A

PROJECT ON

NETWORKING

SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF PG
IN
MASTER OF SCIENCE INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY: binu

REG N0 : 12345698
MSCIT (2Th SEM)

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 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled “ NETWORKING“

submitted for the PG of Master of Science information Technology is my
own is my original work and the mini project report has not formed the
basis for the award of any pg, associate ship, fellowship or similar other
titles. It has not been submitted to any other university or institute for
the award of any post-graduation

Place: Student Name: Bins Thomas

Signature: MSC IT (2Th SEM)
Date:

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 INDEX

1. Introduction to Networking

2. Type of Networking

3. Network Topology

4. Network connecting device

5. OSI Reference Model

6. OSI Reference Model Example

7. Using of IP address in network

8. Networking using protocols

9. TCP and UDP

10. TCP/UDP Ports

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 Abstract
Computer networks are a system of interconnected computers for
the purpose of sharing digital information. The concept of a
network began in 1962 when a server at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology was connected to a server in Santa
Monica, California. Since that time the proliferation of computers
and computer networks has increased significantly. One of the
most significant challenges to networks is attacks on their
resources caused by inadequate network security. The purpose of
this research project was to evaluate open source, free, intrusion
detection systems and how easily they can integrate into an
existing network. Research was conducted for this study through
a review of existing literature pertaining to intrusion detection
systems and how they function. The literature also highlighted
previous studies conducted on intrusion detection systems, both
commercial and open source. In addition to the review of existing

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 literature, the author conducted independent testing on three
open source intrusion detection systems. The open source
programs, Snort, OSSEC, and Prelude, were selected due to being
highly rated in professional publications. The author created a
secure simulated computer network, to ensure that each of the
programs was tested in a controlled and equitable manner. The
findings of this study determined that the three open source
intrusion detection systems tested are as capable as commercial
programs in securing a computer network.

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 Introduction to Networking

Α network is defined as devices connected together to share

information and services. The types of data/services that can be shared
on a network is endless - documents, music, email, websites,
databases, printers, faxes, telephony, videoconferencing, etc.

Communication through computer came into begin in 1969. Before

networking, stand-alone computer were used to accomplish daily tasks
in the office. As proper networking was not available, seakernet was
used to share data between two similar types of systems. The basic
function of sneakernet is to transmit electronic information by
personally carrying it from one place to another on some removable
medium. This process was more complex, hence to simplify it, a
centralized or host computer was introduced. Here, all intelligence and
processing was within a central host computer which meat that it relied
on acentralized host for all capabilities. Users interacted with a host
computer through a terminal that captured keystokers and send
information to the host some of the example are IBM, Digital, Sperry

Most of the capabilities of the mainframe are implemented on dumps.

The personal computers have memory, hard disk, and processor and
have intelligence when compared to mainframe. The dumps are

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dependent on the mainframe for hard disk and processor. Initially,
computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate
with each other. In the US, the ARPANET developed by DARPA of the
United States Departments of defense, was the world’s first operational
packet switching network, and predecessor of the global internet

TYPE OF NETWORK

Networks are generally broken down into two types: (LAN,

WAN, MAN,)

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Local Area Networking (LAN)

A high-speed network that covers a relatively small geographic area,

usually contained within a single building or campus. A LAN is usually
under the administrative control of a single entity/organization.

Wide Area Networks (WAN)

WAN is a network that spans large geographical locations, usually to

interconnect multiple LANs.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network

across an entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger
than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or site.
Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect
several LANs together to form a bigger network. When this type of
network is specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes
referred to as a campus area network, or CAN.

Network Topology

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Topology means Physical and logical network layout. The physical
topology means actual layout of the computer cables and other
network devices. The logical topology means way in which the network
appears to the devices that use it. Common topologies are BUS, RING,
MESH, and STAR

Bus topology

• Uses a trunk or backbone to which all of the computers on the

network connect.

• Systems connect to this backbone using T connectors or taps.

• Coaxial cablings (10Base-2, 10Base5) were popular options years ago.

Ring Topology

• Ring meaning that data travels in circular fashion from one computer
to another on the network. Typically FDDI, SONET or Token Ring

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technology are used to implement a ring network. Ring networks are
most commonly wired in a star configuration.

Star Topology

• All computers/devices connect to a central device called hub or

switch.

• Each device requires a single cable • point-to-point connection

between the device and hub.

• Most widely implemented

• Hub is the single point of failure

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Mesh Topology

• Each computer connects to every other.

• High level of redundancy.

• Rarely used. Wiring is very complicated, Cabling cost is high,

troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky, a variation hybrid mesh, create
point to point connection between specific network devices, often seen
in WAN implementation.

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 Network connecting device

To understand what connecting devices are, it is important to know

about Backbone Networks. Backbone Network is a means of connecting
2 LAN’s. It provides a transmission channel for packets from being
transmitted from one LAN to the other. The individual LAN’s are
connected to the Backbone Network by using some types of devices
such as Hubs, Repeaters, Switches, Bridges, Routers and Gateways.

Hub
A hub works in the physical layer of the OSI model. It is basically a non-
intelligent device, and has no decision making capability. What a Hub
basically does is take the input data from one of the ports and
broadcast the information to all the other ports connected to the
network.

Repeater
A repeater is a device similar to the Hub, but has additional features. It
also works in the Physical layer. The repeaters are used in places where
amplification of input signal is necessary. But, the kind of amplification
done by the repeater is different from the regular amplification by
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amplifiers. The regular amplifies everything fed into it. That means, if
the input signal has noise induced into it, both the desired signal and
noise signal are together amplified. But, in the case of a repeater, it
regenerates the input signal, and amplifies only the desirable signal.
Hence, the noise component of the signal is eliminated.

Switch

A switch is an intelligent device that works in the data link layer. The
term intelligent refers to the decision making capacity of the Switch.
Since it works in the Data link layer, it has knowledge of the MAC
addresses of the ports in the network.

Bridge

A bridge is also a device which works in the Data Link Layer, but is more
primitive when compared to a switch. Initial bridges were used to

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connect only 2 LAN’s, but the most recent ones perform similar
operation as the switches. It also works on the principle of transfer of
information using the MAC addresses of the ports.

Router

Any computer can be connected to the internet via MODEM, which

performs the MODulation and the DEModulation operations. But, when
there are more than one computer at home or in an organization, and
you have a single internet connection, you need a Router. Router is a
device which is used when multiple devices need to connect to the
Internet using the same IP.

Any Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides a single IP, and especially
for personal use, the IP address is assigned dynamically. This is done
because, suppose, an ISP has 1000 IP addresses, it does not mean that
it has 1000 customers. An ISP assumes that not all devices will be

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connected to the internet at the same time. Hence, when a user wants
to access the internet, any IP address from the pool of IP addresses
from the ISP will be assigned to connect the user to the internet.

Gateway

The Gateway devices work in the Transport layer and above, where the
different network technologies are implemented. A gateway is
necessary when there are different technologies implemented by the
different LAN’s which are to be connected together.

Connecting cables

While connecting different networks, we come across different

connecting cables, which are as follows:

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1. RJ45/ RJ 11 Connectors: The RJ45 (Registered Jack 45) cable or the Cat 5
cable, is used to connect the two different LAN’s together. This is
normally confused with the RJ11 cable, which is used in the
interconnections in the telephone network.
2. Crossover cables: Crossover cables are generally used when 2 different
computers are to be connected together. They get the name because,
in these cables, a crossover is made between the Transmitter and
Receiver ports, i.e., Transmitter of one end of the cable is connected to
the Receiver port at the other end and vice versa.
3. Null Modem Cables: The null modem cables are also those which are
used in connecting 2 different computers to form a network. They also
have a crossover, but generally, the term null modem cables are used
for RS232 standard cables.
4. Optical Fibres: The optical fibres are used when gigabit Ethernet is
used, and very high rates of data transmission is necessary.

Half-Duplex vs. Full-Duplex

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Standard Cable Type Speed Max. Distance 10base2 Coaxial (thinnet) 10
Mbps 185 meters 10base5 Coaxial (thicknet) 10 Mbps 500 meters
10baseT Twisted-pair 10 Mbps 100 meters 100baseT Twisted-pair 100
Mbps 100 meters 1000baseSX Fiber (multi-mode) 1 Gbps >500 meters
1000baseLX Fiber (single-mode) 1 Gbps > 3 km

Different type of ether net cables

Mainly ether net cables divided in Ethernet (10 mbps), Fast Ethernet,
Gigabit Ethernet

Ethernet (10 Mbps)

The first incarnation of Ethernet operated at 10 Mbps, over thinnet

(10base2), thicknet (10base5), or twisted pair (10baseT) mediums.
Ethernet’s specifications were outlined in the IEEE 802.3 standard.

Fast Ethernet

Fast Ethernet, or IEEE 802.3u, operates at 100 Mbps, utilizing Category

5 twisted-pair (100base-TX) or fiber cabling (100base-FX). Full Duplex
Fast Ethernet allows devices connected to a switch to both send and
receive simultaneously, doubling the bandwidth to 200 Mbps per port.
Many switches (and hubs) support both Ethernet and Fast Ethernet,

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and are commonly referred to as 10/100 switches. These switches will
autonegotiate both port speed and duplex.

Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet operates at 1000 Mbps, and can be utilized over

Category 5e twisted-pair (1000baseT) or fiber cabling (1000baseSX or
1000baseLX). Gigabit Ethernet over copper is defined in the IEEE
802.3ab standard.

Twisted-Pair Cabling

Twisted-pair cable usually contains 2 or 4 pairs of wire, which are

twisted around each other to reduce crosstalk. Crosstalk is a form of
electromagnetic interference (EMI) or “noise” that reduces the strength
and quality of a signal. It is caused when the signal from one wire
“bleeds” or interferes with another wire’s signal.

Types of Twisted-Pair Cables

Various types of twisted-pair cables can be used. A straight-through

cable is used in the following circumstances:

• From a host to a hub (or switch)

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 • From a router to a hub (or switch)

A cross-over cable is used in the following circumstances:

• From a host to a host

• From a hub to a hub

• From a switch to a switch

• From a hub to a switch

• From a router to a router

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roll-over cable is used to connect a PC into a Cisco router’s console or
auxiliary port.

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 OSI Reference Model

A network reference model serves as a blueprint, dictating how

network communication should occur. Programmers and engineers
design products that adhere to these models, allowing products from
multiple manufacturers to interoperate
Network models are organized into several layers, with each layer
assigned a specific networking function. These functions are controlled
by protocols, which govern end-to-end communication between
devices. Without the framework that network models provide, all
network hardware and software would have been proprietary.
Organizations would have been locked into a single vendor’s
equipment, and global networks like the Internet would have been
impractical or even impossible.
The two most widely recognized network reference models are:

• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

• The Department of Defense (DoD) model

The OSI model was the first true network model, and consisted of
seven layers. However, the OSI model has become deprecated over

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time, replaced with more practical models like the TCP/IP (or DoD)
reference model.

Network models are not physical entities. For example, there is no

OSI device. Devices and protocols operate at a specific layer of a model,
Depending on the function. Not every protocol fits perfectly within a
specific layer, and some protocols spread across several layers.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed in
the 1970’s and formalized in 1983 by the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO). It was the first networking model, and
provided the framework governing how information is sent across a
network. The OSI Model (ISO standard 7498) consists of seven layers,
each corresponding to a particular network function:
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data-link
1 Physical
Application layer (Layer 7)

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The Application layer (Layer 7) provides the actual interface between
the user application and the network. The user directly interacts with
this layer Examples of application layer protocols include:
• FTP (via an FTP client)
• HTTP (via a web-browser)
• SMTP (via an email client)
• Telnet

Presentation layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation layer (Layer 6) controls the formatting of user data,

whether it is text, video, sound, or an image. The presentation layer
ensures that data from the sending device can be understood by the
receiving device. Additionally, the presentation layer is concerned with
the encryption and compression of data.
Examples of presentation layer formats include:
• Text (RTF, ASCII, EBCDIC)
• Music (MIDI, MP3, WAV)
• Images (GIF, JPG, TIF, PICT)
• Movies (MPEG, AVI, MOV)

Session layer (Layer 5)

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The Session layer (Layer 5) establishes, maintains, and ultimately
terminates connections between devices. Sessions can be full-duplex
(send and receive simultaneously), or half-duplex (send or receive, but
not simultaneously).

Transport layer (Layer 4)

The Transport layer (Layer 4) is concerned with the reliable transfer of

data, end-to-end. This layer ensures (or in some cases, does not ensure)
that data arrives at its destination without corruption or data loss.
There are two types of transport layer communication:
• Connection-oriented - parameters must be agreed upon by both
parties before a connection is established.
• Connectionless – no parameters are established before data is sent.

Parameters that are negotiated by connection-oriented protocols

include:
• Flow Control (Windowing)
dictating how much data can be sent between acknowledgements
• Congestion Control
• Error-Checking
The transport layer does not actually send data. Instead, it segments
data into smaller pieces for transport. Each segment is assigned a
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sequence number, so that the receiving device can reassemble the data
on arrival. Examples of transport layer protocols include Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).

Network layer (Layer 3)

The Network layer (Layer 3) has two key responsibilities. First, this
layer controls the logical addressing of devices. Logical addresses are
organized as a hierarchy, and are not hard-coded on devices. Second,
the network layer determines the best path to a particular destination
network, and routes the data appropriately

Data-Link layer (Layer 2)

The Data-Link layer (Layer 2) actually consists of two sub-layers:

• Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer
• Media Access Control (MAC)
sub-layer The LLC sub-layer serves as the intermediary between the
physical link and all higher layer protocols. It ensures that protocols like
IP can function regardless of what type of physical link is being used.
Additionally, the LLC sub-layer can use flow-control and error-checking,
Either in conjunction with a transport layer protocol (such as TCP), or

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Instead of a transport layer protocol (such as UDP). The MAC sub-layer
controls access to the physical medium, serving as mediator if multiple
devices are competing for the same physical link. Specific technologies
have various methods of accomplishing this (for example: Ethernet
uses CSMA/CD, Token Ring utilizes a token).

Physical layer (Layer 1)

The Physical layer (Layer 1) controls the transferring of bits onto the
Physical wire. Devices such as network cards, hubs, and cabling are all
considered physical layer equipment.

OSI Reference Model Example

The following illustrates the OSI model in more practical terms, using a
webbrowser as an example:

• At the Application layer, a web browser serves as the user interface

for accessing websites. Specifically, HTTP interfaces between the web
browser and the web server.

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• The format of the data being accessed is a Presentation layer
function. Common data formats on the Internet include HTML, XML,
PHP, GIF, JPG, etc. Additionally, any encryption or compression
mechanisms used on a webpage are a function of this layer.

•The Session layer establishes the connection between the requesting
computer and the web server. It determines whether the
communication is half-duplex or full-duplex.

• The TCP protocol ensures the reliable delivery of data from the web
server to the client. These are functions of the Transport layer.

• The logical (in this case, IP) addresses configured on the client and
web server are a Network Layer function. Additionally, the routers that
determine the best path from the client to the web server operate at
this layer.

• IP addresses are translated to hardware addresses at the Data-Link

layer.

• The actual cabling, network cards, hubs, and other devices that
provide the physical connection between the client and the web server

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operate at the Physical layer.

TCP and UDP

Transport Layer Protocols

The Transport layer of the OSI model (or, the Host-to-Host layer of the
DoD model) is concerned with the reliable transfer of data between
devices. It ensures (or in some cases, does not ensure) that a packet
arrives at its destination without corruption or data loss.
However, protocols at the transport layer do not actually send or route
packets. Network layer protocols, such as IP, route packets from one
network to another. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, TCP and UDP are
transport layer protocols.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is defined as a reliable,
connection-oriented transport protocol. Parameters must be agreed
upon by both parties before a connection is established.
TCP utilizes a three-way handshake to accomplish this. Control
messages are passed between two devices as the connection is set up:

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP

The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is defined as an unreliable,

connectionless transport protocol. It is essentially a stripped-down
version of TCP, and thus has far less latency than TCP. UDP provides no
three-way handshake, no flow-control, no sequencing, and no
acknowledgment of data receipt.

TCP/UDP Ports

TCP and UDP ports identify services that run on a specific logical
address. Otherwise, there would be no way to distinguish data destined
for one service or another on a device. For example, port numbers
allow both a web and email server to operate simultaneously on the
same address.
An IP address combined with a TCP or UDP port forms a socket. A
socket is written out as follows: 10.50.1.1:80 Specific ports (1-1024)
have been reserved for specific services, and are recognized as well-
known ports. Below is a table of several common TCP/UDP ports:

20,21 TCP FTP

22 TCP SSH
23 TCP TELNET

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 25 TCP SMTP
53 UDP DNS
80 TCP HTTP
110 TCP POP3
443 TCP HTTPS

Using IP address in network

IP was developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) during

the late 1970’s. It was included in a group of protocols that became
known as the TCP/IP protocol suite.

IP provides two core functions:

• Logical addressing of hosts

• Routing of packets between networks.

IP has undergone several revisions. IP Version 4 (IPv4) is currently in

widespread deployment, but will eventually be replaced with IP Version
6 (IPv6)

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IPv4 Addressing

One of IP’s core functions is to provide logical addressing for hosts. An

IP address provides a hierarchical structure to separate networks.
Consider the following address as an example:

158.80.164.3

An IP address is separated into four octets:

First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Fourth Octet

158 .80 .164 .3

Each octet is 8 bits long, resulting in a 32-bit IP address. A computer

understands an IP address in its binary form; the above address in
binary would look as follows:

First Octet Second Octet Third Octet Fourth Octet

10011110 .01010000 .10100100 .00000011

Part of the above IP address identifies the network. The other part of
the address identifies the host

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IP Address Classes

The IPv4 address space has been structured into several classes. The
value of the first octet of an address determines the class of the
network:

Class First Octet Range Default Subnet Mask

Class A 1 – 127 255.0.0.0

Class B 128 – 191 255.255.0.0
Class C 192 - 223 255.255.255.0

Class A networks range from 1 to 127. The default subnet mask is

255.0.0.0; thus, by default, the first octet defines the network, and last
three octets define the host. This results in a maximum of 127 Class A
networks, with 16,777,214 hosts per network!

Example of a Class A address:

Address: 64.32.254.100

Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0

Class B networks range from 128 to 191. The default subnet mask is
255.255.0.0; thus, by default, the first two octets define the network,
and the last two octets define the host. This results in a maximum of
16,384 Class B networks, with 65,534 hosts per network.

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Example of a Class B address:

Address: 152.4.12.195

Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0

Class C networks range from 192 to 223. The default subnet mask is
255.255.255.0; thus, by default, the first three octets define the
network, and the last octet defines the host. This results in a maximum
of 2,097,152 Class C networks, with 254 hosts per network.

Example of a Class C address:

Address: 207.79.233.6

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Private vs Public Addresses

The rapid growth of the Internet resulted in a shortage of IPv4

addresses. In response, the powers that be designated a specific subset
of the IPv4 address space to be private, to temporarily alleviate this
problem.

A public address can be routed on the Internet. Thus, devices that

should be Internet accessible (such as web or email servers) must be
configured with public addresses.

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A private address is only intended for use within an organization, and
can never be routed on the internet. Three private addressing ranges
were allocated, one for each IPv4 class:

• Class A - 10.x.x.x

• Class B - 172.16-31.x.x

• Class C - 192.168.x.x

NAT (Network Address Translation) is used to translate between

private addresses and public addresses. NAT allows devices configured
with a private address to be stamped with a public address, thus
allowing those devices to communicate across the Internet. NAT is only
a temporarily solution to the address shortage problem. Eventually,
IPv4 will be replaced with IPv6.

Two other ranges, while not considered “private,” have been reserved
for specific use:

• 127.x.x.x - reserved for diagnostic purposes. One such

addresses (127.0.0.1), identifies the local host, and is referred to
as the loopback or localhost address.

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 • 169.254.x.x - reserved for Automatic Private IP Addressing

(APIPA). A host assigns itself an APIPA address if a DHCP server is

unavailable to dynamically assign an address.

How to assign IP in your computer

Type ncpa.cpl in the box, and then press OK. Select the local
area connection, right click it and select Properties. Select
Internet Protocol Version 4(TCP/IPv4), double click it or click
Properties. There are two ways to configure the
TCP/IP Properties, Assigned by DHCP server automatically or
manually.

Select Internet Protocol Version 4(TCP/IPv4

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Assigned by DHCP server

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Static IP address assign

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Networking Page 38
 Objectives

The main objective of the Network is to collect, analyse and review

results from exploration projects as well as to assess the development
of technologies used in unconventional gas and oil projects. The
Network is established for 3 years

The objectives of the Network are:

 structuring the dialogue among the stakeholders, fostering open

information and knowledge sharing;
 presenting and discussing research activities and their results, as
well as identifying gaps and research and innovation needs;
 examining knowledge gained from exploration and production
projects;
 identifying and assessing emerging technologies including their
economic, environment and climate impacts

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 Conclusion

In short this project is how to configure the network by complete

understanding the tool. Main learning of this project was how to make
the different subnets, how to assign a default gateway address, how to
work topology and different types, how do OSI layers work , how LAN
cable crimping and colour codes topologies were successfully built
implementing various different protocols.

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 Bibliography

1, MSC IT Book

2, Online help

3, Aaron Balchunas

THANK YOU FOR YOUR VALUABLE TIME SPENT TO VIEW THIS PROJECT.

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