faults. The CP maintains subscriber
and office data. It supports billing system for the switch.

35 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology

 Model Question paper set1 2018

Figure 10.1Generic switch hardware architecture

b). Network control processors (NCP): The NCPs are the secondary processors. They provide call processing
functions and assist in setting up a path through the switching fabric. Many number of NCPs are present in generic
switch, they are usually duplicated and depend on the desired size of the class 5 central office. NCPs are interface
with Interface controllers (ICs) and provide medium level call processing support.

NCPs are associated with particular ICs, to keep track of all calls controlled by the ICs and associated path assigned
for it. NCPs interfaces with other CPs or NCPs to update call paths on a regular basis, for global view of all calls for
other NCPs.

c). Interface controllers: Most digital switching systems (DSSs) employ a processor based controller that acts as
concentrators of all incoming lines or trunks. These concentrators use time multiplexed output to the NCPs and
provide time switching (T-switch) functions.

d). Interface modules: The interface modules used in the DSS are Line modules (LMs), Trunk modules (TMs) and
special modules. Line module may terminate a single line or scores of lines. Most DSSs use smart line cards that are
processors driven. A smart line card performs basic call processing functions such as line scanning, digit collections,
and call supervision.

The trunk modules (TMs) interface different types of trunks to the DSS. Most DSS employs special modules to
connect integrated service digital network (ISDN) and other digital services such as Advanced Intelligent network
(AIN) and packet switching to the switch.

e). Switching fabric: Most digital switching systems use at least one space or S switch. The concentrators in the ICs
are time or T switches. The S switch is usually accessible to all NCPs. In some cases, the switching fabric is
partitioned for use by different NCPs.

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36 Mrs. Asha K, Dept. of ECE, Sai Vidya Institute of Technology