Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

3. ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF WATER

THROUGH SOILS

From the discussions in the previous chapter, we have seen that water changes the soil states in
fine-grained soils; the greater the water content the weaker it is. Soils are porous materials due
to the presence of interconnected void spaces between the solid grains. Hence, particle sizes
and the structural arrangement of the particles influence the rate of flow.

Water can cause instability and many geotechnical structures such as roads, bridges, dams and
excavations have failed due to instability induced by flow of water. It is therefore necessary to
estimate the quantity of underground seepage under various hydraulic conditions, for
investigating problems involving the pumping of water for underground construction, and for
making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining structures that are subject to
seepage forces.

The key physical property that governs flow of water in soils is permeability. Prior to
discussing permeability in detail, we should first note the following key terms:

• Groundwater is water under the influence of gravity that fills the soil particles.

• Head is the mechanical energy per unit weight.

• Hydraulic conductivity (otherwise referred to as the coefficient of permeability) is a

proportionality constant to determine the flow velocity of water through soils.

GROUNDWATER

If we dig a hole into a soil mass that has all the voids filled with water, we will observe water
filling the hole upto a certain level. This water level is called groundwater level or groundwater
table and exists under a hydrostatic condition. A hydrostatic condition occurs when there is no
flow; i.e. the flow is zero. The top of the groundwater level is under atmospheric pressure. We
will denote the ground water level by the symbolT.

HEAD

From basic fluid mechanics, we know that, according to Bernoulli’s equation, the total head at
a point in water under motion can be given by the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation
heads, or

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

u v2
h= + +Z
γw 2g
where h = total head
u = water pressure
v = velocity
Z = elevation head or vertical distance of a given point above or below a datum plane

For flow of water through soil, the seepage velocity is very small and can be neglected. The
total head at any point can thus be adequately represented by
u
h= +Z
γw
The figure below shows the relationship among pressure, elevation, and total heads for the
flow of water through soil. Open stand pipes known as piezometers are installed at the two
points. The levels to which water rises in the piezometer tubes situated at the two points are
known as the piezometric level of their respective point. The pressure head at a point is the
height of the vertical column of water in the piezometer installed at that point.

As water flows thorough a soil media as depicted in the figure, there will be a head loss
between the two points. This head loss can be given by
⎛ uA ⎞ ⎛ uB ⎞
⎜
∆h = hA – hB = ⎜ + Z ⎟
A⎟ − ⎜
⎜γ + Z ⎟
B⎟
γ
⎝ w ⎠ ⎝ w ⎠

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Darcy (1856) proposed that average flow velocity through soils is proportional to the gradient
of the total head. The flow in any direction, j, is
dH
vj = kj
dx j
Where v is the average flow velocity, k is a coefficient of proportionality called the hydraulic
conductivity (sometimes called the coefficient of permeability), and dH is the change in total
head over a distance dx. The unit of measurement for k is length/time, and it is usually
expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in SI units. With reference to the previous figure, Darcy’s law
becomes
∆h
v=k = ki
L
Where i = ∆h/L is the hydraulic gradient. Darcy’s law is valid for all soils if the flow is
laminar, i.e. where Reynold’s number is less than 2000. Turbulent flow conditions may exist in
very coarse sands and gravels, and Darcy’s law may not be valid for these materials. However,
uner a low hydraulic gradient, laminar flow conditions usually exist.

The average velocity calculated from the previous equation is for the cross-sectional area
normal to the direction of flow. Flow through soils, however, occurs only through the
interconnected voids. The velocity through the void spaces is called the seepage velocity (vs)
and is obtained by dividing the average velocity by the porosity of the soil:
kj
vs = i
n
The volume rate of flow, q, is the product of the average velocity and the cross-sectional area:
q = vA = Aki

The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors: fluid viscosity, pore-size
distribution, grain-size distribution, void ratio, roughness of mineral particles, and degree of
saturation. The value of hydraulic conductivity varies widely for various soils. Some typical
values for saturated soils are given in the table below. The hydraulic conductivity of
unsaturated soils is lower and increases rapidly with the degree of saturation.
Soil type k (cm/sec)
Clean gravel 102 – 1.0
Coarse sand 1.0 – 10-2
Fine sand 10-2 – 10-3
Silty clay 10-3 – 10-5
Clay <10-6

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

Various researchers have proposed several empirical equations for estimating the hydraulic
conductivity of soils.

For fairly uniform sand, i.e. for sand with a small uniformity coefficient, Hazen (1930)
proposed and empirical relationship for hydraulic conductivity in the form
k = c D210
where k = coefficient of permeability in cm/sec
c = a constant varying from 1.0 to 1.5 (usually taken to be 1.0)
D10 = effective size in mm

This equation is based on Hazen’s observations of loose, clean, filter sands. A small quantity of
silts and clays, when present in a sandy soil, may change the hydraulic conductivity
substantially.

Other empirical relationships have also been suggested by various individuals and institutions.
One has to be extremely cautious in using empirical relationships for k because it is very
sensitive to changes in void ratio, pore size, and homogeneity of the actual soil mass.

LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of soil – the
constant-head test and the falling-head test.

CONSTANT-HEAD TEST

The constant head test is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of coarse-grained soils.
A typical constant-head test arrangement is shown below. In this test, water supply at the inlet
is adjusted in such a way that the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains
constant during the test period. After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a
graduated cylinder for a known duration.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

The total volume of water collected may be expressed as

Q = Avt = A(ki)t
where Q = volume of water collected
A = area of cross-section of the soil specimen
t = duration of water collection

And since i = ∆h/L = h/L for this test, where L is the length of the specimen (height),
Q = Akht/L
or
QL
k=
Aht
The viscosity of the fluid, which is a function of temperature, influences the value of k. It is
customary to express the value of k at a temperature of 20ºC. The experimental value (kTºC) is
corrected to this baseline temperature of 20ºC using the following relationship.
⎛η ⎞
k 20°C = ⎜⎜ T °C ⎟⎟kT °C
⎝ η 20°C ⎠
where kTºC = hydraulic conductivity at the test temperature
η20ºC and ηTºC = viscosity water at 20ºC and the test temperature respectively
The ratio ηTºC / η20ºC can be calculated from,

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

ηTºC / η20ºC = 2.42 – 0.475ln (T)

FALLING-HEAD TEST

Due to low hydraulic conductivity of fine-grained soils, it will take a considerable time to
obtain reasonable discharge volume using the constant-head test. It is therefore customary to
use the falling-head test for such materials. A typical arrangement of the falling-head
permeability test is shown below.

During this test water from the standpipe flows through the soil. The head of water (h) changes
with time as flow occurs through the soil. At different times the head of water is recorded. Let
dh be the drop in head over a time period dt. The velocity or rate of head loss in the tube is
dh
v=−
dt
The rate of flow of water through the specimen at any time to can be given by
h dh
q=k A = −a
L dt

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

where q = flow rate

a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
A = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
Rearranging the equation gives,
aL ⎛ dh ⎞
dt = ⎜− ⎟
Ak ⎝ h ⎠
Integration of the left side of this equation with limits of time from 0 to t and the right side with
limits of head difference from h1 to h2 gives
aL ⎛ h1 ⎞
t= ln⎜ ⎟ .
Ak ⎜⎝ h2 ⎟⎠
or
aL ⎛h ⎞
k = 2.303 log10 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
At ⎝ h2 ⎠

EQUIVALENT HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN STRATIFIED SOIL

In stratified soil deposits where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a given direction
changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity can be computed to simplify
calculations. Two cases of flow shall be considered here.

i. FLOW PARALLEL TO STRATIFICATION

When the flow is parallel to the soil layer, the hydraulic gradient is the same at all points. The
flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to the sum of the flow through each of the

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

layers. There is a similarity here with the flow of electricity through resistors in parallel. If we
consider a unit width perpendicular of flow, then flow rate is given by:

q = v ·1 · H
= v1 · 1 · H1 + v2 · 1 · H2 + v3 · 1 · H3 + · · · + vn · 1 · Hn
where v = average discharge velocity
v1, v2, v3, · · ·, vn = discharge velocities of flow in layers
It thus follows that
k H ( eq )ieq H = k H1i1H1 + k H 2 i2 H 2 + k H3 i3 H 3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + k H n in H n
Since ieq = i1 = i2 = i3 = · · · = in ,

k H ( eq ) =
1
H
(
k H1 H 1 + k H 2 H 2 + k H 3 H 3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + k H n H n )
ii. FLOW PARALLEL TO STRATIFICATION

When the flow is perpendicular to stratification, the head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the
head losses in each of the layers. The velocity of flow through all the layers is the same. The
analogy to electricity is flow of current through resistors in series.

v = v 1 = v 2 = v 3 = · · · + vn
h = h1 + h2 + h3 + · · · + hn

Using Darcy’s law these equations can be rewritten as,

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

⎛h⎞
kV ( eq ) ⎜ ⎟ = kV1 i1 = kV2 i2 = kV3 i3 = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ = kVn in
⎝H⎠
h = H1i1 + H 2i2 + H 3i3 + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + H nin

Solving these two equations for the equivalent hydraulic conductivity,

H
kV ( eq ) =
⎛ H1 ⎞ ⎛ H 2 ⎞ ⎛ H 3 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ +⎜ H n ⎟
⎜ k V ⎟ ⎜ kV ⎟ ⎜ kV ⎟ ⎜ kV ⎟
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ n ⎠

PERMEABILITY TEST IN THE FIELD BY PUMPING FROM WELLS

In the field the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the direction of flow can be
determined by performing pumping tests from wells. This process involves pumping water at a
constant flow rate from a test well and measuring the decrease in groundwater level at
observation wells. We shall discuss the case of both unconfined and confined aquifers.

a. UNCONFINED AQUIFER

The figure below shows a case where the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic conductivity
has to be determined, is unconfined and underlain by an impermeable layer. During the test,
water is pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has a perforated casing. Several
observation wells at various radial distances are made around the test well.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in the observation well are made
after the start of pumping, until a steady state is reached. The steady state is established when
the water level in the test and observation wells becomes constant.

Let dh be the drop in the total head over a distance dr. Then the hydraulic gradient is then
i = dh/dr

The area of flow at a radial distance r from the center of the pumping well is
A = 2πrh

Where h is the thickness of an elemental volume of the pervious layer.

From Darcy’s law, the flow rate is
q = 2πrh k (dh/dr)

We need to rearrange the above equation and integrate it between the limits r1 and r2, and h1
and h2:
r1dr ⎛ 2πk ⎞ h1
∫r2 r = ⎜⎜⎝ q ⎟⎟⎠∫h2 hdh
Thus,
⎛r ⎞
2.303q log10 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
k= ⎝ r2 ⎠
(
π h12 − h22 )
b. CONFINED AQUIFER

The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be determined by
conducting a pumping test from a well with perforated casing that penetrates the full depth of
the aquifer and by observing the piezometer level in a number of observation wells at various
radial distances. Pumping is continued at a uniform rate q until a steady state is reached.

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Soil Mechanics-I(CENG-2202) Chapter 3 : Permeability

Because water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of thickness H, the steady state of
discharge is

q = 2πrH k (dh/dr)

or

r1 dr h1 2πkH
∫r2 r
=∫
h2 q
dh

This gives the hydraulic conductivity in the direction of flow as

⎛r ⎞
q log10 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
k= ⎝ r2 ⎠
2.727 H (h1 − h2 )

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