Rules of Inference

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Today’s Menu
Rules of Inference
• Quantifiers: Universal and Existential
• Nesting of Quantifiers
• Applications

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Old Example Re-Revisited
Our Old Example:
• Suppose we have:
“All human beings are mortal.”
“Sachin is a human being.”
• Does it follow that “Sachin is mortal?”
Solution:
• Let H(x): “x is a human being.”
• Let M(x): “x is mortal.”
• The domain of discourse U is all human beings.
• “All human beings are mortal.” translates to x (H(x)  M(x))
“Sachin is a human being.” translates to H(Sachin)
• Therefore, for H(Sachin)  M(Sachin) to be true it must be
the case that M(Sachin).

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Arguments in Propositional Logic
• A argument in propositional logic is a sequence of propositions.
• All but the final proposition are called premises. The last
statement is the conclusion.
• The argument is valid if the premises imply the conclusion.
• An argument form is an argument that is valid no matter what
propositions are substituted into its propositional variables.
• If the premises are p1 ,p2, …,pn and the conclusion is q then
(p1 ∧ p2 ∧ … ∧ pn ) → q is a tautology.
• Inference rules are all argument simple argument forms that will
be used to construct more complex argument forms.

Next, we will discover some useful inference rules!

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 Modus Ponens or Law of Detachment
(Modus Ponens = mode that affirms)

p
Corresponding Tautology:
pq (p ∧ (p →q)) → q
∴q Proof using Truth Table: p q p →q
T T T
Example: T F F
Let p be “It is snowing.” F T T
Let q be “I will study discrete math.” F F T

“If it is snowing, then I will study discrete math.”

“It is snowing.”

“Therefore , I will study discrete math.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Modus Tollens
aka Denying the Consequent

¬q
pq Corresponding Tautology:
(¬q ∧(p →q))→¬p
∴ ¬p
Proof using Truth Table: p q p →q
T T T
Example:
T F F
Let p be “it is snowing.”
F T T
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”
F F T

“If it is snowing, then I will study discrete math.”

“I will not study discrete math.”

“Therefore , it is not snowing.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Hypothetical Syllogism
aka Transitivity of Implication or Chain Argument

pq
Corresponding Tautology:
qr ((p →q) ∧ (q→r))→(p→r)
∴pr
Example:
Let p be “it snows.”
Let q be “I will study discrete math.”
Let r be “I will get an A.”

“If it snows, then I will study discrete math.”

“If I study discrete math, I will get an A.”

“Therefore , If it snows, I will get an A.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Disjunctive Syllogism
aka Disjunction Elimination or OR Elimination

p ∨q Corresponding Tautology:
¬p ((p ∨q) ∧ ¬p) → q
∴q
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math or I will study English literature.”

“I will not study discrete math.”

“Therefore , I will study English literature.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Addition
aka Disjunction Introduction

p Corresponding Tautology:
∴ (p ∨q) p →(p ∨q)

Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will visit Las Vegas.”

“I will study discrete math.”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math or I will visit Las Vegas.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Simplification
aka Conjunction Elimination

p ∧q Corresponding Tautology:
(p∧q) →p
∴p
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math and English literature”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Conjunction
aka Conjunction Introduction

p Corresponding Tautology:
q ((p) ∧ (q)) →(p ∧ q)

∴p∧q
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math.”

“I will study English literature.”

“Therefore, I will study discrete math and I will

study English literature.”
Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 Resolution
Resolution plays an important role in
p∨q Artificial Intelligence and is used in
¬p ∨ r the programming language Prolog.

∴q∨r Corresponding Tautology:

((p ∨ q) ∧ (¬p ∨ r )) →(q ∨ r)
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study databases.”
Let r be “I will study English literature.”

“I will study discrete math or I will study databases.”

“I will not study discrete math or I will study English literature.”

“Therefore, I will study databases or I will English literature.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 Proof by Cases
pq aka Disjunction Elimination

rq
Corresponding Tautology:
pr ((p  q) ∧ (r  q) ∧ (p  r ))  q
∴q
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study Computer Science.”
Let r be “I will study databases.”

“If I will study discrete math, then I will study Computer Science.”
“If I will study databases, then I will study Computer Science.”
“I will study discrete math or I will study databases.”

“Therefore, I will study Computer Science.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 Constructive Dilemma
pq Disjunction of modus ponens
rs
pr Corresponding Tautology:
∴qs ((p  q) ∧ (r  s) ∧ (p  r ))  (q  s )
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study computer science.”
Let r be “I will study protein structures.”
Let s be “I will study biochemistry.”

“If I will study discrete math, then I will study computer science.”
“If I will study protein structures, then I will study biochemistry.”
“I will study discrete math or I will study protein structures.”

“Therefore, I will study computer science or biochemistry.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 Destructive Dilemma
pq Disjunction of modus tollens
rs
Corresponding Tautology:
¬q  ¬s (p  q) ∧ (r  s) ∧ (¬q  ¬s )  (¬p  ¬r )
∴ ¬p  ¬r
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study computer science.”
Let r be “I will study protein structures.”
Let s be “I will study biochemistry.”

“If I will study discrete math, then I will study computer science.”
“If I will study protein structures, then I will study biochemistry.”
“I will not study computer science or I will not study biochemistry.”
“Therefore, I will not study discrete math
or I will not study protein structures.”
Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 Absorption
pq
q is absorbed by p in the conclusion!
∴ p  (p ∧q) Corresponding Tautology:
(p  q)  (p  (p ∧q))
Example:
Let p be “I will study discrete math.”
Let q be “I will study computer science.”

“If I will study discrete math, then I will study computer science.”

“Therefore, if I will study discrete math, then I will study

discrete mathematics and I will study computer science.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Building Valid Arguments

• A valid argument is a sequence of statements where each

statement is either a premise or follows from previous
statements (called premises) by rules of inference. The last
statement is called conclusion.
• A valid argument takes the following form:
Premise 1
Premise 2

Premise n
∴ Conclusion

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Valid Arguments

Example: From the single proposition

Show that q is a conclusion.

Solution:

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Valid Arguments
Example:
• With these hypotheses:
“It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.”
“We will go swimming only if it is sunny.”
“If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.”
“If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.”
• Using the inference rules, construct a valid argument for the conclusion:
“We will be home by sunset.”
Solution:
1. Choose propositional variables:
p : “It is sunny this afternoon.”
q : “It is colder than yesterday.”
r : “We will go swimming.”
s : “We will take a canoe trip.”
t : “We will be home by sunset.”
2. Translation into propositional logic:

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Valid Arguments

Remember you can also use truth table to show this albeit with 32 = 25 rows!
Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 How do we use quantifiers with rules
of inference?

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Universal Instantiation (UI)

Example:

Our domain consists of all students and Sachin is a student.

“All students are smart”

“Therefore, Sachin is smart.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Universal Generalization (UG)

Used often implicitly in Mathematical Proofs.

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Existential Instantiation (EI)

Example:

“There is someone who got an A in COMPSCI 230.”

“Let’s call her Amelie and say that Amelie got an A”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Existential Generalization (EG)

Example:

“Amelie got an A in the class.”

“Therefore, someone got an A in the class.”

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Old Example Re-Revisited
Our Old Example:
• Suppose we have:
“All human beings are mortal.”
“Sachin is a human being.”
• Does it follow that “Sachin is mortal?”
Solution:
• Let H(x): “x is a human being.”
• Let M(x): “x is mortal.”
• The domain of discourse U is all human beings.
• “All human beings are mortal.” translates to x H(x)  M(x)
“Sachin is a human being.” translates to H(Sachin)
To show: x (H(x)  M(x))
H(Sachin)
∴ M(Sachin)
Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05
 Old Example Re-Revisited
To show: x (H(x)  M(x))
H(Sachin)
∴ M(Sachin)

Step Valid Argument Reason

(1) x (H(x)  M(x)) Premise
(2) H(Sachin)  M(Sachin) Universal instantiation from (1)
(3) H(Sachin) Premise
(4) M(Sachin) Modus ponens from (2) and (3)

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Universal Modus Ponens

Universal modus ponens combines universal

instantiation and modus ponens into one rule.

x (P(x)→ Q(x))
P(a), where a is a particular element in the domain
∴ Q(a)

This is what our previous example used!

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 The Lewis Carroll Example Revisited
• Premises:
1. “All lions are fierce.”
2. “Some lions do not drink coffee.”
Conclusion: Can we conclude the following?
3. “Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”
• Let L(x): “x is a lion.” F(x): “x is fierce.” and C(x): “x drinks coffee.”
Then the above three propositions can be written as:
1. x (L(x)→ F(x))
2. x (L(x) ∧ ¬C(x))
3. x (F(x) ∧ ¬C(x))
• How to conclude 3 from 1 and 2?

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 The Lewis Carroll Example Revisited
1. x (L(x)→ F(x))
2. x (L(x) ∧ ¬C(x))
3. x (F(x) ∧ ¬C(x))
How to conclude 3 from 1 and 2?

1. x (L(x) ∧ ¬C(x)) Premise

2. L(Foo) ∧ ¬C(Foo) Existential Instantiation from (1)
3. L(Foo) Simplification from (2)
4. ¬C(Foo) Simplification from (2)
5. x (L(x)→ F(x)) Premise
6. L(Foo) → F(Foo) Universal instantiation from (5)
7. F(Foo) Modus ponens from (3) and (6)
8. F(Foo) ∧ ¬C(Foo) Conjunction from (4) and (7)
9. x (F(x) ∧ ¬C(x)) Existential generalization from (8)

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Example: Is Moo Carnivorous?
• Premises:
1. “If x is a lion, then x is carnivorous.”
2. “Moo is not carnivorous.”
Conclusion: Can we conclude the following?
3. “Moo is not a lion.”
• Let L(x): “x is a lion.” C(x): “x is carnivorous.”
• Then the above three propositions can be written as:
1. x (L(x)→ C(x))
2. ¬C(Moo)
3. ¬L(Moo)
• How to conclude 3 from 1 and 2?

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Example: Is Moo Carnivorous?
1. x (L(x)→ C(x))
2. ¬C(Moo)
3. ¬L(Moo)
How to conclude 3 from 1 and 2?

1. x (L(x)→ C(x)) Premise

2. L(Moo) → C(Moo) Universal instantiation from (1)
3. ¬C(Moo) Premise
4. ¬L(Moo) Modus tollens from (1) and (2)

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05

 Universal Modus Tollens

Universal modus tollens combines universal

instantiation and modus ponens into one rule.

x (P(x)→ Q(x))
¬Q(a), where a is a particular element in the domain
∴ ¬P(a)

This is what our previous example used!

Friday, January 18, 2013 Chittu Tripathy Lecture 05