Ballistics Review
Ballistics Review
Ballistics Review
, MS Crim
Chapter 1
Ballistics
DEFINITION OF BALLISTICS
• In its broadest sense, ballistics is defined as is the science dealing with the
motion of projectiles and the conditions governing that motion. Science is a
systematized body of knowledge which has been observed tested and proven.
Motion refers to movement or mobility.
• 3 Types of Motion
• Direct motion – is the forward movement of the bullet or shots out of the shell by
the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gun powder.
• Gyroscopic motion – is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel
firearm which is either twisted to the left or right.
• Translational – is the action of the bullet once it hits a target and subsequently
ricocheted.
• Projectile means to metallic and non-metallic object propelled by
means of force. In strict sense, it is the study of natural laws relating
to the performance of gunpowder and projectiles in firearms and the
means of predicting such performance. It is also refers to the science
of firearms identification which involves the scientific examination of
ballistics exhibits (fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied
matters) used in crimes involving scientific equipments such as bullet
recovery box, bullet comparison microscope and others.
ETYMOLOGY
• The term ballistics was derived from the Greek word “ballo” or “ballein”
which literally means “to throw”. Its root word was also said to have
been derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called
“ballista” - a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl missiles
or large objects such as stones at a particular distance to deter enemy
forces. The term ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the
press and in police parlance to firearm identification and investigation.
BALLISTICS AS A SCIENCE
• Ballistics is classified, formulated and verifiable knowledge gathered by
observation, research and experiment and based on scientific theory
and using scientific equipment and apparatus. Results of firearms
identification is an exact science because it permits an absolute
precision in results free from possibility of error normal to human
perception. Therefore, ballistics per se is not an exact science rather it
is a branch of physics or applied science which is subject to changes
and development depending upon the demands of the modern
civilization.
EARLY RECORDED FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
• The earliest recorded identification of firearms by the trained observer was recorded in
the criminal investigation by Hans Gross, the great Austrian Criminologist and
considered as the father of criminalistics. This refers to the French bullet fired by
soldier of Napoleon Bonaparte’s Army, which lodge behind the eye of his grandfather
in 1799. The bullet was recovered in 1845 after the death of his grandfather. When
Hans Gross saw it, he observed and found out that it was still with traces of
gunpowder and this would prove evidentiary value.
• Another was done by Charles Waite in the United States of America. He was an
employee of New York State who conducted an investigation involving firearms. In
1915, a farmer was accused of murder with a gun. Waite was not convinced by the
evidence of the firearms’ experts, and his effort showed that the accused is innocent.
Through Waite’s effort, to trace the gun from which the bullet was fired, consequently
identify the manufacturer of the gun.
• Alexandre Lacassagne (1844-1921)- was the first to recognize the
significance of the striations etched found on a bullet extracted from a
murder victim and its to link to the gun from which it was fired, thus
beginning the science of ballistics.
• Edmond Locard (1877-1966) – established the first forensic laboratory
in France. His principles “objects or surfaces which came into contact
always exchange trace evidence”.
• Col. Calvin H Goddard (1920) – pioneered the introduction of science
of Ballistics in the different universities in U.S., subsequently it was
universally practiced and accepted in the different courts throughout
the world.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
• Forensic – a term originated from the Latin word “ forum”, meaning “marketplace
where people gather for public disputation or public discussion”.
• Forensic Ballistics – it refers to the science of investigation and identification of
firearms and ammunition used in crimes.
• It is a refined Tool Mark Identification where the firearm is made of a material harder
than the ammunition components, acts as a tool to leave impressed or striated
marks on the various ammunition components that come into contact with the
harder surface of the firearm.
• Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hall, the pioneer in the field in forensic ballistics, was an expert
in identifying firearm from the fired bullets. Identification of the crime gun is in the
principal purpose and objectives of criminal investigation, to establish the identity
of criminal offender and assist in their prosecution.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
• 1. Interior (internal) Ballistics
• It refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile while still
inside the gun. It covers from the time; the firearm is loaded with
the cartridge, the explosion and the movement of the bullet from
the breech to the muzzle of the gun.
ATTRIBUTES OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS
• Firing pin hitting the primer
• In order that the primer should explode, the firing pin should hit such. This is
due to the theory of friction wherein there is a resistance to motion created by
the firing pin.
• Ignition of the priming mixture
• Priming mixture is made up of very sensitive material that is commonly
located in the center portion of the cartridge case. In order to ignite the
priming mixture, it must be live and potent and must be devoid of any
moisture.
• Combustion of the gunpowder
• As the primer crushed and ignited, the flash passes through the vent towards
the gunpowder that provides the combustion of gunpowder.
• Expansion of the heated gas
• There will be equal expansion of heated gas inside the cartridge, after
the combustion of gunpowder. The gas expanded in the different
direction that tends the bullet and shell to separate from each other in
the cartridge.
• Pressure developed
• When the heated gas created by the burning powder charge is
developed, a tremendous pressure is produced in the chamber of the
firearm.
• Energy generated
• Energy refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet compared to a pound
that is drops from a certain height.
• Recoil of the gun
• The recoil of the gun is due to the Newton’s third law of motion (law of
interaction) which states that in every action is always equal and
opposite reaction. The forward movement of the bullet after the
explosion results to backward movement of the cartridge case. Recoil
of the gun is affected by several things such as tightness with which
the firearm is held, height of the bore above the center of the stock line
of wrist for pistols, shape and design of the butt plate or the pistol’s
grip, weight of the firearm and the physical and mental condition of the
shooter.
• Velocity of the bullet in the gun
• The bullet will travel the bore of the barrel depending on the powder
load of the cartridges, since it is the powder load that will propel the
bullet in the bore of the barrel of the firearm.
6. Wound Ballistics
It refers to the study of the effects of a projectile on a
target and the conditions that affect them
Chapter 2
Scientific
Equipment Used in
Firearms ID
INTRODUCTION
• By means of these equipment and with qualified men to use them,
the police will be more effective in their drive against crimes
involving firearms. At times, an insignificant fire bullet or shell
found at the crime scene will serve as the only “missing link” in the
final solution of a crime wherein a gun has been used. And this is
brought out to light only in the laboratory by the use of different
equipment. It includes:
1. BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE
• It is designed to permit the firearm examiner to differentiate two fired
bullet or shell, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in a
single microscopic field. Fired bullet and shell are examined and
compared in either INTERMARRIAGE (half of the same image of the
evidence bullet/shell and half of the same image of the test
bullet/shell of the same direction, the same magnification, and the
same level or plane are merge into one image to look for the
congruency of stations or the same markings) and in
JUXTAPOSITION (critical side by side comparison at the same time,
direction, magnification, image and level or plane to find the same
feature, structure of striations to the specimens under observation).
• The forensic examiner can take photomicrographs which are needed
for court presentations as an exhibit to support the ballisticians’
findings he observed under this instrument. The photomicrograph will
give a clue to the judge how the ballistician arrived with his findings
and conclusions.
• It was introduced by Dr. Calvin H. Goddard on April 1925. He was the
first to own and use the first bullet comparison microscope, and
through his efforts, he is considered as the father of modern
ballistics. He took active participation in the examination of the fired
shells in the infamous General Castañeda and Salgado Ambuscade
in Quezon City.
BULLET COMPARISON
MICROSCOPE
2. STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE
• It is generally used in the primary examinations of fired bullet and shells
to determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics or for
orientation purposes. It can also be used in the closed-up examination
of tampered serial numbers of firearms.
• In the middle of 19th century, Francis Herbert Wenham of London
designed the first successful stereomicroscope. The first modern
stereoscopic microscope was introduced in the United States by
Cycloptic.
STEREOSCOPIC
MICROSCOPE
3. SHADOWGRAPH
• It contains a series of microscopic lenses of different magnifications
that can be used in examining fired bullets or fired shells to determine
the class characteristics and also for orientation purposes. This
instrument contains a large circular ground glass, and a diameter
about 14 inches, wherein the observation and comparison of class
characteristics is dome similarly with the bullet comparison
microscope.
SHADOWGRAP
H
4. CP-6 COMPARISON PROJECTOR
• Similar to bullet comparison micro-scope in which two fired bullets of
shell can be compared simultaneously by projecting the image on a
large screen and is observed at a vertical and comfortable viewing.
Firearms
HISTORY OF FIREARM
The development of firearms followed the invention of
th
gunpowder in Western Europe in the 13 century. Many stories
have been told about the discovery of gunpowder, but most are
legendary and have little support facts. It also often that
gunpowder was first invented by the Chinese and that the
Arabs, with their advance knowledge of chemistry at that time,
may have developed it independently.
One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare
was an attack in Seville, Spain in 1247. History also showed
that cannons were used by King Edward III of England in Crecy
in 1346 and by Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest
of Constantinople in 1453.
The first firearm were inefficient, large and heavy,
making it difficult for common soldier to carry; and later the
development of small arms weapons were rampant.
It was many years later before the use of gunpowder
was applied to a portable arm which could be operated by
single person.
MEN BEHIND FIREARM
• Firearm refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light
weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any
projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive force of gases from
burning gunpowder or other form of combustion or any similar instrument or
implement. For purposes of this Act, the barrel, frame or receiver is
considered a firearm.
•
• Technical definition – a firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of
projectiles by means of expansive force of gases coming from the burning
gunpowder.
PARTS OF
FIREARM
THE MAIN PARTS
A. Revolver C. Rifle
1. barrel assembly 1. barrel assembly
2. cylinder assembly 2. magazine assembly
3. frame or receiver 3. stock group
B. Pistol D. Shotgun
1. barrel assembly 1. barrel assembly
2. slide assembly 2. magazine assembly
3. frame or receiver 3. stock group
Rear Sight Front Sight
Hammer Top Strap Barrel
Hammer Spur
Muzzle
Chamber
Extractor
Rachet
Cylinder
Cylinder Release / Thumb
Latch
Frame
Ejector Rod
Trigger Guard
Trigger
Grip Panel
ACTIONS OF REVOLVER
• Single-action revolvers - the trigger performs only one task, when the trigger is pulled the
hammer falls, firing the handgun.
• Double-action revolvers - as the trigger is pulled two actions occur. The hammer comes back
and falls forward to fire the handgun.
Ejection Port
Hammer Slide Barrel Muzzle
Mainspring Cap
Grip Safety Frame
Trigger Trigger Guard Rear Sight
Front Sight
Magazine
Slide Thumb Safety
Lock
Magazine
Release Button
ACTION OF PISTOLS
• Semi-auto operation
When the pistol is fired, the slide moves to the rear, ejecting the spent cartridge and usually
cocking the pistol in the process. The cartridges located in the magazine are forced upward by the
magazine spring into the path of the slide. When the slide (under pressure from the recoil spring)
moves forward, it picks up and pushes the next cartridge into the chamber, ready to be fired again.
• Automatic operation
The firearm can fire continuously as long as the trigger is pulled.
• Selective
These fires either on automatic or semi-automatic by using the selector level of the firearm.
Ex. Glock Pistols
Rear Sight Drum Carrying Handle Front Sight Assembly
Rubber Recoil Pad Ejection Port Barrel
Charging Handle
Trigger
Forward Assist Button
Flash Suppressor
Upper Sling Swivel Handguard
Selector Lever
Bolt Catch
R
M
BASIC PARTS OF SHOTGUN
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
1. According to gun barrel
construction
a. smooth-bore firearms
– have no riflings inside the
gun barrel.
b. rifled-bore firearms –
firearms that have riflings
inside their gun barrel.
2. According to the caliber of the
projectiles propelled
4. According to use
a. military firearms
b. pocket and home defense firearm
c. target and outdoor men’s firearms
Break for
30
minutes!!!
Chapter 4
Ammunition
LEGAL DEFINITION
Bullet
DEFINITION
1. Ball bullets – those have soft cores inside a jacket and are
used against personnel only.
2. Armor piercing bullet – those that have steel cores and are
fired against vehicles and other armored targets in general.
3. Tracer bullet – those that contain compound at its base which
is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of smoke
from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to be seen,
especially at night time. This type of bullet is primarily used for
target acquisition.
4. Incendiary bullet – those that contain mixture, such as
phosphorous or other material, that can be set on fire by
impact. They are used against the targets that will readily burn
such as aircrafts or gasoline depots.
5. Explosive (fragmentary) bullet – those types of bullets that
contain a highly charged explosive. Because of their small
size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small
arms ammunitions.
ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL
CONSTRUCTION
Cartridge Case
DEFINITION
• Straight
• Bottle neck
• Tapered (obsolete)
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
CASE RIM
Primers
DEFINITION
c. Anvil – portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by blow of
firing pin.
d. Disc – a piece of small paper or disk of tin foil which is pressed to the priming
mixture.
CLASSES OF PRIMERS
b. Non-corrosive Primers
- potassium chlorate was replaced by barium nitrates. It was
invented by Swiss army and inventor Karl Ziegler.
TWO KINDS OF PRIMER
a. Berdan Primer
The primer cup contains only the priming mixture and the
anvil is part of the cartridge case. It contains two of more vents and
requires special tools to remove them easily and not generally
reloaded. It was invented by Hiram Berdan in March 20, 1866.
b. Boxer Primer
The anvil is an integral part of the primer assembly and
contains only one flash hole. This kind of primer is commonly used
in present time for centerfire cartridges. It was invented by American
Inventor Col. Edward M. Boxer on June 29, 1869.
Chapter 8
Gunpowder
DEFINITION
It refers to the chemical substances of various
compositions, particles sizes, shapes and colors, which when
ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure
and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel to the target.
The term gunpowder is synonymous to the term propellant,
cordite and powder charge that can be used interchangeably.
Arms
Manufacturing
INTRODUCTION
The barrel, which is one of the most important parts of
firearm, is a cylindrical in shape with projecting length. It is made
of a carefully selected solid piece of metal, fitted for its chemical
and metallurgical structure which has the capability to withstand
explosion and tremendous pressure coming from the expansion of
heated gas coming from burning gunpowder. This provides a high
quality product after the various machine operations, until it
becomes a finish product and consequently as a real firearm.
Firearms ID
PRINCIPLE IN FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
• It is a refined toolmarks identification.
• The natural wear and tear of the tools is involved.
• When the soft surface come in contact with the hard surface is left
with the impressions or scratches from any irregularities on the
hard surface.
• Principle of individuality, i.e. no two things are absolutely identical.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
a. Lands marks – depressed portion caused by lands that can
be found in the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
b. Groove marks – raised or the elevated portions caused by
the grooves that can be found in the cylindrical surface of the
fired bullet.
c. Skid marks – found on the anterior portion of the fired bullets
and caused by the forward movement of bullet from the
chamber before it initially rotates due to the rifling inside the
barrel.
d. Stripping marks – found on bullet fired though loose fit
barrels wherein the riflings are already worn out.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS
1. Striated action marks are common to cartridge cases that have passed
through the action of an auto loading or repeating firearm. Striated
action marks can be produced on cartridge cases by contact with a
number of different areas within the firearm.
2. Impressed action marks, with a few exceptions, are produced when a
cartridge case is fired in a firearm. The two most common impressed
action marks are firing pin impressions and breech marks.
1. Chamber mark – found in the body of the shell due to the irregular
makings in the chamber.
2. Firing pin mark – found in the primer cup or the rim of the cartridge
case.
3. Shearing marks – secondary firing pin mark found near the firing pin
mark.
4. Extractor mark – found in extracting groove in automatic firearms.
5. Ejector marks – located in the rim in automatic firearms.
6. Pivotal mark – marks found on the shell caused by turning of the
cartridge.
7. Magazine lip markings – these are markings found at the low points of
the rim of the base of the shell and these are caused by the magazine
lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.
A principle used for radial crack which states that stress lines on radial crack will be
at right angle to the rear side of the glass.
RFC RULE
A principle used for concentric crack which states that stress lines on a concentric
crack will be at right angle to the front side, that is the side from which the impact or blow came.
5 TEST FOR GLASS
Crime Scene
Processing
INTRODUCTION
The search of the scene for ballistic exhibits is one of the
most important phases of crime investigation. Crime of violence,
especially wherein firearms had been used, sometimes involves
struggle, a break, and the element of unpredictability. In
homicide, murder and armed robberies, the criminal is in contact
with the physical surroundings in a forceful manner. Traces of the
commission of the crime may be left in the form of fired bullets,
fired shells, and suspected firearm. These firearm evidences, or
ballistic exhibits as they are sometimes called, might be of value
in tracing the perpetrator or perpetrators of the crime so
committed. Together with these, there might be other traces that
may link him to the crime committed.
A well-planned and organized method of investigation
should guide the basic search. The search to be followed by the
investigator should be thorough and complete, and no details of
the surrounding area should be over-looked by the investigator.
There might be some types of evidence, which might be of the
highest significance to firearms investigation.
DIFFERENT METHOD OF
SEARCH
1. STRIP METHOD
It involves the
demarcation of a series of
lanes down which one or
more persons proceed. Upon
reaching the starting point,
the searchers proceed down
their respective lane, reverse
the direction, and continue in
this fashion until the scene
has been thoroughly
examined.
2. DOUBLE STRIP METHOD
It is usually employed in
outdoor scenes and is normally
executed by a single person. It
involves the searcher’s walking
in slightly ever-decreasing, less-
than-concentric circles form the
outermost boundary
determination towards a central
point and vice-versa.
4. ZONE METHOD
It requires that area
should be divided into four
quadrants, each of which is then
examined using of the methods
previously described. Where the
area to be searched is
particularly large, a variation of
the zone method would be
subdivide the small quadrants into
a smaller quadrants.
5. PIE METHOD
It is also referred to
wheel method. The searchers
gather at the center and
proceed outward along radii or
spoke. The principal drawback
of this method is that the
distance between the
researchers increases as they
depart from the center.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Anything that has material existence
and which may be used to establish the
nature of the offense or the identity of the
perpetrator and which may be presented to
the court for its evaluation or appreciation.
Properly prepared and presented
physical evidences may serve the same
purpose as taking the court to the scene of
the crime and reconstructing the events
which led to the commission of crime. A
thorough understanding of physical
evidence, its protection, preservation and
examination is important.
Evidence – is the means sanction by law, of ascertaining in a judicial procedure
the truth respecting a matter of fact.
“Evidence speaks by itself”
RECOGNITION OF EVIDENCE
At the crime scene, the prober must exercise keen observation and
extreme care in his search for these physical evidences or ballistics exhibits
like fired bullets, fired shells, firearm/s and allied items or objects. The
success of the case will depend heavily on how the prober conducts himself
in handling those ballistics exhibits. He has to do his job well at “proper
time” and “proper place”.
Proper time refers to when he is right there in the scene and proper
place refers to the right there at the scene. It is important therefore that the
investigator be familiar with the modern techniques in the proper
recognition, collection, marking, preservation and transmittal of these
physical evidences.
COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
1. Collect all articles, which are, or may be in some future date, be of
value as evidence.
2. Evidence which may tend to show or indicate or not a crime was
committed or may connect some particular person with the crime or
crime scene such as fatal gun, fired bullet, fired shell, metal fragment,
broken glass, holster, magazine, cartridge, gloves and masks.
Same in marking of
fired bullets but the marking
should be place either
INSIDE, NEAR THE OPEN
MOUTH, OUTSIDE, NEAR
THE OPEN MOUTH OR
NEAR THE BODY OF THE
SHELL, but never place your
marks on the base of fired
shells.
MARKING A SUSPECTED
FIREARMS
Same in marking of
fired bullets and fired shell
but the marking should be
place on all the three main
and inseparable part of the
firearm. In addition, a tag
may be made indicating the
type of firearm, make or
model, caliber, serial
number, date of recovery,
name of suspect or victim (if
known) and other features
of value.
PRESERVATION OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCES
Physical evidence should be preserve for future identification and
presentation during the trial of the case. The container of ballistics exhibits
should be properly labeled by the prober and put down all the steps he has
taken in preserving all these physical evidences for future use. Preserving the
evidentiary value of physical evidence determine the acceptability and
reliability of evidence in court.
TRANSMITTAL OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
After the collection and marking of physical evidences, the prober
will transmit the evidences to their respective departments and submit the
same to the duty desk officer or designated receiving officer-in-charge.