International Education Studies; Vol. 6, No.

10; 2013
ISSN 1913-9020 E-ISSN 1913-9039
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education

Symbolic Representation for Introduction of Concept of Decimal

System in Mexican School Children
Solovieva Y1, Rosas Rivera Y1, Quintanar L1 & García M. A1
1
Master in Neuropsychological Diagnosis and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Psychology, Autonomous University of
Puebla, Puebla, México
Correspondence: Solovieva Y., Master in Neuropsychological Diagnosis and Rehabilitation, Faculty of
Psychology, Autonomous University of Puebla, Puebla, México. E-mail: [email protected]

Received: September 3, 2013 Accepted: September 20, 2013 Online Published: September 28, 2013
doi:10.5539/ies.v6n10p102 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ies.v6n10p102

Abstract
The present study describes the usage of strategies of symbolic representation during teaching introduction of
decimal system in primary school in Mexico. Our research is based on Activity Theory conception of
teaching-learning process and of gradual introduction of scientific concepts in school age. The method includes
symbolic external representation of mathematic, logic and spatial relations. Children from the second grade of
primary school took part in the study. The children were included in joined actions with constant orientation of
the teacher. Specific Program was designed for introduction of decimal system and applied during 6 month 3
times per weak. The results showed that children acquired significant symbolic abilities necessary for
understanding the concept of decimal system. We consider that proposed method could be a new approximation
for solution of common difficulties which arise at primary school during initial teaching of mathematics.
Keywords: symbolic representation, school age, teaching of decimal system, activity theory
1. Introduction
At primary school, the way mathematics is thought is a matter of great importance. In Mexico, as in many other
countries, the level of children’s knowledge in this area is very low (SEP, 2011). This means that pupils of third
grade of primary school can only solve exercises with low degree of difficulty (elementary operations, increasing
sequence with an additive constant, to identify the predecessor of a number, etc.). The teaching method proposed
by Secretariat of Public Education (2011) emphasizes that the teacher's task is to create learning environments in
order to make pupils think about the methods that perform, promote communication of mathematical ideas that
arise during class and evaluate the level of skills that students develop. Nevertheless, no conceptual knowledge is
included in current methodology for mathematics. Symbolic preparation is not considered as important aspect of
knowledge and learning. The actual school methods are based on traditional repetition and memorization of
examples with no kind of symbolic or logic structure of concepts of number and decimal system.
The introduction of decimal system represents one of the essential aspects of learning at primary school. This is
the theme what occupies most of the activities in the first three years of primary school education (Ruesga y
Guimaraes, 2011). The decimal system is considered a positional system, because the digits are not independent
but are subject to their spatial position. No digit has absolute meaning, but depends on spatial specific position
(Silva y Barela, 2010; Ávila y García, 2008; Luria, 1995). The problem is that such knowledge is not explicit and
apparently children have to “discover” it. Normally, children learn to sum and rest and to fulfill multiple
operations, but they do not receive any orientation or explanation of the way to “discovery” of logic and
theoretical basis of decimal system.
There is no doubt that decimal system is a symbolic system based on relative meaning of each digit. Each new
column of the decimal number system is considered as a new measure count, which is 10 times greater than the
extent of the previous column, for example, 10 units of the first column (units) given unit of the second column
(tens). Left or right position has also specific meaning in decimal system. The reflection of such relationships
could allow students show arithmetic actions, laws and combination translational. It is also possible to emphasize
that counting by equal units (not necessary by 10 units), allows preparation of the conceptual introduction of any
numeric system (not only decimal system) (Talizina, 2009, Salmina, 2001). The pertinent question could be how
to manage an appropriate way of introduction of such knowledge at school?

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It is possible to find an answer on not traditional way of education proposed on the basis of Activity Theory
(Talizina, Solovieva and Quintanar, 2010; Solovieva and Quintanar; 2010; Galperin, 2009; Talizina, 2009;
Salmina, 2001). This general psychological theory applied to the process of teaching and learning shows how it
is possible to reorganize and systematize academic programs in order to guarantee favorable way of assimilation
and generalization of any knowledge. Between the main aspects of such methodology we can mention: 1)
constant and orientation in formation of theoretical concepts and 2) symbolic external representation of
phenomenon or process which should be learned.
In case of introduction of decimal system in primary school it is necessary to remember basic essential
components relevant for number concept formation in general Specifically, mathematic content is organized
around four components: logical, symbolic, mathematical and spatial which were detected in some previous
psychological studies within activity theory (Salmina y Filomonova, 2002; Solovieva, Ortiz y Quintanar, 2010;
Solovieva, Quintanar & Ortiz, 2012).
The objective of this study consisted in showing pedagogical experience of usage of symbolic representation for
introduction of decimal concept in primary school in Mexico.
2. Method
2.1 Participants
Children from second grade of elementary school were included in formative experiment. The average age was
7.25 years. All children assisted small private primary school in the city of Puebla and had no pathological
history in their development.
2.2 Pedagogical Experiment and Applied Program
The Program for introduction of decimal system was created and was applied 3 days per week during 6 months.
The implementation of the program could be called as “formative pedagogical experiment” (Talizina, 1998;
Salmina, 2001, Talizina, Solovieva y Quintanar, 2010). In such studies the method consists of gradual formation
of concepts, skills or actions starting from level “0”, that is, providing gradual cooperation within the zone of
proximate development, according to L.S. Vigotsky’s conception. The introduction of decimal system was
organized and guided by an adult who knows the operative structure and all kinds of necessary orientation what
can guarantee reflective and conscious acquisition of proposed concepts.
The Program was applied as common sessions at school and presented as joint collective activity divided
between adults and children. The work was organized in groups and in pairs of children. The program included
specific tasks for symbolic, logical, numeric and spatial components necessary for introduction of decimal
system. Specific kinds of external symbolic representations were used during the whole process. The table 1
represents the general content of the program divided into 4 steps according to actions, orientation, means of
symbolization and materials. The orientation with symbolic means is always presented by teacher, while the
pupils can propose the materials for all the actions.

Table 1. The content of the program

Actions Orientation Means of symbolization Materials
1. Measure of What shall we measure? We shall The card with symbols: M, Furniture,
highness, call it “M”. m, v liquids, objects,
broadness, volume, With what shall we measure? We toys, lines on the
longitude, etc. shall call it “m”. Means for measure (pens, floor, windows,
How many times shall be apply or glasses, pencils, lines, doors and so on.
mean (“m”) to complete with the pieces of paper and so on).
measuring (“v”)?
2. Comparison of Can we compare what we measure Symbols: equal (=), more Same
magnitudes which with the same mean? (>), less (<)
were measured The less is the size of the mean, the
with same mean more the quantity of times to apply
the mean.
The bigger is the mean, the less is
the quantity of times to apply the
mean.

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It is not possible to compare if we

do not use the same mean.
3. Introduction of We can call the mean we chose “the
unit unit” for measure.
4. Elaboration of Each next unite can be 10 times Schemes and tables for Matchers and
decimal system bigger (smaller) then the previous representation of decimal boxes for
one. Each next (on the right side) system. organization and
unit includes 10 previous units. Symbols for representation representation of
of units. units within
Fletchers for “right” and decimal system
“left” orientation inside
decimal system.

2.3 Pedagogical Procedure

The usage of the program with the means of symbolization is illustrated by some concrete examples.
Actions of Measure. Measurements were performed considering various objects and magnitudes. Specific terms
like “Magnitude”, “Measure” and “Number” as “times or quantity of measuring” were introduced and explained
to children form the very beginning. External symbolization of each term was used. The figure 1 shows the
symbolization and orientation card for this task. The card includes specific questions which help the child to
understand specific mathematic sense of the task. When we need to measure anything (an object or parameter of
an object) we have to chose a mean (symbol) with which we can measure. In this case, “Number” corresponds to
the quantity of times a measurement is used and not only to specific digit. These elements are described on the
symbolic card "Measure". During each concrete task children had to use this specific symbolic cards. Firstly,
they chose an object and a feature of an object to measure (e.g. a highness or broadness of a toy, window, board,
distance between two places in the classroom or between tow children, water bottles) and something with which
we can to measure such objects (pencils, chalks, paper strips, glasses and so on). The measurement of volumes
of different liquids with the help of specific measures was used as well. Subsequently, the gathered data was
written down on the students notebooks using symbolic "Measurement Scheme".

Magnitude (M) = object or parameter which we wand to measure

(What do we want to measure?)

Measurement (m) = symbol or mean we chose as a measure

(What do we measure with?)

Quantity of time (v)= Quantity of times we use the measure

(How many times do we measure with this mean?)
Figure 1. Symbolic measurement card

The Figure 2 shows an example of a task of the materialized stage, in which a drawn path is measured using a
paper foot. During the work the teacher explained the meaning of the card and of each symbolic mean.
Afterwards, children had to act according to the card answering together all the questions. Same procedure was
applied to multiple situations, various objects and parameters of objects. Children always took part in selections
and creation of tasks.

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Figure 2. Example tasks measuring action, M= car track; m= paper stand; v= 7 times

Actions of comparison and introduction of unit.

In this stage, every task was performed using a common measurement to compare different objects and liquids,
which can be measured. In this case, external mean (symbol) to make the measurement was proposed by a
teacher to all the participants: the same ribbon. The goal of such procedure was to teach children that the smaller
was the size of the mean, the more times they would have to use it to measure one object. And the other way
around, the bigger is the mean, the lesser times they would have to use it is measuring the same object
(parameter). In such way of teaching the mean (external symbol) can be gradually reflected as a unit to provide
correct measuring.
The Figure 3 shows how the children measured distances (“Magnitudes”) between various objects or places. In
some exercises children had to find out which roads where longer or shorter. They had to use same mean in such
tasks. For instance, matches were used as means for measure. All data was recorded on the board and a
comparison was made between the paths and lines in all occasions. The children used mathematical symbols
“less than” (<), “greater than” (>) and “equal” (=) to understand the relationships between the magnitudes
worked. For each answer they chose the appropriate symbol with the help of the adult. Our goal was to obtain
reflection about the following condition: if we want to compare objects or parameters, we have to use same mean.
On the contrary, if we use different means, we can not compare results of measuring.

Figure 3. Example of a distance-measuring task

The Figure 4 shows an example of exercise of comparison of paths drawn on paper or on board. Afterwards, the
pupils wrote down the data obtained in a registry sheet. It was necessary to identify the mean used for
measurement, to show the shortest path, the longest path and their numeric representation. Children were
constantly asked by the teacher about all the steps of the work with the emphasis of interrelation of 3 variables:
M, m, v.

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Figure 4. Exercise for comparison of objects

Afterwards, the children worked with schematic representation of quantity of times a measurement was used.
The goal of this exercise was to answer a variety of questions focused on the identification of the means (units)
for measurement and to guarantee the operation of comparison between objects and semantic phrases such as
“lesser than, greater than or equal to”. Numeric and symbolic representation of these comparisons was also used.
The figure 5 shows an example of measuring of objects (highness of birds) and the questions used for the
guidance and reflection of this exercise.

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Figure 5. Exercise of a measurement comparison task

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The same kind of work was applied to the measure of liquids using different units.
Elaboration of decimal system.
In this step, the external model for representation of decimal system was used. Children were explained that it is
possible to use units in such way that each next unit can be 10 times bigger then the previous one. Such unit is
called “ten”. The Figure 6 shows an example of elaboration of a symbolic external scheme for representation of
grades within decimal system. When we count and get ten o more units, we can “pass” to the next unit on the
right side of the scheme.

Figure 6. Representation of units and tens with external scheme

Afterwards, children worked with matches using a ribbon to tie them up in groups. Each group included 10
matches and was called as next unit or unit of ten. Same procedure was used to represent units for hundreds and
thousands. In this case it was enough to use symbolic representation without usage of concrete matches. Children
had to understand an idea that each following unit is 10 times bigger. The figure 7 shows an example of tens
constructions and their symbolic localization on the positional value table.

Figure 7. Tens construction and there numerical representation

Finally, the children learned to represent different number and quantities using symbolic scheme for decimal
system. In all tasks children had to identify of the biggest and the smallest unit and differential the concept of
“digit” and the concept of “positional unit” (figure 8).

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Figure 8. Symbolic representation of decimal system

Final test. At the beginning and at the end of pedagogical process children were asked some question which can
show the level of reflection concerning the concept of decimal system and positional units. The table 2 presents
the answers of children before and after the teaching experiment.

Table 2. Initial and final answers

Task Initial test Final test
What one is bigger: 3 cm or 1 3, because 3 is bigger than one. 1 meter is bigger than 3
m? centimeters because 1 meter
includes 100 centimeters
What one is bigger: 5 liters or 5 is bigger than 2. Is not possible, different means
2 kilograms? were used for measurements

What is bigger: two quarters of I don´t know, I haven’t been They are equal because one
hour or a half hour? taught to read the clock. quarter plus one quarter means
half hour

It is possible to notice the qualitative difference between the level of reflection and theoretical comprehension of
mathematic relations before and after working according to our program. The final assessment has shown that
the children were able to identify the positional value of digits in a number, to write the numbers correctly, to
compare measures correctly, to perform arithmetic operations and to understand relationships in the decimal
numeric system. All children were able to use symbolic representation of all essential relations within decimal
system.
3. Discusion and Conclusions
According our data, the teaching should be understood as directed and organized process (Talizina, Solovieva
and Quintanar, 2010) and not as empiric configuration of various operations and actions. The teacher should
clearly understand what is he/she teaching and how the best result could be achieved. Such organization of
teaching process allows the children to be conscious of their learning (Talizina, 2009) allows and guarantees the
development of mathematical skills in our children.
Such way of teaching is opposite to the constructivist methods of working just with separate individual actions of
children with no specific purpose established and putting more emphasis on the teaching of symbols just as any
other external object in front of the child (Martin, 2003; Castaño, 2008). The techniques used in constructivist
approach never retake the measurement action properly. Such methods pretend to measure only empirically
without any objective and with no relation to the concept of decimal system. In traditional school children can
never understand any relation between unit of measurement and number concept. They measure everything but
the do not know what for do they measure. The measurement is presented as a kind of “free individual” process

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for independent “construction” of the knowledge by each child without any orientation. Some studies show that
the only strategy used by children in traditional primary school in Mexico during solution of exercises is
counting by fingers, personal drawings and mental calculations (Buto y Gómez, 2011; García, 2011). Such
approach is very common and dominants the system of teaching of mathematic abilities in may countries.
By this research we wanted to show how the work could be done during introduction of decimal system. Only
correct election and organization of appropriate actions may conduct to positive result in teaching. In this very
case such actions are related to measurement of features of objects (e.g. highness, broadness and volume). But
we stress that not only election of actions is necessary. Constant orientation with the help of symbolic means and
specific questions with constant participation of an adult are essential part of our methodology. Only such kind
of organization of learning process permits to guarantee successful assimilation and generalization of the concept
of decimal number system (Dadidov, 1988; Salmina, 2010). The purpose of each activity and of each task is
explained and oriented by a teacher. After such training, there were no errors in reading of new numbers
displayed for the children as some researchers have found as constant negative feature of children at primary
school in different countries (Butto y Gómez, 2011; García, 2011; Gómez, 1991).
The principles of innovational way of teaching according to activity theory methodology open new perspectives
for educational process. It is possible to create original systems of strategies that ensure the understanding of
decimal system in its symbolic essence. We hope to continue our research towards generalization of pedagogical
experience and possibility of introduction of new strategies of symbolic representation in formation of
mathematic concepts.
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