S

Stoicism and Food person’s character as good or bad. Thus, under-

standing the purpose of food, the necessity of
William O. Stephens frugality, and the virtue of temperance are all
Department of Philosophy, Creighton University, important in Stoicism.
Omaha, NE, USA Stoicism was the most important and influen-
tial school of Hellenistic philosophy. It became
the foremost philosophy among the educated elite
Keywords in Greece and Rome. Stoicism exerted a profound
Fear; Virtue; Nature; Animal; Hunger; Vege- influence on Christianity and a pervasive impact
tarian; Frugality on the history of western philosophy and culture
through the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and
up to modern times. The history of the ancient
Synonyms Stoa is typically divided into the early (Zeno
through Antipater), middle (Panaetius and
Abstaining from animal food; Roman Stoics; Posidonius), and late (Roman) periods. Since the
Stoics and food; Vegetarianism vast bulk of the surviving texts about Stoicism
come from the late period, the Roman Stoics’
views about food will dominate here.
Introduction

The ancient Stoics believed that virtue is the only The Early Stoics
true good and as such both necessary and suffi-
cient for happiness. Accordingly, they classified Around 301 BCE, after being stranded by ship-
food as among the things that are neither good nor wreck, Zeno of Citium, a merchant from the isle of
bad but indifferent. These indifferents included Cyprus, began philosophizing in the Painted Col-
health, illness, wealth, poverty, good and bad rep- onnade (Stoa) of the great piazza of ancient Ath-
utation, life, death, pleasure, and pain. How one ens. The members of the school he founded were
deals with having or lacking these things reflects called Stoics. To help illustrate the art of living
one’s virtue or vice and thus determines one’s described by this philosophy, the early Stoics
happiness or misery. So, while the Stoics held developed a model of the perfect human being
that food in itself contributes nothing to a person’s called the wise man or sage. The sage represented
happiness, how one obtains, prepares, and serves a theoretical ideal which aspiring Stoics could
it, and both what and how one eats, all reveal a strive to approach. One of the few surviving
# Springer Science+Business Media B.V., part of Springer Nature 2018
P. B. Thompson, D. M. Kaplan (eds.), Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural Ethics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6167-4_636-1
2 Stoicism and Food

sources on the early Stoics, Diogenes Laertius intellectual of Rome in the mid-first century
(D.L.), reports that the Stoics attributed many CE. Born to a wealthy family in Cordoba, Spain,
perfections to the sage. They said the sage will he pursued a career in politics and law in Rome. In
never form mere opinions, will never assent to 41 CE, emperor Claudius charged Seneca with
anything false, is infallible, does all things well, committing adultery with Claudius’ niece and
and does no harm to others or to himself. banished him to the island of Corsica. After Clau-
D.L. adds that the Stoics say that the sage “will dius was murdered in 54 CE, Seneca and his
even turn cannibal under stress of circumstances” friends grew powerful. He became tutor and then
(Laertius 1925, vii. 121). Such circumstances adviser to the emperor Nero. In 65 CE, his ene-
could perhaps have been during a siege, for exam- mies accused him of being an accomplice in the
ple, when starvation would be the only alternative conspiracy of Piso to murder Nero. Ordered to
to anthropophagy. The idea seems to be that the commit suicide, Seneca met death with courage
sage would infallibly recognize those (rare) cir- and calm. His vast wealth colored his perspective
cumstances in which eating human flesh would be on food.
wise. Thus, the early Stoics evidently believed Seneca is clear that the purpose of food is to
that cannibalism is not absolutely prohibited for relieve, not arouse, hunger (Seneca 2015,
the wise. 95.15–18). He argues that a human being’s frontal
Chrysippus, the third head of the Stoa, suppos- part is virtue itself, whereas the unserviceable and
edly reasoned that since the body is of as little unstable flesh attached to it is a mere repository
importance to us as our nails or hair, it requires for food (Seneca 2015, 92.10). Seneca believes
minimal attention, and so we should use the sim- that virtue calls for limiting our wants to our basic
plest method to bury our parents when they die. If needs. Our needs are established by nature, and
human flesh is useful as food, he argued, then nature desires nothing except a meal. Hunger, he
people should make use of it. Our amputated infers, is not ambitious. Hunger is satisfied to stop,
limbs should not be buried or discarded but rather and it does not much care what makes it stop.
eaten so that they will give being to our other parts Once hunger is stopped, only the torments of a
(Avramescu 2003). If a motive implicit in wretched self-indulgence look for ways to stimu-
Chrysippus’ view of anthropophagy is to con- late hunger after it is sated. Thus, only the vice of
serve edible food and avoid waste, then he shares self-indulgence drives a person to keep stuffing
the value of frugality with the Roman Stoics. his filled stomach (Seneca 2015, 119.13–14).
By comparing the size of human beings to
those of larger animals, Seneca reasons that we
The Stoics of the Roman Empire can and should feed ourselves more easily than
they do. “Has nature given us such an insatiable
Food and banquets were highly significant in maw that although the bodies we are given are of
Roman culture, religion, literature, and law. modest size, we yet surpass the largest, most rav-
Roman sumptuary laws regulated and reinforced enous eaters of the animal world? That is not the
social hierarchies and moral norms by restricting case, for how small are our natural requirements!
food, clothing, and luxury expenditures, often It takes only a little to satisfy nature’s demands. It
according to a person’s social rank. Accordingly, is not bodily hunger that runs up the bill but
the Roman Stoics praised frugality, simplicity, ambition. Therefore let us regard those who, as
self-control, and strategic abstinence, while Sallust says, ‘heed the belly’ as belonging to the
condemning indulgence and worries about either race of animals rather than of humans” (Seneca
eating or starving. 2015, 60.3–4). Ambition causes vicious eating,
and to eat viciously is to degenerate from a
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (c. 4 BCE to 65 CE) human being into a beast. Thus, Seneca advises
The philosopher, statesman, orator, tragedian, and indulging the body only to the extent that suffices
satirist Seneca the Younger was the leading for health. One must deal sternly with one’s body,
Stoicism and Food 3

lest it fail to obey one’s mind. “Let food be for of scourging the sea? All about us lie the foods
appeasing hunger, drink for satisfying thirst” which nature has made available in every place;
(Seneca 2015, 8.5). but these people pass them by as if blind, and they
Food is more welcome to one who is hungry roam through every country, they cross the seas,
(Seneca 2015, 78.22). Thus, it is wise to know and though they could allay their hunger at a
when to stop eating and drinking, as nonhuman trifling cost, they excite it at great expense”
animals do (Seneca 2015, 59.13). We ought to eat (Seneca 2014, Helv. 10.5). Exotic seafoods and
moderately (Seneca 2015, 114.26–27), not greed- mushrooms require great time, effort, and
ily (Seneca 2015, 94.22). Seneca believes that resources to obtain. Garum requires much time,
meals ought to be eaten during the customary labor, and resources to produce and import. So,
times of the day (Seneca 2015, 122.9–10) and in Seneca condemns all such foods as decadent
the company of others. He recommends reflecting luxuries.
carefully beforehand with whom you are to eat In contrast, he praises Gaius Fabricius
and drink, rather than what you are to eat and Luscinus for happily dining on those very roots
drink, for feeding without a friend is the life of a and grasses he picked clearing his fields. “Would
lion or a wolf (Seneca 2015, 19.10). he have been happier if he had crammed into his
Seneca notes that luxurious eating causes belly fish from distant shores, and exotic birds? If
many complex, manifold diseases and disorders. he had roused his slow and sickened stomach with
He criticizes gourmandizing and fancy foods like shellfish from the upper and lower [Adriatic and
mushrooms, delicately prepared oysters, mussels, Tyrrhenian] seas? If he had arrayed a huge pile of
sea urchins, garum (fermented fish sauce), and fruits around highly sought-after beasts caught at
filleted, deboned mullets (Seneca 2015, great loss of hunters’ lives?” (Seneca 2014, Prov.
95.25–29). Seneca reports that he abstains from 3.6). Importing foods from afar is entirely unnec-
eating oysters and mushrooms because “These are essary, and hunting dangerous animals is reckless
not food; they are only tidbits meant to entice because locally grown crops are readily available.
those who are full to eat some more (which is Thus, only wasteful, dissipated fools demand
what the glutton wants, to stuff himself beyond exotic, imported foods.
capacity), for they go down easily, and come back Seneca believes that the needs of the body
up easily too” (Seneca 2015, 108.15). greatly outnumber the needs of the mind. “For
The most shameful scourge that assails for- the body needs many things in order to thrive,
tunes is the kitchen (Seneca 1989, Ben. 1.10.2). but the mind grows by itself, feeds itself, trains
Seneca deplores spending lots of money on deli- itself. Athletes require a great deal of food and
cacies. He tells the story of two men bidding drink, much oil, and lengthy exercises; but virtue
against each other to buy a 4½ lb mullet. The will be yours without any supplies or expenses.
winner paid the extravagant sum of 5000 sesterces Anything that can make you a good person is
for the fish (Seneca 2015, 95.42). Even worse, the already in your possession” (Seneca 2015, 80.3).
emperor Gaius Caesar demonstrated supreme vice The Stoics highly valued self-sufficiency. Seneca
combined with supreme power when he dined commends the mind’s pursuit of virtue because it
one day at the astronomical cost of ten million costs no money and requires no equipment,
sesterces (Seneca 2014, Helv. 10.4). “How whereas to build an athletic body requires much
wretched are the people whose appetite is stimu- food, drink, and time-consuming exercises. He
lated only by costly foods! But what makes them thinks that bodybuilding and the heavy diet that
costly is not their exquisite flavor or some pleasant goes with it don’t befit an educated man, because a
sensation in the throat but their rarity and the brawny, bulky body burdens the mind and makes
difficulty of obtaining them. Otherwise, if these it less agile (Seneca 2015, 15.2–3). Instead, he
people would willingly return to sanity, what need instructs his friend to set himself a period of
of so many professional skills that serve the belly? days in which he will be content with very small
What need of imports, or of devastating forests, or amounts of food, and the cheapest kinds, in order
4 Stoicism and Food

to dispel his fear of frugality (Seneca 2015, 18.5). animal food. He says this diet became easy and
Seneca contends that fearless, frugal eating makes pleasant for him and made his mind livelier. Later,
you a better person than a muscular however, abstinence from animal food was seen
physique does. as adherence to religions of foreign origin banned
Seneca writes: “I like food that is neither pre- by the emperor. So, when his father asked him to
pared nor watched by troops of servants, not give up his vegetarian diet, Seneca complied. He
something ordered many days ahead and prof- returned to a temperate but nonvegetarian diet.
fered by many hands, but available and easily so, For Seneca, then, Stoicism calls for simple,
with no exotic or precious ingredients. This will simply prepared, frugal meals of foods that are
not run out on any occasion, or be a burden to my close at hand. “Our aim is to live in accordance
budget or my body, or be brought up in vomiting” with nature, is it not? This is contrary to nature:
(Seneca 2014, Tranq. 1.6). He reports taking a trip tormenting one’s body, swearing off simple mat-
with a friend during which his frugal habits ters of grooming, affecting a squalid appearance,
included lunching on dried figs, sometimes with partaking of foods that are not merely inexpensive
bread (Seneca 2015, 87.3). but rancid and coarse. A hankering after delicacies
Seneca’s thoughts about and experience with is a sign of self-indulgence; by the same token,
vegetarianism were complex. The belief that it is avoidance of those comforts that are quite ordi-
wrong to eat animals was shared by the prominent nary and easy to obtain is an indication of insanity.
ancient Greek philosophers Pythagoras, Empedo- Philosophy demands self-restraint, not self-abne-
cles, Theophrastus, and perhaps Plato. In his gation” (Seneca 2015, 5.4–5; cf. 78.22–24). Sen-
youth, Seneca was taken with the philosophy of eca concludes that moderate, unfussy eating does
Pythagoras. Seneca’s teacher Sotion explained not require self-deprivation or fasting.
both Pythagoras’ and Sextius’ reasons for
abstaining from animal food. “Sextius held that a
Gaius Musonius Rufus (c. 20–30 to as late as
person could get enough to eat without resorting
101 CE)
to butchery; and that when bloodshed is adapted
Born in Volsinii, Italy, Musonius was a Roman
to the purposes of pleasure, one develops a habit
knight (eques), the class of aristocracy ranked
of cruelty. He also used to say that one should pare
second only to senators. He taught and practiced
away the resources of self-indulgence, and he
Stoicism in Rome and was exiled first by Nero
offered reasoning to show that variety in food is
upon discovery of the conspiracy led by Piso, and
alien to our bodies and detrimental to health”
later by Vespasian. He had a considerable follow-
(Seneca 2015, 108.17–18). Pythagoras, on the
ing during his life. His teachings survive as
other hand, believed in the kinship of all living
32 apothegms and 21 longer discourses, all pre-
things and held that souls never die but only
served by others.
transmigrate from one animal’s body, when it
Emphasizing the importance of daily practices,
dies, into the next, whether it be that of a human
Musonius held that mastering one’s appetites for
or a nonhuman. “Pythagoras instilled in human-
food and drink is the basis for self-control, a vital
kind a fear of wrongdoing – more specifically, of
virtue. He agrees with Seneca that the purpose of
parricide. For if some spirit related to them hap-
food is to nourish and strengthen the body and to
pened to be dwelling in a given body, they might,
sustain life, not to provide pleasure. Digesting our
without realizing it, assault the soul of their parent
food gives us no pleasure, and the time spent
with the knife or with their teeth” (Seneca 2015,
digesting food far exceeds the time spent consum-
108.19). Sotion reasoned that if these beliefs are
ing it. It is not consumption but digestion that
true, then abstaining from animal foods means not
nourishes the body. Therefore, he reasons that
harming anyone. If they are false, then vegetari-
the food we eat serves its purpose when we’re
anism is economical. Seneca, persuaded by Sotion
digesting it, not when we’re tasting it (Rufus
of the savagery of eating flesh as lions and vul-
2010, Lecture 18).
tures do, adopted the habit of abstaining from
Stoicism and Food 5

Musonius argues that the proper diet is lacto- Epictetus’ experiences as a slave inform his
vegetarian. These foods are least expensive and views of Stoicism and food. Real slavery, he
most readily available: raw fruits in season, cer- believes, is living in fear. So, he urges his students
tain raw vegetables, milk, cheese, and honey- to get rid of all fears regarding eating. When a
combs. Cooked grains and some cooked student frets about being too poor to be able to eat,
vegetables are also suitable for humans, whereas Epictetus scolds him for lacking confidence in
a meat-based diet is too crude for human beings being able to fend for himself as successfully as
and is more suitable for wild beasts. Musonius slaves and runaways do. A worrywart who fears
thought that those who eat relatively large starving must believe he is stupider and less
amounts of meat seem slow-witted (Rufus 2010, resourceful than irrational beasts, all of whom
Lecture 18). are self-sufficient and provided with food and a
We are worse than nonhuman animals when it mode of survival adapted to and in harmony with
comes to food, Musonius believes, because we are their nature (Epictetus 2008, Disc. 1.9.8–9). Epic-
obsessed with embellishing how our food is pre- tetus notes that neither runaway slaves nor old
sented and fuss about what we eat and how we beggars starve, so we have no good reason to
prepare it merely to amuse our palates. Moreover, worry that our food will run out. Instead, we
too much rich food harms the body. So, he judges should concern ourselves with becoming good.
that gastronomic pleasure is undoubtedly the most “Does any good man fear that food may fail
difficult pleasure to combat (Rufus 2010, Lecture him? It does not fail the blind, it does not fail the
18). Consequently, he, like Seneca, rejects gour- lame. Shall it fail a good man?” (Epictetus 1995,
met cuisine and delicacies as a dangerous habit. Disc. 3.26.27). For Epictetus “dishonor does not
He regards craving gourmet food to be most consist in not having anything to eat, but in not
shameful and to show a lack of temperance. having reason enough to exempt you from fear or
Musonius thinks that those who eat inexpensive sorrow” (Epictetus 1995, Disc. 3.24.116). A good
food can work harder; are the least fatigued by person uses reason to overcome fear and sorrow.
working; become sick less often; tolerate cold, Epictetus believes that god (nature) both pro-
heat, and lack of sleep better; and are stronger, vides and takes away all our material possessions.
than those who eat expensive food (Rufus 2010, “It is another who gives you food, and property,
Lecture 18). He concludes that responsible people and can also take them away, and your paltry body
favor what is easy to obtain over what is difficult, too. You should, then, accept the material you are
what involves no trouble over what does, and given and set to work on it” (Epictetus 1995, Disc.
what is available over what isn’t. These prefer- 2.5.22). And if god no longer provides food, then
ences promote self-control and goodness. this could only mean that, like a good general, god
has given the signal to withdraw, god is sounding
Epictetus (c. 55 to c. 135 CE) the recall, opening the door, and saying to “Come”
Epictetus was born a slave in Hierapolis in what is (Epictetus 1995, Disc. 3.13.13–14). Epictetus
today southwestern Turkey. He traveled to Rome says he will obey while speaking well of his leader
where his master permitted him to attend the lec- and praising his works (Epictetus 1995, Disc.
tures of Musonius. After he was freed, Epictetus 3.26.29). If starvation ever does become inevita-
practiced and taught Stoicism. When the emperor ble, the Stoic accepts it calmly. In contrast, the
Domitian, who suspected them of republican non-Stoic weeping about going hungry foolishly
sympathies, expelled all philosophers from makes himself a slave to his fear. “No sooner have
Rome, Epictetus moved to Nicopolis on the north- you eaten your fill today than you sit and start
western coast of Greece. There he founded a worrying about where tomorrow’s food will come
school which earned an outstanding reputation. from. Look, if you get it, slave, then you will have
His student Arrian recorded Epictetus’ teachings it; if not, you will depart this life: the door is open.
in the Discourses, four books of which survive, Why complain? What place is there left for tears?”
and a compendium titled the Handbook. (Epictetus 2008, Disc. 1.9.19–20). Thus,
6 Stoicism and Food

Epictetus sees no reason to fear starving to death. Frank, sincere, sensitive in character, and austere,
God will either provide us food or not. If so, then Marcus impressed the emperor Hadrian, who
there’s nothing to fear. If not, then there’s no nicknamed him Verissimus, “the most truthful.”
dishonor in exiting life when god decides it is Hadrian arranged for his successor, Antoninus
our time to die. After all, only mortals need food. Pius, to adopt Marcus. He learned rhetoric, gram-
Epictetus agrees with Seneca and Musonius mar, philosophy, and law from the best teachers of
that the purpose of eating is not to feel pleasure his day. His thought was deeply influenced by
(Epictetus 1995, Disc. 3.24.37–38). We should Epictetus. Marcus reigned as emperor from
take only what the body strictly needs in food, 161 CE until his death. During years on campaign
drink, clothing, and shelter and eliminate luxury on the empire’s northern frontier, he wrote a series
and ostentation altogether (Epictetus 2008, Ench. of private reflections on time, transience, self-
33.7). Each gift in our lives is granted to us only improvement, and his place in the universe.
for the time being, neither irrevocably nor forever, These exercises in philosophical therapy came to
“like a fig or a bunch of grapes in the appointed be called the Meditations.
season; and if you long for it in the winter, you are In the Meditations, Marcus often reminds him-
a fool” (Epictetus 1995, Disc. 3.24.86). We must self to strip away the illusions that beguile people
adapt our desire to what is available when it is into craving fame, riches, luxuries, and carnal
available. Also, Epictetus denies that the pleasures. For example, when beholding a fancy
conflicting opinions concerning food of Jews, plate of meat or a pricey glass of wine, some see
Syrians, Egyptians, and Romans could all be fabulous delicacies and swoon. But Marcus cau-
right (Epictetus 2008, Disc. 1.11.12–13). Those tions himself to see what they really are. “Like
who have truly digested their philosophical prin- seeing roasted meat and other dishes in front of
ciples show it by eating, drinking, dressing, mar- you and suddenly realizing: This is a dead fish.
rying, having children, and being citizens, as a A dead bird. A dead pig. Or that this noble vintage
human being should (Epictetus 1995, Disc. is grape juice. . .. Perceptions like that – latching
3.21.1–5). onto things and piercing through them, so we see
Epictetus does not share Musonius’ vegetari- what they really are. That’s what we need to do all
anism. He declares that “god created some beasts the time – all through our lives when things lay
to be eaten, some to be used in farming, some to claim to our trust – to lay them bare and see how
supply us with cheese, and so on” (Epictetus pointless they are, to strip away the legend that
2008, Disc. 1.6.18). He mentions that dinner encrusts them. Pride is a master of deception:
guests ought to take only their polite share of the when you think you’re occupied in the weightiest
roast (Epictetus 2008, Disc. 2.4.8). Like Seneca, business, that’s when he has you in his spell”
however, Epictetus commends strategic absti- (Aurelius 2003, vi. 13). To gourmandize meat is
nence in order to discipline one’s desires. “Prac- to fool yourself into believing that it is more than a
tice living as an invalid at one time, so that you corpse. To glorify sumptuous food and drink is to
may live like a healthy man at another. Abstain be bewitched into cherishing calories. According
from food. Keep to water. Abstain from desire to Marcus, calories are garbage compared to a
altogether for the present, to exercise it later, in sound, righteous mind.
accordance with reason” (Epictetus 1995, Disc.
3.13.21). Thus, Epictetus calls for eating and
drinking only what is strictly necessary, eliminat- Summary
ing all luxuries, and vanquishing all worries
about food. The Stoics defined the goal in life as living in
agreement with nature. For human beings, this
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 to 180) means especially living in agreement with reason.
Born in Rome to a prominent family of Spanish The perfection of reason is virtue, which includes
ancestry, Marcus’ father died when he was young. the virtues of wisdom and temperance. Living
Stoicism and Food 7

wisely and temperately, they reasoned, rids us of ▶ Vegetarianism

fears, including fear of poverty, illness, hunger,
and not getting what we want to eat. The wise and
temperate know that simple, inexpensive foods in
References
moderate amounts produced locally are easy to
get and prepare, healthy for the body, and good for Aurelius, M. (2003). Meditations, translated, with an intro-
the mind. Thus, Stoicism dictates frugality of diet duction, by Gregory Hays. New York: Modern Library.
and the rejection of ambitious eating, gluttony, Avramescu, C. (2003). An intellectual history of cannibal-
luxuries, delicacies, and gustatory extravagance. ism (trans: Blyth, A. I.). Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press.
Some Stoics favor vegetarianism. All Stoics think Epictetus. (1995). The Discourses, The Handbook, Frag-
it wise to limit eating and drinking to strict bodily ments, edited by C. Gill, translation revised by R. Hard.
need and to eradicate all food anxieties. London: J. M. Dent.
Epictetus. (2008). Discourses and selected writings (trans.
& ed.: Dobbin, R.). London: Penguin Books.
Laertius, D. (1925). Lives of eminent philosophers, in
Cross-References 2 vols. (trans: Hicks, R. D.). London: W. Heinemann.
Rufus, M. (2010). Lectures and Sayings, translated with an
▶ Cannibalism introduction by Cynthia King, edited with a preface by
W. B. Irvine. Lulu.
▶ Eating Disorders Seneca, L. A. (1989). Moral essays, in 3 vols. (trans:
▶ Epicureanism and Food Basore, J. W.). vol 3. Cambridge: Harvard University
▶ Food-body Relationship Press.
▶ Gluttony Seneca, L. A. (2014). Hardship and happiness (trans:
Fantham, E., Hine, H. M., Ker, J., & Williams, G. D.).
▶ Hunting Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
▶ Meat: Ethical Considerations Seneca, L. A. (2015). Letters on ethics, translated with an
▶ Plato and Food introduction and commentary by M. Graver and A. A.
▶ Pleasure and Food Long. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
▶ Poverty and Basic Needs