Networking
Networking
PROJECT ON
NETWORKING
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DECLARATION
INDEX
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1. Introduction to Networking
2. Type of Networking
3. Network Topology
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Abstract
Computer networks are a system of interconnected computers for
the purpose of sharing digital information. The concept of a
network began in 1962 when a server at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology was connected to a server in Santa
Monica, California. Since that time the proliferation of computers
and computer networks has increased significantly. One of the
most significant challenges to networks is attacks on their
resources caused by inadequate network security. The purpose of
this research project was to evaluate open source, free, intrusion
detection systems and how easily they can integrate into an
existing network. Research was conducted for this study through a
review of existing literature pertaining to intrusion detection
systems and how they function. The literature also highlighted
previous studies conducted on intrusion detection systems, both
commercial and open source. In addition to the review of existing
literature, the author conducted independent testing on three
open source intrusion detection systems. The open source
programs, Snort, OSSEC, and Prelude, were selected due to being
highly rated in professional publications. The author created a
secure simulated computer network, to ensure that each of the
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programs was tested in a controlled and equitable manner. The
findings of this study determined that the three open source
intrusion detection systems tested are as capable as commercial
programs in securing a computer network.
Introduction to Networking
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in the office. As proper networking was not available, seakernet was
used to share data between two similar types of systems. The basic
function of sneakernet is to transmit electronic information by
personally carrying it from one place to another on some removable
medium. This process was more complex, hence to simplify it, a
centralized or host computer was introduced. Here, all intelligence and
processing was within a central host computer which meat that it relied
on acentralized host for all capabilities. Users interacted with a host
computer through a terminal that captured keystokers and send
information to the host some of the example are IBM, Digital, Sperry
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TYPE OF NETWORK
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WAN is a network that spans large geographical locations, usually to
interconnect multiple LANs.
Network Topology
Bus topology
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• Systems connect to this backbone using T connectors or taps.
Ring Topology
• Ring meaning that data travels in circular fashion from one computer
to another on the network. Typically FDDI, SONET or Token Ring
technology are used to implement a ring network. Ring networks are
most commonly wired in a star configuration.
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Star Topology
Mesh Topology
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• Rarely used. Wiring is very complicated, Cabling cost is high,
troubleshooting a failed cable is tricky, a variation hybrid mesh, create
point to point connection between specific network devices, often seen
in WAN implementation.
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Hub
A hub works in the physical layer of the OSI model. It is basically a non-
intelligent device, and has no decision making capability. What a Hub
basically does is take the input data from one of the ports and
broadcast the information to all the other ports connected to the
network.
Repeater
A repeater is a device similar to the Hub, but has additional features. It
also works in the Physical layer. The repeaters are used in places where
amplification of input signal is necessary. But, the kind of amplification
done by the repeater is different from the regular amplification by
amplifiers. The regular amplifies everything fed into it. That means, if
the input signal has noise induced into it, both the desired signal and
noise signal are together amplified. But, in the case of a repeater, it
regenerates the input signal, and amplifies only the desirable signal.
Hence, the noise component of the signal is eliminated.
Switch
A switch is an intelligent device that works in the data link layer. The
term intelligent refers to the decision making capacity of the Switch.
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Since it works in the Data link layer, it has knowledge of the MAC
addresses of the ports in the network.
Bridge
A bridge is also a device which works in the Data Link Layer, but is more
primitive when compared to a switch. Initial bridges were used to
connect only 2 LAN’s, but the most recent ones perform similar
operation as the switches. It also works on the principle of transfer of
information using the MAC addresses of the ports.
Router
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Any computer can be connected to the internet via MODEM, which
performs the MODulation and the DEModulation operations. But, when
there are more than one computer at home or in an organization, and
you have a single internet connection, you need a Router. Router is a
device which is used when multiple devices need to connect to the
Internet using the same IP.
Any Internet Service Provider (ISP) provides a single IP, and especially
for personal use, the IP address is assigned dynamically. This is done
because, suppose, an ISP has 1000 IP addresses, it does not mean that
it has 1000 customers. An ISP assumes that not all devices will be
connected to the internet at the same time. Hence, when a user wants
to access the internet, any IP address from the pool of IP addresses
from the ISP will be assigned to connect the user to the internet .
Gateway
The Gateway devices work in the Transport layer and above, where the
different network technologies are implemented. A gateway is
necessary when there are different technologies implemented by the
different LAN’s which are to be connected together.
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Connecting cables
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also have a crossover, but generally, the term null modem cables are
used for RS232 standard cables.
4. Optical Fibres: The optical fibres are used when gigabit Ethernet is
used, and very high rates of data transmission is necessary.
Mainly ether net cables divided in Ethernet (10 mbps), Fast Ethernet,
Gigabit Ethernet
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Ethernet (10 Mbps)
Fast Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet
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Twisted-Pair Cabling
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A cross-over cable is used in the following circumstances:
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OSI Reference Model
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equipment, and global networks like the Internet would have been
impractical or even impossible.
The two most widely recognized network reference models are:
The OSI model was the first true network model, and consisted of
seven layers. However, the OSI model has become deprecated over
time, replaced with more practical models like the TCP/IP (or DoD)
reference model.
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OSI Model (ISO standard 7498) consists of seven layers, each
corresponding to a particular network function:
7 Application
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network
2 Data-link
1 Physical
Application layer (Layer 7)
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receiving device. Additionally, the presentation layer is concerned with
the encryption and compression of data.
Examples of presentation layer formats include:
• Text (RTF, ASCII, EBCDIC)
• Music (MIDI, MP3, WAV)
• Images (GIF, JPG, TIF, PICT)
• Movies (MPEG, AVI, MOV)
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• Connectionless – no parameters are established before data is sent.
The Network layer (Layer 3) has two key responsibilities. First, this layer
controls the logical addressing of devices. Logical addresses are
organized as a hierarchy, and are not hard-coded on devices. Second,
the network layer determines the best path to a particular destination
network, and routes the data appropriately
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The Data-Link layer (Layer 2) actually consists of two sub-layers:
• Logical Link Control (LLC) sub-layer
• Media Access Control (MAC)
sub-layer The LLC sub-layer serves as the intermediary between the
physical link and all higher layer protocols. It ensures that protocols like
IP can function regardless of what type of physical link is being used.
Additionally, the LLC sub-layer can use flow-control and error-checking,
Either in conjunction with a transport layer protocol (such as TCP), or
Instead of a transport layer protocol (such as UDP). The MAC sub-layer
controls access to the physical medium, serving as mediator if multiple
devices are competing for the same physical link. Specific technologies
have various methods of accomplishing this (for example: Ethernet uses
CSMA/CD, Token Ring utilizes a token).
The Physical layer (Layer 1) controls the transferring of bits onto the
Physical wire. Devices such as network cards, hubs, and cabling are all
considered physical layer equipment.
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The following illustrates the OSI model in more practical terms, using a
webbrowser as an example:
• The TCP protocol ensures the reliable delivery of data from the web
server to the client. These are functions of the Transport layer.
• The logical (in this case, IP) addresses configured on the client and
web server are a Network Layer function. Additionally, the routers that
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determine the best path from the client to the web server operate at
this layer.
• The actual cabling, network cards, hubs, and other devices that
provide the physical connection between the client and the web server
operate at the Physical layer.
The Transport layer of the OSI model (or, the Host-to-Host layer of the
DoD model) is concerned with the reliable transfer of data between
devices. It ensures (or in some cases, does not ensure) that a packet
arrives at its destination without corruption or data loss.
However, protocols at the transport layer do not actually send or route
packets. Network layer protocols, such as IP, route packets from one
network to another. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, TCP and UDP are
transport layer protocols.
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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is defined as a reliable,
connection-oriented transport protocol. Parameters must be agreed
upon by both parties before a connection is established.
TCP utilizes a three-way handshake to accomplish this. Control
messages are passed between two devices as the connection is set up:
TCP/UDP Ports
TCP and UDP ports identify services that run on a specific logical
address. Otherwise, there would be no way to distinguish data destined
for one service or another on a device. For example, port numbers
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allow both a web and email server to operate simultaneously on the
same address.
An IP address combined with a TCP or UDP port forms a socket. A
socket is written out as follows: 10.50.1.1:80 Specific ports (1-1024)
have been reserved for specific services, and are recognized as well-
known ports. Below is a table of several common TCP/UDP ports:
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IP has undergone several revisions. IP Version 4 (IPv4) is currently in
widespread deployment, but will eventually be replaced with IP Version
6 (IPv6)
IPv4 Addressing
158.80.164.3
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Part of the above IP address identifies the network. The other part of
the address identifies the host
IP Address Classes
The IPv4 address space has been structured into several classes. The
value of the first octet of an address determines the class of the
network:
Address: 64.32.254.100
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Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
Class B networks range from 128 to 191. The default subnet mask is
255.255.0.0; thus, by default, the first two octets define the network,
and the last two octets define the host. This results in a maximum of
16,384 Class B networks, with 65,534 hosts per network.
Address: 152.4.12.195
Class C networks range from 192 to 223. The default subnet mask is
255.255.255.0; thus, by default, the first three octets define the
network, and the last octet defines the host. This results in a maximum
of 2,097,152 Class C networks, with 254 hosts per network.
Address: 207.79.233.6
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of the IPv4 address space to be private, to temporarily alleviate this
problem.
• Class A - 10.x.x.x
• Class B - 172.16-31.x.x
• Class C - 192.168.x.x
Two other ranges, while not considered “private,” have been reserved
for specific use:
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• 127.x.x.x - reserved for diagnostic purposes. One such
addresses (127.0.0.1), identifies the local host, and is referred to
as the loopback or localhost address.
Type ncpa.cpl in the box, and then press OK. Select the local
area connection, right click it and select Properties. Select
Internet Protocol Version 4(TCP/IPv4), double click it or click
Properties. There are two ways to configure the
TCP/IP Properties, Assigned by DHCP server automatically or
manually.
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Assigned by DHCP server
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Static IP address assign
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Objectives
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Conclusion
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Bibliography
1, MSC IT Book
2, Online help
3, Aaron Balchunas
THANK YOU FOR YOUR VALUABLE TIME SPENT TO VIEW THIS PROJECT.
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