Soil Mechanics(CENG-2202) Chapter 2 : Simple Soil Properties

2. SIMPLE SOIL PROPETIES

2.1 WEIGHT-VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
It is often required of the geotechnical engineer to collect, classify and investigate soil samples.
Be it for design of foundations or in calculations of earthwork volumes, determination of soil
type and physical soil parameters are routinely encountered in practice.
Soil parameters are determined by relating the constituents of the sample. We have seen that
soils are uncemented or weakly-cemented accumulation of mineral particles with void spaces
between the particles filled with air and/or water. As a result, soils are three-phase systems
consisting of solids, water, and air. The weight-volume interrelationships between these phases
are important in understanding the behavior of a given soil sample.
The three-phase system of a given soil sample can be represented by the block diagram shown
in Figure 2.1.

Air Va

Vv

Ww Water Vw
V

W
Ws Solid Vs

Figure 2.1 Three phases of a soil element

The total volume of the soil sample as shown in Figure 2.1 can be expressed as
V = V s + Vv = V s + V w + V a (2.1)
Where V = total volume of soil
Vs = volume of solids
Vv = volume of voids
Vw = volume of water in the voids
Va = volume of air in the voids
Since the weight of the air in the voids is negligible for practical uses, the total weight of the
sample is
W = Ws + Ww (2.2)

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University
Soil Mechanics(CENG-2202) Chapter 2 : Simple Soil Properties

Where W = weight of the sample

Ws = weight of solids
Ww = weight of water
Based on Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), many relations can be developed as discussed hereinafter.
The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil element are void ratio,
porosity, and degree of saturation.
• Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids, i.e.
V
e= v (2.3)
Vs
Void ratio is usually expressed as a decimal quantity.
• Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of soil, i.e.
V
n= v (2.4)
V
Porosity is usually expressed as a percentage.
• The degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the
volume of voids, or
V
S= w
Vv (2.5)
The degree of saturation of a soil is usually expressed as a percentage. If S=100%, the soil is
said to be saturated or fully saturated whereas if S=0 the soil is dry.
The relationship between void ratio and porosity can be easily derived from Eqs. (2.1), (2.3),
and (2.4) as follows:
⎛ Vv ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Vv Vv V n
e= = = ⎝ ⎠ =
Vs V − Vv ⎛V ⎞ 1− n
1− ⎜ v ⎟
⎝V ⎠
n
Thus e = (2.6)
1− n
e
or n= (2.7)
1+ e

The commonest weight relationships including weights of constituents of the three phase
system are moisture content, also called water content, and unit weight.
• Moisture content (w) is defined as the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of
solids in a given volume of soil.
W
w= w (2.8)
Ws

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University
Soil Mechanics(CENG-2202) Chapter 2 : Simple Soil Properties

The moisture content of a soil is found in the laboratory by weighing a sample of soil and
placing it in an oven at 110±5ºC until a constant weight is achieved; that is, until all pore-water
is driven out. For most soils this process completes in about 24hrs. The soil is then removed
from the oven, cooled and then weighed. The difference between the original mass and the
final mass after oven-drying is the mass of water that evaporated. The final mass is the mass of
soil solids only which completes the process.
• Unit weight (γ), also known as moist or bulk unit weight is defined as the weight of soil
per unit volume, i.e.
W
γ = (2.9)
V
If we further expand the above Equation,
⎡ ⎛ W ⎞⎤
Ws ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ w ⎟⎟⎥
W W + Ww
γ = = s = ⎣ ⎝ Ws ⎠⎦ = Ws (1 + w) (2.10)
V V V V
W
• Part of the last equation, i.e. s is what is known as the dry unit weight, γd. Thus,
V
W
γd = s (2.11)
V
The dry unit weigh is often used to solve earthwork problems since in such instances it is
necessary to know the weight per unit volume of soil, excluding water.
Substituting Eq. (2.11) into Eq. (2.10) and rearranging, we obtain,
γ
γd = (2.12)
1+ w
Since unit weight is expressed in kilo Newtons per cubic meter (kN/m3), it may sometimes be
convenient to work with mass density (ρ) of soil expressed as kilograms per cubic meter
(kg/m3). We can therefore write Eqs. (2.9) and (2.11) as,
M
ρ= (2.13)
V
M
ρd = s (2.14)
V
where ρ = bulk density of soil (kg/m3)
ρd = dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M = total mass of soil sample (kg)
Ms = mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)
V = total volume of the sample (m3)
• Saturated unit weight (γsat) is the bulk unit weight of the soil when it is fully saturated.
W
γ sat= sat (2.15)
V

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University
Soil Mechanics(CENG-2202) Chapter 2 : Simple Soil Properties

• Submerged unit weight (γsub or γ') is defined as the unit weight of saturated soil (γsat)
minus unit weight of water. It is thus the unit weight of saturated soil, surrounded by
water, per unit volume of soil.
γ sub= γ sat − γ w (2.16)
Some common soil types with typical values of unit weights are presented in the table below.
Soil type γsat (kN/m3) γd (kN/m3)
Gravel 20-22 15-17
Sand 18-20 13-16
Silt 18-20 14-18
Clay 16-22 14-21

• Specific gravity of solids (Gs) is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of solids to the
unit weight of water at 4˚C. In other words, it is the ratio of the weight of solids to the
weight of water of equal volume. This physical quantity is often required for various
calculations in soil mechanics.
γs
Gs = (2.17)
γw
The specific gravity of most soils falls between 2.6 and 2.9 and in most situations it could be
assumed to be equal to 2.7 with little margin of error. The unit weight of water is usually taken
to be 9.81kN/m3.
The lab apparatuses required to determine the specific gravity of soil are shown below.

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University
Soil Mechanics(CENG-2202) Chapter 2 : Simple Soil Properties

During the specific gravity test, the first step is to weigh the pyconometer and record the value
as m1. Then we place a small quantity of soil inside the pycnometer and weigh the pycnometer
with the soil and record this mass as m2.Some de-aired water is added to the soil in the
pycnometer. The pycnometer is then agitated to remove air bubbles from the soil voids. When
all bubbles have been removed the pycnometer is filled completely with de-aired water. The
mass of pycnometer, soil and water is determined and recorded as m3. The soil and water are
removed from the pycnometer and the container is thoroughly cleaned. De-aired water is added
to fill the pycnometer and the mass of the pycnometer and water is determined. Let this masse
be m4. The mass of dry soil is then
ms = m2 – m1
The mass of water displaced by soil solids is m5 = m4 – m3 + ms
The specific gravity of solids is then Gs = ms/m5
• Relative density (Dr) is commonly used to describe the in situ denseness or looseness of
granular soil. It is defined as
e −e
Dr = max (2.18)
emax − emin
Where Dr = relative density, usually given as a percentage
e = in situ void ratio of the soil
emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state obtained in the lab by pouring dry
soil into a mould of volume 2830cc using a funnel.
emin = void ratio of the soil in the densest state obtained by vibrating the soil
with a weight imposing a vertical stress of 13.8kPa for 8 minutes at a frequency
of 3600Hz and amplitude of 0.064mm.
The values of Dr may vary from a minimum of 0% for very loose soil to amaximum of 100%
for very dense soils. Soil engineers qualitatively describe granular soil deposits according to
their relative densities as shown in the following table.
Relative density (%) Description of soil deposit
0-15 Very loose
15-50 Loose
50-70 Medium
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense

Using Eqs. (2.1) through (2.17), one can derive different inter-relationships.

a) Relationship between e, S, w, and G

eS = wG (2.19)
b) Relationship between γ , Gs, and e

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University
Soil Mechanics(CENG-2202) Chapter 2 : Simple Soil Properties

(1 + w) G s γ w
γ = (2.20)
1+ e
Gγ
γd = s w (2.21)
1+ e
(G s + e) γ w G γ (1 + w)
γ sat = = s w for S = 100% (2.22)
1+ e 1 + wG s
(G s − 1) γ w γ w (G s − 1)
γ sub = = (2.23)
1+ e 1 + wG s
c) Relationship among γ, n, and w
γ d = G s γ w (1 − n) (2.24)
γ = G s γ w (1 − n)(1 + w) (2.25)
γ sat = [(1 − n)G s + n]γ w (2.26)
n
w= for S =100% (2.27)
(1 − n)G s

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Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Technology

Addis Ababa University