First-Order ODE

Department of Mathematics
IIT Guwahati
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

Topics:

• Separable Equations

• Exact Equations

• Integrating Factors

• Orthogonal Trajectories

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

Separable Equations
Definition: A first-order equation y 0 (x) = f (x, y ) is separable
if it can be written in the form
dy
= g (x)p(y )
dx
Method for solving separable equations: To solve the equation
dy
= g (x)p(y ),
dx
1
we write it as h(y )dy = g (x)dx, where h(y ) := p(y )
.
Integrating both sides
Z Z
h(y )dy = g (x)dx =⇒ H(y ) = G (x) + C ,

which gives an implicit solution to the differential equation.

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
Formal justification of method: Writing the equation in the
form
dy 1
h(y ) = g (x), h(y ) := .
dx p(y )
Let H(y ) and G (x) be such that
H 0 (y ) = h(y ), G 0 (x) = g (x).

Then
dy
H 0 (y ) = G 0 (x).
dx
Since dx H(y (x)) = H (y (x)) dy
d 0
dx
(by chain rule), we obtain
d d
H(y (x)) = G (x) ⇒ H(y (x)) = G (x) + C .
dx dx

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

Remark: In finding a one-parameter family of solutions in the
separation process, we assume that p(y ) 6= 0. Then we must
find the solutions y = y0 of the equation p(y ) = 0 and
determine whether any of these are solutions of the original
equation which were lost in the formal separation process.
Example: Consider (x − 4)y 4 dx − x 3 (y 2 − 3)dy = 0.
Separating the variable by dividing x 3 y 4 , we obtain
(x − 4)dx (y 2 − 3)dy
− =0
x3 y4
The general solution is − x1 + 2
x2
+ 1
y
− 1
y3
= C , y 6= 0
Note: y = 0 is a solution of the original equation which was
lost in the separation process.

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

First-Order Linear Equations
A linear first-order equation can be expressed in the form
dy
a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = b(x), (1)
dx
where a1 (x) 6= 0, a0 (x) and b(x) depend only on the
independent variable x, not on y .
Examples:
(1 + 2x) dy
dx
+ 6y = e x (linear)
sin x dy
dx
+ (cos x)y = x 2 (linear)
dy
dx
+ xy 3 = x 2 (not linear)
Theorem(Existence and Uniqueness):
Suppose a1 (x), a0 (x), b(x) ∈ C ((a, b)), a1 (x) 6= 0 and
x0 ∈ (a, b). Then for any y0 ∈ R, there exists a unique
solution y (x) ∈ C 1 ((a, b)) to the IVP
dy
a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = b(x), y (x0 ) = y0 .
dx
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
Observations:
I. If a0 (x) = 0, then Eq. (1) reduces to
Z
dy b(x)
a1 (x) = b(x) ⇒ y (x) = dx + C , a1 (x) 6= 0.
dx a1 (x)
II. If a0 (x) = a10 (x), then
d
a1 (x)y 0 (x) + a0 (x)y = a1 (x)y 0 + a10 (x)y = {a1 (x)y }.
dx
Therefore, Eq. (1) becomes
d
{a1 (x)y } = b(x).
dx
The general solution is given by
Z 
1
y (x) = b(x)dx + C .
a1 (x)
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
Integrating Factor(I.F.)
Rewriting a1 (x)y 0 + a0 (x)y = b(x) as
a0 (x) b0 (x)
y 0 + p(x)y = q(x), p(x) = , q(x) = .
a1 (x) a1 (x)
Multiplying both side by µ(x) so that
dy d dy
µ(x) + µ(x)p(x)y = {µ(x)y } = µ(x) + µ0 (x)y .
dx dx dx
This yields
R
µ0 (x) = µ(x)p(x) ⇒ µ(x) = e p(x)dx
.
Thus,
Z 
d 1
{µ(x)y } = µ(x)q(x) ⇒ y (x) = µ(x)q(x)dx + C .
dx µ(x)
Example: y 0 + x1 y = 3x. (y (x) = x 2 + cx −1 )
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
Exact Differential Equation
Suppose f (x, y ) = c defines y implicitly as a differentiable
function of x. Then, y = y (x) satisfies a first-order DE
fx (x, y ) + fy (x, y )y 0 (x) = 0,
which is an exact DE.
Definition: A first-order DE of the form
M(x, y ) + N(x, y )y 0 (x) = 0
is an exact DE in a rectangle R if there is a function f (x, y )
such that
fx (x, y ) = M(x, y ) and fy (x, y ) = N(x, y ).

Note: If f (x, y ) is known then the general solution is given

implicitly by f (x, y ) = c.
d
f (x, y (x)) = fx (x, y ) + fy (x, y )y 0 .
dx
= M(x, y ) + N(x, y )y 0 = 0.
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
Theorem: Let M(x, y ), N(x, y ) ∈ C 1 (R). Then
M(x, y ) + N(x, y )y 0 = 0 is exact ⇐⇒ My (x, y ) = Nx (x, y )
for (x, y ) ∈ R.
Example: Consider 4x + 3y + 3(x + y 2 )y 0 = 0.
Note that M, N ∈ C 1 (R) and My = 3 = Nx . Thus, there
exists f (x, y ) such that fx = 4x + 3y and fy = 3x + 3y 2 .
fx = 4x + 3y ⇒ f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + 3xy + φ(y ). Now,

3x + 3y 2 = fy (x, y ) = 3x + φ0 (y ).
⇒ φ0 (y ) = 3y 2 ⇒ φ(y ) = y 3 .
Thus, f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + 3xy + y 3 and the general solution is
given by
2x 2 + 3xy + y 3 = C

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

Definition: If the equation
M(x, y )dx + N(x, y )dy = 0 (2)
is not exact, but the equation

µ(x, y ){M(x, y )dx + N(x, y )dy } = 0 (3)

is exact then µ(x, y ) is called an integrating factor of (2).
Example: The equation (y 2 + y )dx − xdy = 0 is not exact.
But, when we multiply by y12 , the resulting equation

1 x
(1 + )dx − 2 dy = 0, y 6= 0
y y
is exact.
Remark: While (2) and (3) have essentially the same
solutions, it is possible to lose or gain solutions when
multiplying by µ(x, y ).
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
 (My −Nx )
Theorem: If N
is continuous and depends only on x, then
Z   
My − N x
µ(x) = exp dx
N
is an integrating factor for Mdx + Ndy = 0.
Proof. If µ(x, y ) is an integrating factor, we must have
 
∂ ∂ ∂µ ∂µ ∂N ∂M
{µM} = {µN} ⇒ M −N = − µ.
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
 
My −Nx
If µ = µ(x) then dµ dx
= N
µ, where (My − Nx )/N is just
a function of x.

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

Example: Solve (2x 2 + y )dx + (x 2 y − x)dy = 0.
The equation is not exact as My = 1 6= (2xy − 1) = Nx . Note
that
My − N x 2(1 − xy ) −2
= = ,
N −x(1 − xy ) x
which is a function of only x, so an I.F µ(x) = x −2 and the
2
solution is given by 2x − 2yx −1 + y2 = C .
Remark. Note that the solution x = 0 was lost in multiplying
µ(x) = x −2 .
Theorem: If Nx −M
M
y
is continuous and depends only on y , then
Z   
N x − My
µ(y ) = exp dy
M
is an integrating factor for Mdx + Ndy = 0.

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

Homogeneous Functions

If M(x, y )dx + N(x, y )dy = 0 is not a separable, exact, or

linear equation, then it may still be possible to transform it
into one that we know how to solve.
Definition: A function f (x, y ) is said to be homogeneous of
degree n if
f (tx, ty ) = t n f (x, y ),
where t > 0 and n is a constant.
Example:
1. f (x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 log(y /x), x > 0, y > 0
(homogeneous of degree 2)
2. f (x, y ) = e y /x + tan(y /x) (homogeneous of degree 0)

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

 • If M(x, y ) and N(x, y ) are homogeneous functions of the
same degree then the substitution y = vx transforms the
equation into a separable equation.
Writing Mdx + Ndy = 0 in the form dy dx
= −M/N = f (x, y ).
Then, f (x, y ) is a homogeneous function of degree 0. Now,
substitution y = vx transform the equation into
dv dv dx
v +x = f (1, v ) ⇒ = ,
dx f (1, v ) − v x
which is in variable separable form.
Example: Consider (x + y )dx − (x − y )dy = 0.
Put y = vx and separate the variable to have
(1 − v )dv dx
2
=
1+v x
Integrating and replacing v = y /x, we obtain
y p
tan−1 = log x 2 + y 2 + C .
x
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
Substitutions and Transformations
• A first-order equation of the form

y 0 + p(x)y = q(x)y α ,
where p(x), q(x) ∈ C ((a, b)) and α ∈ R, is called a
Bernoulli equation.

The substitution v = y 1−α transforms the Bernoulli

equation into a linear equation
dv
+ p1 (x)v = q1 (x),
dx
where p1 (x) = (1 − α)p(x), q1 (x) = (1 − α)q(x).

Example: Consider y 0 + y = xy 3 . The general solution is given

by y12 = x + 12 + ce 2x .

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

 • An equation of the form

y 0 = p(x)y 2 + q(x)y + r (x)

is called Riccati equation.
If its one solution, say u(x) is known then the substitution
y = u + 1/v reduces to a linear equation in v .

Remark: Note that if p(x) = 0 then it is a linear equation. If

r (x) = 0 then it is a Bernoulli equation.

RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)

• Consider the DE
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 )dx + (a2 x + b2 y + c2 )dy = 0, (4)
where ai ’s, bi ’s and ci ’s are constants. If a2 /a1 6= b2 /b1 ,
then the transformation x = u + h and y = v + k, where
h, k are solutions of the system a1 h + b1 k + c1 = 0 and
a2 h + b2 k + c2 = 0, reduces (4) to the homogeneous
equation
(a1 u + b1 v )du + (a2 u + b2 v )dv = 0
in the variables u and v .
If a2 /a1 = b2 /b1 = k, then substitution z = a1 x + b1 y
reduces the above DE to a separable equation in x and z.
• If a DE is in the special form
y (Ax p y q + Bx r y s )dx + x(Cx p y q + Dx r y s )dy = 0,
where A, B, C , D are constants, then it has an I.F. of the
form µ(x, y ) = x a y b , where a and b are suitably chosen
constants.
RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)
Orthogonal Trajectories
Suppose
dy
= f (x, y )
dx
represents the DE of the family of curves. Then, the slope of
any orthogonal trajectory is given by
dy 1 dx
=− or − = f (x, y ),
dx f (x, y ) dy
which is the DE of the orthogonal trajectories.
Example: Consider the family of circles x 2 + y 2 = c 2 .
Differentiate w.r.t x to obtain x + y dy
dx
= 0. The differential

dx
equation of the orthogonal trajectories is x + y − dy = 0.
Separating variable and integrating we obtain y = c x as the
equation of the orthogonal trajectories.
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RA/RKS/MGPP/KVK MA-102 (2019)