4 Calculations using parabolic formula proper evaluation of sags and tensions is necessary at the design stage for fixing up the ruling span and structural require- ‘ments of line supports. During erection of the overhead lines, the sags and tensions to be allowed for various spans under the ambient conditions will also have to be properly evaluated, so that the lines may give long and trouble-free service. Vari- ‘ous methods, analytical and graphical, have been devised to determine the sags and tensions. Ifa flexible conductor, whose weight is distrib- uted uniformly along its length, is suspended be- tween two rigid supports at the same level and is in equilibrium, its contour: ‘lies along a curve which conforms quite closely to a catenary; the longer the span, the greater the degree of conformity. ‘The transmission line conductor is usually subjected to the following external forces: 1. a horizontal force due to wind pressure, 2. avertical force due tothe dead weight ofthe conductor, and 3. a vertical force due to the deposit of ice on the conductor (in areas subject to snow fall). If w is the weight of conductor per metre length (including the weight of ice deposit, if any) and p the horizontal force due to the wind pressure actingon the ice-coated conductor per metrelength, the resultant force q on the conductor per unit length is q= Vw +p ay and the catenary which lies in the plane of the resultant force is inclined to the vertical plane at an angle 0 which is given by the equation ‘Tan 6 z (42) 92 Transmission Line Structures Figure 4.1 represents a span of transmission line conductor strung between two points of supports A and B at the same elevation. The length, sag and tension of the conductor are given by the following catenary formulae: 2H ginp L = = sink (43) # (Cosh b = # (Cosh 35-1) a) #H aq A = (Cosh Sh) (4.5) Ty, 5 PobeG (4.6) where a = span AB, } = sagof the conductor at its lowest point with reference to the points of support, L = length of the conductor in span, T = tension at either point of support, and LH = horizontal tension at the lowest point O. For spans of the order of 300 metres and less, the above characteristics of the conductor are given with sufficient degree of accuracy by the following simpler parabolic formulae, which can be derived by expanding the hyperbolic functions in the above ‘equations in the form ofa series and neglecting all terms except the first two: : ag L tan aD 6 (4.8) r #H q +H 49) ‘The above parabolic formulae are generally used in sag and tension calculations except in the case of very long spans.Table 4.1 Sags calculated u: 9 catenary and parabolic methods Span in metres 122 183244 Sag in metres Catenary method = 1.09 2.32 3.97 Parabolic method 1.09 -2.32-3.97 305 457 610 762 6.08 13.12 23.02 35.87 6.04 13.05 2275 35.19 Table 4.1 shows the maximum sags for vari- ‘ous spans calculated by the two methods for a conductor (37/3.00mm SCA) used on 132 kV trans- mission lines under typical wind and temperature conditions. It will be seen that the sags calculated by the two methods are almost equal up to a span of 300 metres and that, as the span increases be- yond 300 metres, the error caused by using the parabolic method increases rapidly. Let us now use the parabolic formula for sag- tension calculations. Applying the parabolic equa- tion (4.7), we have at initial temperature f,, sas ou, Ly= 0+ Dane (4.10) Similarly, at final temperature ¢,, (4.11) Unstressed length of the conductor at temperature LA, t,=L,- “2 and the unstressed length of the EA Lit conductor at temperature f, = L,~ “27°. LH, = Li, Therefore (L,~ 75?) (+ at)=L,~ where @ = coefficient of linear expansion of the conductor per °C, t= ty~ty E modulus of elasticity of conductor, and A = area of cross-section of conductor. L- LH, 1 EA Thus (neglecting the product of at and oe from which we get, LH, 1,~L,+ Sth Substituting for L, and L, from equations (4.10) and (4.11) in equation (4.12) and simplifying, (4.12) H,-H, + hot EA ead eg at A, 24H? Neglecting products of small quantities, the above equation reduces to: SiG - m+ —ot=0 (4.13) Putting 8 f h @ @ = gw and simplifying, Equation (4.13) becomes ee - Simplifying, fe [p= (o~ 528% ate) £ Having determined the value of f, from the equa- tion (4.14), the sag can be found from the formula (4.8) which on simplification becomes 0Q, 8 S= (4.15) Example Find the conductor sag at 60°C by the parabolic method for the conductor with the data given below: Conductor span a 762m. Type = 37/3mm SCA Diameter Young's modulus Coefficient of linear } = 178% 104PC expansion Maximum design tension Worst loading condition at 4.4°C BBIKg Wind pressure at 4.4°C Weight/metre length Area Transmission Line Structures 93Wind load/metre run = 3 x 2.1 x 79g x 97.22 1.3679 Loading factor at | g = / 1.36" +(0.98F 4.4°C te 0.98 = 1.6997 Loading factor at | 60°C je Maximum working stress f, = 3.539 _ 1,355.93kg/em? Weight/metre/sq. em = = 0.37547 t= 604.4 = 55.6°C @Q,E ova 2B mie) |= 162! x 0.378 [#-A-- £7! x 1.6997 x 0.784 x 10° —fy- (1,355.93 — 24 x 1955.95" — 17.8 x 10x 55.6 x 0.784 x 109) = 762" x 0.87547? x 1x 0.784 x 10° 2 Solving by trial and error, f= TIAA Sag at 60°C in still air 162? x 0.37547 = Ben eetesl — 36.19m. Catenary formula for long spans ‘The sag and tension of a transmission line conduc- tor are subject to variations due to changes in temperature and loading. Changes in temperature will cause expansion or contraction of the conduc- tor, the former increasing the sag and decreasing the tension, and the latter vice versa. An increase in loading increases the conductor tension. This resultsin theelastiestretch of the conductor (which in turn reduces the tension to some extent). The problem thus gets complicated owing to the com- posite effects of changes in temperature and load- ing on the sags and tensions. Its solution is, how- ever, rendered possible by considering the vari- ations in sags and tensions which must simultane- ously satisfy the following condition, viz., the length of the conductor, as determined by the geometry of the catenary curve, which depends on the sag, must be equal to its length as determined by its elastic stretch due to the tension. The problem is thus reduced to the solution of two simultaneous equations, one relating the length of the conductor 94 Transmission Line Structures to the tension, as determined by the geometry of thecatenary curve, andanotherrelating the length of the conductor to the tension as determined by the elastic stretch. Ttis possible to find a solution to the above two simultaneous equations in a simple manner on the basis of the following assumptions: 1. Changes in the length of the conductor due tothe temperature variations are assumed totake place after the conductor is relieved of all stress, thus eliminating the compli- cated adjustment between change in the length due to the temperature variations and change in the stretch from the result- ing change in tension. 2. A fixed modulus of elasticity and a fixed coefficient of linear expansion are as- sumed for the conductor. Incalculating the stretch of the conductor due to its tension in the case of long spans, allowance should be made for the variation of tension from H to T along the length of the conductor, as a result of which different elements of the conductor are subjected to different amounts of stretch. Y y Figure 4.1 Transmission line conductor strung between two points Consider an element of length dL, at a dis- tance x along the span from the lowest point O in Figure 4.1 and let 7, be the conductor tension at this point. The stretch in dL, due to tension T, is given by de= dL, T, AEFrom the catenary equations of the span, L,= # sink G and T, = HCosh F a) He We have de = #5 (Cosh %) Of Cosh Sp. dx = FE Cosh? F ode ‘The total stretch of the conductor in the span is +3(EY sink F] 4.16) Equations (4.3), (4.4), (4.5) and (4.16) form the basis for determination of sags and tensions for long spans. ’ In these equations, 4 = Length factor, & . Sag factor, # = Tension factor, ga = Elongation factor, £ = Change in the length factor produced when the conductor is subjected to or freed from stress, and H aa [de + 3(Z) sion $F | = Streten factor It will be observed that, like the other factors, the stretch factor is also a definite function of the catenary curve and is, therefore, independent of the kind of conductor used. For given values of 4, the values of $y are obtained by solving equation (4.5), from which the sag factor, length factor and stretch factor are evaluated. Example Find the conductor sag at 60°C by the catenary method for the conductor with the data for the example at the start of this chapter. 762 m. 7/3 mam, SCA 1cm. = 0.784 x 10° kg/cm? Conductor span a Type Diameter ‘Young's modulus Coefficient of linear } = 178 x 10°C expansion Maximum design tension = 3,539 Worst loading condition at 4.4°C Wind pressure at 4.4°C 7.22 kg/m? Weight/metre length .98 kg/m Area 61 q, = Vi3679? + 0.98% —q, = 1.3679 = 16827211 kg/m. 1.682721 x 762 3,539 cosh LS 2H = 0,3623152 ae T zt aa” aa Salving by trial and error, 7 = 2.7139295 Stretch factor = = 2748444 Length factor = 1.056666 Reduction in length of wire caused by = 4S xstretch factor removal of load ~ at aaec 16827211 x 762 2.61 x 0.784 x 10° x2,7464844d = 0,001719999 ‘Therefore, unstressed} = Original length factor length factor at 4.4°CJ at 4.4°C — Reduction in length caused by removal of load = 1.0056666—0.001719999 0039466 Increase in length of wire due to rise of temperature to 60°C ot 17.8 x 10 x (60 - 4.4) 0.009896 ‘Therefore, unstressed length factor at 60°C = 1.0039466 + 0.0009896 = 10049363 Increase in length due to placing of load ae (due to dead weight of wire only) on unstressed wire = 1.3679 x 762__ 71 x 0.784 x 10° = 0.00050939 x final stretch factor x final stretch factor x final stretch factor Transmission Line Structures 95Figure 4.2 Transmission line conductor strung between two points at different levels = 1.049363 +0.0005093 x final stretch factor Therefore, length factor at 60°C _ = 10049363 + 0.0005093 x Lape + 2GEY sinh Gr Solving by trial and error, leo H qa 2.667 =H - Sag factor = #4 (cosh $F -1) = 0.047734 Substituting in equation (4.4), Sag = 35.87m. Calculations for unequal support levels If the supports A and B are not at the same level, the lowest point of the conductor does not lie at midspan. Rather it will divide / into two parts, namely, a and 6 (Figure 4.2). If h is the height of B above that of A, and S is the sag below the level of the shortest support, ZB from equation (4.8) s SR from equation (4.8) =h+s ‘Therefore, (h+8)-S= Za) from which h = #7 (6 +a)(6-a) then sag S, and Therefore, b-a = 2H (4.17) beat (4.18) 96 Transmission Line Structures Solving equations (4.17) and (4.18) above, ab ,Hh lly, fh = 2+ Rt = 2.7 ga a al Therefore, sag S = $8 = $ (- ay oe, fe Lh ors= Fs fe -3 (4.19) LengthofconductorAO = a+ 2 fromequation 4.7 =at+ Gea" aft Length of conductor BO = b + a ‘Total length, L = a+b + 2 (a3 +b%) oF +6%-ab) | Putting a = $- & ands = 5 +4, and sim- i al plifying (4.20) . Equation (4.20) is the same as equation (4.' Tif 25 is negligible, then the results will be the same as for supports at the same level. If, however, 5 is not negligible, and proceeding on the same lines as for supports at the same level, L LH, L,-L,+ Gat - Gq ~ atl, =0 (4.21) PRE aan? * 2 from equation Substituting L, =2+ (4.10) PRE we ' + ™ from equation pti oA (4.11) and L,=1+and neglecting products of small quantities, the above equation reduces to 28% 25 2 ap 4 (+ e) and f;:[f,-(K- aE) = 8 op Peq:E op 24 FP ww) (4.23a) where K =f, — Calculating f, from equation (4.23) above, the sag can then be found from the formula afin, A A i =a + ada 7 Z fromequation (4.19) Co-ordination of sags ‘The spacing required between the ground wires and conductors at midspan to ensure that a light- ning stroke which hits the ground wire does not flashover to the conductor, is referred to as the midspan spacing. As a rule, from the lightning protection point of view, the ground wire is strung with a lesser sag (by about 10-15 percent) than the conductor soastogiveamidspan separation greater than at the supports. Certain steps are involved in determining the midspan spacing which, while satisfying the re- quirements of factors of safety under the worst condition and the everyday condition, results also in economical tower configuration. This is best il- lustrated by taking a specific example. Example Span = 330m Wind pressure = 52 kg/m* ‘Temperature variation = 4.4°C to 60°C Everyday temperature = 32.2°C Conduetor Type: 37/3.00mm SCA conductor Ultimate tensile stress, f,: 3,500kg/em? Diameter, D: 0.021m Young's modulus of elasticity, E: 0.784 x 10° kg/cm? Coefficient of linear expansion, «= 17.8 x 104°C Cross-sectional area, A = 2.61sq. em Weight/metre, w = 0.98kg/m Ground wire ‘Type: 7/4.06mm of 110.5kg/mm? quality steel Ultimate tensile stress, f,: 11,050kg/em? Diameter, D = 0.012m ‘Young's modulus of elasticity, E: 1.938 x 10° kg/em? Coefficient of linear expansion, a= 11.5 x 10°/°C Cross-sectional area, A = 0.906 sq. em Weight/metre, w = 0.753 kg/m Tension f, in the conductor corresponding to the factor of safety (£.0.s.) of two under the worst condition of minimum temperature (4.4°C) and wind is given by f, = 3822 = 1,750kg/em’, Calculate the tension f, in the conductor corre- sponding to the everyday condition of 32.2°C tem- perature and still air. 8= 4 = 28 -0375 Wind load per metre, p = 52 x 0.021 = 092 Loading factorQ, = [098+ 1.092" _ = 058 Loading factor, = 1.00 (since p = 0) -761 Substituting in equations (4.14) and solving, we get fy = 1,294.72kg/em’ Factor of safety available under everyday condi- tion is therefore f. 8,500 fF ~ 1204.78 = 2.703 which is inade- quate, being less than the permissible value of 4. ‘Therefore, repeat the calculation for everyday condition with an assumed factor of safety of 4. f= 5.00 = 875kg/em? Substituting this value of f, in equation (4.14) and solving, we get f, = 1,286.84kg/em? 3500.00 Ppear 7279 Having fixed the stress f,, the conductor sags at all the selected temperatures and still air are worked out and are given in Table 4.2, column 3. Likewise, in the case of the ground wire, start- ing with the f.o.s. of 4 under the everyday condi- tion, the tension f, under the worst condition gives af.o.s.of3.206. On this basis, the tensions and sags at other selected temperature’ and still air are calculated (Table 4.2, column 4). It is observed that the ground wire sag is 26.5 percent to 31.6 percent less than that of the con- ‘The corresponding fo. Transmission Line Structures 97