Verbal Basics

Recommended Reading

1. This course is designed for those who want to develop a strong grasp of the Fundamentals of English Grammar.

2. Please go through the e-book titled ‘18 GMAT Grammar Concepts’. It should not take you more than 2.5 hours.
SENTENCES
Sentences
Sentences must express complete thoughts. A sentence must always consist of these parts –
1. Subject
2. Verb

Apart from these things sentences might also have these parts –
3. Complement
4. Modifier

Let us look at a sentence –

Jane Goodall wrote a book on Chimpanzees.

Subject – Jane Goodall (the person performing the action)

Verb – wrote (the action)
Complement/Object – a book (what did she write?)
Modifier – on chimpanzees (adds description to a book)
The Subject
The subject is usually the actor of a sentence. All sentences must have a subject.

The Subject can be a single noun or a bunch of words (a phrase).

For example –
Donkeys are smarter than horses.
He likes to play basketball.
My good old T-shirt is torn.
Legolas and Gimli sailed to the undying lands.

Subjects need not necessarily be proper nouns. –ing forms can also be subjects of a sentence.
For example –
Exercising is good for health.
Throwing a javelin is difficult.

We can also have infinitives (to + verb) as subjects of a sentence.

For example –
To teach English is a great joy.
The Subject
We can also have clauses (a group of words that has a subject and a verb) as subjects of sentences.
For example –
That India lost the WC is a shame.
Whoever kills terrorists must be awarded medals of honour.

Note that subjects that are –ing forms, infinitives or clauses are always singular.
For example -
That politicians are corrupt is a disgrace.
That politicians are corrupt are a disgrace. (Incorrect)
To kill orcs is a great pleasure.
Killing orcs is a pastime of Aragorn.

Note that compound subjects (subjects joined with an and) are always plural.
For example –
The electrician and plumber have arrived.
Expensive hobbies and crushing debt has made life difficult for the actor.
The Subject
Additive phrases such as besides, along with, and as well as do not have any influence on whether the subject is
singular.
For example –
Susan, along with her friends, plans to visit India. (the subject is Susan)
The Senator from Texas, as well as many democratic lawmakers, support gay marriage. (the subject is the Senator from
Texas).

The subject of a sentence cannot be contained in a prepositional phrase (anything that starts with on/of/in/at/by etc.).
For example –
On the table are a mobile phone, a laptop and a few books. (table cannot be the subject).
In this box are many gifts. (this box cannot be the subject.).

These sentences can be rewritten to highlight the subjects.

A mobile phone, a laptop and a few books are on the box.
Many gifts are in this box.
The Subject
Note that the verb depends on the subject of the sentence.
For example –
My mother feeds homeless children. (the verb is singular).
Homeless children are fed by my mother. (the verb is plural).

The words here/there cannot be the subject of a sentence.

For example –
There were many casualties from the accident. (subject – many casualties from the accident)
Here comes your man. (subject – your man).

In complex sentences, each sentence has its own subject and verb.
For example –
It is a shame that the two countries are at war. (two clauses – It is a shame AND two countries are at war).
Although she does not like apple juice, her brothers love it. (two clauses – she does not like apple juice AND her
brothers love it).
The Verb
Verbs are used to reveal the action in a sentence. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb.

Most verbs are single words.

For example –
The cheetah runs very fast.
He is a six-foot-tall man.

Verbs can also be phrases. Such verbs must be preceded by helping verbs (is, was, are, were, has, have, will, would).
For example –
I have been living in Bangalore for six years.
The boys are playing football.
He will attend the seminar tomorrow.
The Object/Complement
The Object or Complement is what receives the action of a sentence.
For example –
John threw the ball. (the ball receives the action threw).

The complement generally answers the question – What? Or Whom?

For example –
The lion killed the buffalo. (killed what?)
He called Alice yesterday. (called whom?)

Note that objects are not preceded by prepositions (words such as by/in/at/on/of/for etc.). Some sentences do not have
any objects.
For example –
He arrived.
Joseph ran very fast.
He arrived at the airport. (the airport is not an object because it is preceded by at. At the airport is a modifier.)
The Modifier
Modifiers give additional information about the sentence. Modifiers function as either adjectives or adverbs.

Recall that adjectives can describe nouns or pronouns whereas adverbs describe anything other than noun or pronouns –
verbs, adjectives or even adverbs.

For example –
The cat was hiding under the table. (Where was the cat hiding?; Adverb)
He runs very fast. (How does he run?; Adverb)
The angry elephant finally calmed down. (What kind of an elephant?; Adjective)
The angry elephant finally calmed down. (when did it calm down?; Adverb)
My uncle from Las Vegas gifted me a Ferrari. (Which uncle? Adjective)

Note that words preceded by prepositions act as modifiers.

For example –
In the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps tonight. (Describes the verb sleeps. Where does the lion sleep?)
The Modifier
Adverbs generally answer the question where? How? When?
For example –
He is studying psychology at Harvard University. (Where?)
The Chennai team arrives tomorrow. (When?)
He fired the weapon repeatedly. (How?)
He was taken to a Hospital in the city. (Where?)

Let us analyse a sentence –

The figurines discovered by Scientists from China are very valuable.

The figurines discovered by scientists from China are very valuable. (Adjective. Describes figurines)
The figurines discovered by scientists from China are very valuable. (Adjective. Describes figurines)
The figurines discovered by scientists from China are very valuable. (Adverb. Describes the adjective valuable)
The figurines discovered by scientists from China are very valuable. (Adjective. Describes scientists)
The figurines discovered by scientists from China are very valuable. (Adverb. Describes the adjective discovered).
Phrases and Clauses
A clause is something that expresses a complete thought. All clauses must have a subject and a verb.

For example –
Betty did not like the main course but she enjoyed the dessert. (both bolded portions refer to complete thoughts and can
stand on their own).
Betty did not like the main course. (subject = betty; verb = did not like)
She enjoyed the dessert. (subject = she; verb = enjoyed).

Any other group of words is a phrase. Phrases do not express complete thoughts and thus cannot stand on their own.

For example –
In the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps tonight. (In the mighty jungle is not a complete thought and cannot stand on its own).
After lunch, he started working on the project. (Not a complete sentence).
After lunch, he started working on the project. (Not a complete sentence).
After lunch, he started working on the project. (Not a complete sentence).
After lunch, he started working on the project. (Not a complete sentence).
The Clause
There are two types of clauses in English –

1. Independent Clauses (or Main Clauses)

Independent clause is a clause which can stand by itself and form a complete sense on its own. It does not require any
other clause as it comprises sufficient information to construct a complete sentence.

For example -
Betty did not like the main course, but she enjoyed the dessert. (two independent clauses - "Betty did not like the main
course" and "she enjoyed the dessert” - are joined by a conjunction but.)
My dog loves to chew on bones. (A complete sentence).

Independent clauses are either individual sentences or are sentences separated by these words – for, and, nor, but, or, yet,
so.(FANBOYS)
My neighbour loves animals, and she works at the zoo.
I was stuck in a traffic jam, so I was late for work.
Ser Barristan was knighted, for he fought bravely for the king.
The Clause
2. Dependent Clauses (or Subordinate Clauses)

Dependent clause is a clause that does not form complete sense by itself. It is dependent on some other clause to form a
meaningful sentence.

Any clause that is not connected by these conjunctions – FANBOYS – is a dependent clause.

For example -
If you lend me that book, I will be grateful to you. (If you lend me that book – not a complete thought)
When I was in New York, I worked for a law firm. (when I was in New York – not a complete thought)

For example -
The student, who came first, is very hard-working. (Not a complete thought. Subject of the dependent clause = the
student. Verb = came).
Because he is lazy, he did not attend college. (Not a complete thought.)
The dog that was found by John belongs to my neighbour. (Not a complete thought. Subject of the dependent clause = the
dog. Verb = was found).
The noisy students whom Mrs. Irene hit in the head soon learned to keep quiet. (Not a complete thought).
Sentence Fragments and Run-Ons
A sentence fragment is a group of words (including phrases and dependent clauses) that cannot stand on its own. It does
not form a complete sentence.

Any group of words that lacks a subject and a verb is a sentence fragment. These are 100% incorrect on GMAT.

For example –
If you lend me that book (No independent clause)
The figurines discovered by Scientists from China (No verb)
At Harvard university (No subject or verb)
My uncle who returned from Canada (No verb)

A run-on sentence consists of two clauses joined by only a comma (and without any connectors). These are 100% incorrect
on GMAT.
For example –
She attended Harvard, she got a good job. (Incorrect)
Because she attended Harvard, she got a good job.
She attended Harvard, she got placed in Goldman Sachs. (Incorrect).
She attended Harvard, and she got placed in Goldman Sachs.
PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of Speech

The English Language consists of 8 parts of speech. These parts combine together to form a sentence/clause or a phrase.

1. Noun – jack, Bangalore, house

2. Pronoun – I, we, you, he
3. Adjective – beautiful, good
4. Verb – run, throw
5. Adverb – quietly, beautifully
6. Preposition – in, on, of
7. Conjunction – and, but, although
8. Interjection. – ouch!, hey

‘Articles’(a/an/the) are also sometimes counted among the parts of speech.

NOUNS
Nouns

What are nouns?

A noun stands for a place, animal, person, thing , idea or actions.
For example –

Nouns used for naming places – New York, the United States, Library, Office etc.
Nouns used for naming people – Ram, Sally, lawyer, Elves etc.
Nouns used for animals – Mammoth, dire wolves, dragons etc.
Nouns used for things – lightsaber, the One Ring, laptop, Rocket etc.
Nouns used for ideas – love, courage, strategy etc.
Nouns used for actions – discovery, the discovering, discovering (yes! All these can be nouns), excavation, etc.

Well then… How do we classify these things?

Nouns Classification
Nouns come in several flavours –

1. Common and Proper Nouns

2. Collective Nouns
3. Countable and Uncountable Nouns
4. Nouns of Address
5. Concrete and Abstract Nouns
6. Compound Nouns
7. Possessive Nouns
Common and Proper Nouns

Proper Nouns refer to the name of a particular person, place or thing. As such these nouns refer to unique
objects/things/people.

Another thing to note about Proper Nouns is that they are always capitalized.

Proper Nouns can be used to denote –

1. Names – for example – Ram is playing outside. (Ram is a proper noun). / New York is sunny this time of the year (New
York is a proper noun)./ Lightsabres are dangerous weapons.
2. Job titles and Familial roles – My mom is cooking dinner. (Mom is a proper noun)/Mr. President, can I have the nuclear
launch codes? (Mr. President is clearly referring to Barrack Obama)/What’s the prognosis, Doctor?
3. Brands – for example – I like Pepsi better than I like Coke (Pepsi and Coke are proper nouns).

Common Nouns refer to a general places, people or things. For example – I carried my laptop home. (Laptop is a common
noun) / I live in a city (city is a common noun)
Common and Proper Nouns - Examples

Common Nouns Proper Nouns

My father is a writer Brandon Sanderson writes excellent fiction.

Ghost is a dire wolf. Ghost is a dire wolf

I live in Bangalore Bangalore is a large city

The Punjabi Dhaba at Janakpuri serves excellent There are many restaurants in Rajouri Garden.
paranthas
Jupiter has an extremely powerful magnetosphere Astronomers think that there might be a tenth planet
orbiting the sun.
Colleges are closed during Christmas Harvard Law School is among the best colleges in the
country.
Mothers are protective of their children My uncle works in Timbuktu
Collective Nouns

Collective Nouns refer to groups composed of members.

Even though they refer to multiple individuals, they are considered singular in English. (because they refer to group as a
whole)

For example –

• The army was under attack at Uri.

• The company is ready to take up new projects.
• The family is going on a long vacation to Paris.
• The organization voted to revoke the rules that it had previously approved

‘Police’ is a notable exception. For example – The police are committed to fighting crime.

However, A police department is housed in that building. OR A police officer is investigating the matter.
Countable Nouns and Uncountable Nouns

COUNTABLE NOUNS (or count nouns) are those that refer to something that can be counted.

They have both singular and plural forms (e.g. cat/cats; woman/women; country/countries).

Singular forms can be preceded by ‘a/an’. For example – a cat, an hour, a year, a university, an alphabet etc.

Examples –

Grizzly bears hibernate during winter. / I found a Grizzly bear in my backyard.

She’s got two sisters and a younger brother.

Jessie has ten dollars.

NOTE – With countable nouns you can always say – 1 countable noun, 2 countable nouns, 3 countable nouns etc.
For example – 1 dollar, 2 dollars/ 1 brother, 2 brothers etc.
Countable Nouns and Uncountable Nouns

AN UNCOUNTABLE NOUN refers to nouns that cannot be counted. Therefore, it has only the singular form.

These nouns are not used with a/an or numbers and are not used in the plural.

Uncountable Nouns, in general, belong to one of these categories –

1. Substances – water, coffee, milk, wood, metal, cheese etc.

2. Energy Words and Forces – electricity, sunshine, radiation, power, wind etc.
3. Subjects – French, chemistry, economics, geography etc.
4. Groups or Collections of things - furniture, equipment, rubbish, luggage etc.
5. Abstract Concepts – advice, education, democracy, intelligence, love etc.
6. Distance, time and amount - $1000, 20 miles, two hours

The test to check if a noun is indeed uncountable is to ask yourselves – do 1 uncountable noun, 2 uncountable noun,
3 uncountable noun make sense? For example – you cannot say 1 wood, 2 wood, 3 wood/ 1 love, 2 love/ 1 two
hours, 2 two hours etc.
Countable Nouns and Uncountable Nouns
At times the same noun can be countable and uncountable depending on the context and meaning.

For example -

Uncountable Countable

Over 85% of Americans drink coffee regularly. He ordered a cup of coffee.

(This refers to coffee in general).
Without any work, William felt bored. One of her most famous works is her treatise
on the social behaviour of chimpanzees.
(Works = books)
The table was made of hardened glass. (Glass I broke a glass pane yesterday.
= material)
Would you like some pizza? We ordered a pizza from Dominos yesterday (1
quantity)
Countable Nouns and Uncountable Nouns
Consideration Countable Nouns Uncountable Nouns
fewer / little, less Fewer cars, fewer items ; 10 items or less, less friends Little encouragement, less than 20
percent
Many, several / much Several books, many pigeons; as much as 20 people Much courage, much enthusiasm

A, an, the Would you like a tea? I saw a pigeon yesterday I am looking for the accommodation
listed in this advertisement; I am
looking for accommodation; I am
looking for an accommodation; I am
looking for the accommodation (Not
clear what ‘the’ refers to)
Some/Any/All/Most/No Some students were not present for the class; All the Some information from the server was
ne cookies were eaten leaked; Most of the furniture is old
Subject Verb Singular/Plural – a cup of tea, a pane of glass, a piece Singular – tea, furniture, glass, cement,
considerations of furniture, four bags of cement, a knowledge of knowledge
computing (a specific kind of knowledge)
Nouns of Address

Nouns of address identify the person or group being directly spoken to.

They are used to let the listener or reader know who you are addressing, or to get that person’s attention.

They are grammatically unrelated to the rest of the sentence—that is, they don’t modify or affect any other part of
it.

They are normally set apart from the rest of the sentence by one or two commas.

For example –

Legolas, what do your elf eyes see?

The orcs have already taken over the City of Osgiliath, Mithrandir.
Mr. President, I didn’t see you there.
I was wondering, James, if you could help me with the dishes.
Concrete and Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns refer to those nouns that you can experience with your five senses. These nouns can be touched,
seen, heard, felt or smelled

For example – rocks, lake, countries, people, child, air, water, bread.
This perfume has a captivating fragrance.

Abstract nouns refer to those nouns that are theoretical in nature. These nouns cannot be identified by your five
senses. Abstract nouns display philosophies, concepts, ideas which are intangible in nature.

For example – love, hate, decency, conversation, emotion, aspiration, excitement, lethargy.
Her dedication toward her work made her receive the best employee award.

Gerunds, verbs that end in “-ing” and function as nouns, are also abstract.

For example: running, swimming, jumping, reading etc.

Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns refer to those nouns that are used to illustrate that something belongs to somebody or something.

We generally add ('s) to a singular noun and plural nouns not ending in an ‘s’ AND an apostrophe (') to a plural noun
ending in an ‘s’. Examples: The girl’s dress (one girl)/women’s dresses, sheep’s pasture. AND The girls’ dresses (two or
more girls).

Add the apostrophe + s to the end of the compound words or the last word in a hyphenated noun.
For example - My mother-in-law’s recipe/ The United States Post Office’s

If two nouns share ownership, indicate possession only once, and on the second noun. Add the apostrophe + s to the
second noun only. For example - Jack and Jill’s pail of water / Abbot and Costello’s comedy skit

When two nouns indicate ownership, but the ownership is separate, each noun gets the apostrophe + s.
For example - Senator Obama’s and Senator Clinton’s educations are outstanding. (Each senator owns his or her education,
but they attained separate educations).
Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns function as adjectives and cannot be referred to by pronouns. For example – Sally’s dog is a Labrador
and she works at Best Buy. Here ‘she’ cannot refer to Sally’s.

However, a possessive pronoun can refer to a possessive noun. For example – Thorin’s shield was made from oak wood
and his armor was made of mithril. “his” can refer to “Thorin”.

Possessive forms, by definition, can be replaced by ‘of’. We cannot express any other relation through possessive forms.
For example – “Abbot and Costello’s comedy skit “Who’s On First” is a classic act” is the same as saying “The comedy
skit of Abbot and Costello “Who’s on the First” is a classic act”.

However, this would be incorrect - Certain humans' parasites have been shown to provide bacterial resistance. This
sentence implies – certain parasites of humans.
Right: Certain parasites in humans have been shown to provide bacterial resistance.

A noun preceding a gerund must be in the possessive case if the noun is the doer of the action described
by the gerund. For example – I like Sally’s singing. (= I like her singing)/ I like Sally singing (implies that I like Sally only
when she sings) – incorrect.
Compound Nouns
Compound nouns refer to those nouns that are constructed by two or more words. Some compound nouns are
adjoined by a hyphen. For example - newspaper, toothpaste, father-in-law, dry-cleaner, underpass, whiteboard, paper-
clip.

Common examples –

Noun + noun bus stop, fire-fly, football

Adjective + noun full moon, blackboard, software
verb(-ing) + noun Breakfast, washing machine, swimming pool
Noun + verb(-ing) Sunrise, haircut, train-spotting
Verb + preposition check-out, lookout, makeup
Noun + prepositional phrase mother-in-law, father-in-law
Preposition + noun Underworld, onlooker, underpants
Noun + adjective Cupful, spoonful
Compound Nouns

Plural forms of compound nouns are generally obtained by adding an ‘s’ to the main word of the noun.

For example – bedroom/bedrooms, football/footballs, paper-clip/paper-clips –> In all these examples, the main word
(room, ball and clip) has been pluralized.

More examples – secretary of state/secretaries of state, mothers-in-law/mothers-in-law, passerby/passersby. (Note

the emphasis in these examples is on secretary, mother and passer – Hence, these words have been pluralized).

When it is not certain on which word the emphasis is, we pluralize the end of the compound noun by adding an ‘s’.

For example – haircut/haircuts, upturn/upturns, checkout/checkouts.

PRONOUNS
Pronouns

A Pronoun refers to a word that works as a substitute for a noun.

It is used to replace a noun or another pronoun such as I, my, us, he, she, we, you,, these, those, this, that, they, it,
everyone, each, all , both, such, who, your, his, her, our, their, somebody, everybody, etc.

Pronouns remove the unnecessary elements of repetitiveness from sentences.

For example –Sam is my best friend. Sam is eight years old. Sam’s father is a doctor.
We can rephrase this as –
Sam is my best friend. He is eight years old. His father is a doctor.

Pronouns provide specific information about the subject/object.

For example - Sam said that he does not want to share the toy that belongs to him.

The pronouns tell us that Sam is in the third person. If the sentence were in the first person, it would read:
I said that I do not want to share the toy that belongs to me.
Pronouns - types

Types of Pronouns Description Examples

Subject Pronouns Used as a subject of a sentence We/you/he/she/it
Object Pronouns Used as objects of verbs or prepositions Her/him/you/them
Reflexive Pronouns Subject = object of the verb Himself/itself/myself
Intensive Pronouns serve to emphasize the subject’s role in the verb’s action Myself/himself/itself
Indefinite Pronouns Can be singular or plural Each/every/some/many
Interrogative pronouns Used to ask questions Who/which/what/whom
Relative pronouns connect one phrase/clause to another phrase/clause Who/that/which
Demonstrative Pronouns used to point to something specific within a sentence This/that/these
Dummy pronouns do not have antecedents—that is, they do not replace a There/it
noun, phrase, or clause
Possessive pronouns pronouns that replace possessive nouns mine, your, yours, her
Subject Pronouns
A subject pronoun is a pronoun that takes the place of a noun as the subject of a sentence.

Subject pronouns can be singular or plural, and they can be masculine, feminine, or gender neutral.
The masculine or feminine subject pronoun is used when gender is known. For example – He is a skilled hunter/She is
well known for her stand against corporatism.

It is normally used when we refer to objects, things, animals or ideas (and not normally people). “It” can also be used to
refer to a baby of unknown gender. For example – My house is small but it is comfortable/ Their baby is very small. It
weighs only 2 kilos.
I Singular - first person masculine or feminine
You Singular - second person masculine or feminine
He Singular - third person only masculine
She Singular - third person only feminine
It Singular - third person object / thing / animal
We Plural - first person masculine or feminine
You Plural - second person masculine or feminine
They Plural - third person masculine or feminine
Object Pronouns
Object pronouns refer to those pronouns that are used as an indirect object , direct object , or object of a preposition.
For example - you, me, her, him, them, whom, it, us.

Here is how subject pronouns transform into object pronouns –

1. He/she becomes him/her. 2. I becomes me. 3. We becomes us. 4. They becomes them
However, 5. It becomes it AND 6. You becomes you.

Some examples –
Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns
I like cats Cats do not like me (Object of the verb ‘like’).
He spoke to Agent Smith Agent Smith spoke to him (Object of the preposition ‘to’)
You speak very quickly. What did the wizard tell you? (Object of the verb ‘tell’)
The shard blade is a weapon of great Take the pizza out of the box and put it in the oven. (‘it’ Is
power. It must be used with utmost the object of the verb ‘put’)
care.
They listen to the teacher She believes in us. (‘us’ is the object of the preposition ‘in’)
Reflexive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are used when someone or something is both the subject and the object of the same verb—that is,
both that which is performing the action of the verb and that which is receiving the action.

For example – I heard myself speaking. (In this example the subject ‘I’ and the object of the verb ‘heard’ are the same).
I heard me speaking (Incorrect)/ I heard you speaking (Correct – as the subject ‘I’ and the object ‘you’ are different).

The reflexive pronouns are myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself, himself, itself, themselves, and oneself.

Reflexive pronouns can never be used as the subject of a sentence. For example – Myself and my friends went to watch
the movies (Incorrect).
What about this sentence then? Me and my friends went to watch the movies. (Incorrect)
(The trick is to remove other part – ‘my friends’ – from the sentence and see if the sentence makes sense.)

NOTE – Object and reflexive pronouns cannot be the subjects of a sentence.

Correct Usage – My friends and I went to watch the movies.
Intensive Pronouns
Intensive pronouns take the some form as reflexive pronouns. However, they are used to denote emphasis.
For example – Martha baked pies for the king himself.
Gaylord Focker’s cat flushed the toilet itself.

The reflexive pronouns are myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, herself, himself, itself, themselves, and oneself.

Intensive pronouns do not play any grammatical role. i.e. if they are removed from the sentence, the sentence must make
perfect sense.
For example – Isildur took the one ring from the hand of Sauron himself. --> this sentence makes perfect sense.

Intensive pronouns generally appear in two places –

1. After the subject of the sentence. For example – The CFO himself worked on the financial report. Note that the ‘himself’
intensifies the noun ‘CFO’.
2. After the object of a verb/ preposition. For example – After Wash’s death, Captain Tight Pants piloted the Serenity
himself. Note that ‘himself’ intensifies ‘Captain Tight Pants’.
Intensive Pronouns vs Reflexive Pronouns

Category Description
Sentence must make sense if the pronoun is removed. For example –
Intensive Pronoun Martha baked pies for the king himself

Sentence does not make sense if the pronoun is removed.

Reflexive Pronoun For example – Martha baked pies for herself.

Used to denote emphasis.

Intensive Pronoun For example – Cruella created the magic mirror herself.

Used when the subject of the sentence also receives the action of
Reflexive Pronoun the sentence.
For example – Cruella saw herself in the mirror.
Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite Pronouns refer to those pronouns that do not pertain to any particular person or place or thing. They replace
nouns without specifying the noun that they replace.

For Example - Each player was given a second chance. / Many people will attend this seminar.

Most of the indefinite pronouns are always singular. Any pronoun that ends with –one, -thing or –body fall into this
category.

For example - Anyone, anybody, anything, No one, Not one, nobody, nothing, each, every, someone, somebody, much,
enough, less, little, something, everyone, everybody, everything, whatever, whoever, either, neither.

Note that ‘Not One/Each/Every’ is singular. These pronouns are frequently tested.
For example – Not one of the guests at the party drank wine.

However, some indefinite pronouns are always plural. For example – both, few, many, others, several.
Examples – Both of her parents work at the bank/ Several journalists cover the conflict in Syria.
Indefinite Pronouns
Some other pronouns - MANAS pronouns (Most or Majority/Any/None/All/Some) – can either be singular or plural. For
them, look at the of phrase that follows these pronouns to determine whether the pronoun is singular or plural.

For example – Some of the cookies were stale/Some of the money is in the bank.
A majority of students are attending the seminar/ The student majority is opposed to scheduling the session at 6 A.M.

For either/neither to be singular they must not be followed by an ‘or/nor’. Otherwise, it depends on the noun/pronoun
that follows ‘or/nor’.
For example – Neither of my friends has turned up

Either Sue or the girls are going to prepare dinner tonight. / Either the father or the mother has to attend the meeting.

Note that ‘a number of’ is plural and that ‘the number of’ is plural.
For example – A number of students have signed up for the webinar/ The number of orcs patrolling the eastern side of
Osgiliath is quite large.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to ask questions. Five of these are commonly used. They are -
what, which, who, whom, and whose.
For example – What was the reason for the delay?

Five of these are commonly used. They are - what, which, who, whom, and whose.

What/Which – used to ask questions about people or objects.

For example – I wonder what we are having for dinner tomorrow/ Which seat would you like?

Who - Used to ask questions about people.

For example – Who ate my blueberry pie? / Who is that lady in red?

Whom - used to ask questions about people.

For example - By whom is the car driven to school?

Whose – used to ask questions about people or objects, always related to possession.
For example – Whose laptop is this?/I wonder whose dog knocked our garbage can over.
Interrogative Pronouns
Note that ‘who’ refers to the subject and ‘whom’ refers to the object of a verb or preposition.

To who/whom was the letter addressed?/

Whom/Who do you believe?/
Who/Whom wrote Atlas Shrugged?

1st sentence ‘whom’ serves as the object of the preposition ‘to’. In the 2nd sentence ‘whom’ serves as the object of the
verb ‘believe’.

In the third sentence ‘who’ serves as the subject of the sentence.

The trick is see to whether he or she/him or her fits the sentence. If ‘he/she’ fits then use ‘who’, If ‘him/her’ fits the
sentence use ‘whom’.
The letter was addressed to her./
I believe him./
She wrote Atlas Shrugged.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns refer to those pronouns that connect one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. It is so
called because it relates to the word that it modifies and is not precise.

The commonly used relative pronouns are – that, which, who, whom, whose.

For example – The dog that was found by Jim is a grey Siberian Husky. In this example, the phrase ‘that was found by
Jim’ refers to the noun ‘the dog’.

Here is a generic usage chart -

Consideration Subject Object Possessive

People Who Whom Whose
Things Which/That Which/That
Relative Pronouns – Who/Whom/Whose
When the relative pronoun refers to the subject noun and the subject noun refers to people, use ‘who’.
For example – The students who have registered for the webinar are from the Marketing Department. Note that ‘who
have registered for the webinar’ refers to ‘the students’.

However, ‘whom’ is used when referring to an object noun/phrase and must refer to people.
For example – Sauron, to whom the one ring answers, forged the one ring to control all others. Note that the phrase ‘to
whom the one ring answers’ refers to Sauron.

How about these – The girl who/whom George likes is pretty/ The girls who/whom work on the new software program
are intelligent.
The trick is see to whether he or she/him or her fits the sentence. If ‘he/she’ fits then use ‘who’, If ‘him/her’ fits the
sentence use ‘whom’. 1st sentence – George likes her. Use ‘whom’. 2nd sentence – they work on the new software
program. Use ‘who’.

‘Whose’ is a relative pronoun that indicates possession.

For example - He married Louise Franklin Livingston, whose family name Franklin Gateway and the Franklin Gateway
Sports Complex bears. Note that ‘family name’ belongs to the noun ‘Louise Franklin Livingston’.
Relative Pronouns – Restrictive/Non-restrictive – Which/That
A non-restrictive clause can be removed from the sentence, without disrupting the original meaning of the sentence.
Note that the non-restrictive clause gives additional information that is not essential to the meaning of the sentence
For example – My car, which breaks down regularly, has become expensive to maintain. /My neighbor, who owns a
Ferrari, owns an apartment in Monaca.
In these sentences, I know exactly to which car/neighbor I am referring.

A restrictive clause cannot be omitted from the sentence without disrupting the meaning.
For example - The car that my uncle gifted is in the garage./ My neighbor who works at the Bear Center won a lottery.
These sentences imply that I have several cars/neighbors and that I am referring to one specific car/neighbor.

Non-restrictive clauses are always separated by commas. In formal usage, ‘which’ is used as a non-restrictive
pronoun/clause. It must always be separated by commas.
‘That’, however, is always used as a restrictive pronoun/clause. It must never be separated by commas.

Note that we cannot use ‘that/which’ to refer to people. For example – The woman that works at the bear center won a
lottery. (Incorrect)
Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives
A demonstrative pronoun is used to point to something specific within a sentence. These pronouns can indicate items in
space or time, and they can be either singular or plural.

For example – this belongs to me/ Those are not mine.

Note that demonstrative pronouns are not acceptable in formal writing. So, the above two examples would be
considered incorrect.

We use demonstrative adjectives instead. Demonstrative adjectives are adjectives that are used to modify a noun so
that we know which specific person, place, or thing is mentioned.

For example – this watch belongs to me/ those clothes are not mine.

When used to represent a thing or things, demonstrative pronouns/adjectives can be either near or far in distance or
time:
Near in time or distance: this, these
Far in time or distance: that, those
Dummy Pronouns
Dummy pronouns do not have antecedents as normal pronouns do. There are two dummy pronouns in the English
language – there and it.

There is primarily used as a dummy pronoun in circumstances where the sentence is explaining that a person, place, or
thing exists.

For example - There are two people waiting outside./ There is a river that passes through the mountain.

Note that the subject of the sentence in these constructions is not ‘there’. Hence, the verb depends on the subject that
follows the verb.

For example - There is a bird in the sky. – In this sentence the subject is ‘a bird’. (the sentence actually is – ‘a bird is in
the sky’).

There are two apples and some wine on the table. – In this sentence the subject is ‘two apples and some wine’. (the
sentence actually is – ‘two apples and some wine are on the table).
Dummy Pronouns – ‘It’
Like ‘there’, ‘it’ is also used as a pronoun without an antecedent in sentences.

For example – It is a good thing to be an expert in your area.

The dummy ‘it’ is generally used in these two cases –

1. ‘it’ refers to an infinitive phrase.

For example - The humid climate in Mangalore makes it quite difficult to work outdoors. In this sentence, the ‘it’ refers
to ‘to work outdoors’.

2. ‘it’ refers to a that/who/whether clause/object.

For example – It is a shame that the Indian Cricket Team lost the World Cup. In this sentence, the ‘it’ refers to the clause
‘that the Indian Cricket Team lost the World Cup’.
Another example – It was the Forsaken who drilled a hole into the Dark One’s prison. Here ‘it’ refers to the object ‘who
drilled a hole into the Dark One’s prison’.

Note that ‘it’, in formal writing, must always refer to something. This sentence, for example, would not be acceptable on
GMAT - It was earlier than he expected.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns refer to those pronouns that replace possessive nouns. For example - my, mine, your, yours, her,
hers, his, our, ours, its, their, theirs, whose.

Examples - This cat is mine, not yours./ I didn’t have my book, so Jenny lent me hers.

Also, note that Possessive pronouns do not contain apostrophes.

Only a possessive pronoun can refer back to a possessive noun.

For example - Sally’s brown dog is a husky and she works at the pet store. (Incorrect).

Sally’s brown dog is a husky and her cat is a Himalayan. (Note that ‘her’ can refer to ‘Sally’s’.)
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives
An adjective refers to a word that describes, identifies or quantifies words, making them more meaningful . Adjectives
always describe nouns/pronouns.

For example – Susan is good-natured kid/ She is wearing a red dress. ‘good-natured’ describes ‘kid’ and ‘red’ describes
‘dress’.

Adjectives typically end with these suffixes –

-able/-ible - reachable, readable, incredible, horrible

-al - physical, rational, influential, chemical
-less - shameless, hopeless, groundless, helpless
-ous - amorous, courageous, adventurous, fabulous
-ful - beautiful, baleful, helpful, hopeful
-ic - honorific, historic, rustic, terrific
-ive - inclusive, intuitive, inventive, attractive
Adjectives – Common Types
Category of Adjective Definition Example adjectives
Formed from proper nouns to create Italian, Dickensian, Scandinavian,
Proper Adjectives
descriptive words. Middle Eastern, Nordic
Created from two or more words that
work together to modify the same top-right, last-minute, sugar-free,
Compound Adjectives
noun; they are often joined with one or record-breaking, expensive-looking
more hyphens.

Used to specify what we are referring to

This dress, that phone, these laptops,
Demonstrative Adjectives and to give more information about its
those bottles
proximity to the speaker.

Comparing Adjectives Used for comparing two or more things Best, stronger, strongest, taller

Noun as Adjective Nouns used to describe other nouns. Love marriage, bicycle shop

Predicative Adjectives Adjectives that appear after the verb Ruth seems sad; the weather is warm
Proper Adjectives
Proper adjectives are derived from proper nouns. Proper adjectives are capitalized when used in a sentence.

They are often made from the names of cities, countries, or regions to describe where something comes from, but they
can also be formed from the names of religions, brands, or even individuals.

Proper adjectives most commonly end with - -ian, -an, -esque, -like, and -istic.

For example – Scandinavian, Gothic, Romanesque, Arthurian. These adjectives are derived from proper nouns –
Scandinavia, Goth, Roman, Arthur.

Proper adjectives are used to explicitly and directly describe something.

For example – The prime minister who is currently in office in India enjoys overwhelming approval ratings.

Vs. The Indian prime minister enjoys overwhelming approval ratings.

Compound Adjectives
A compound adjective is formed when two or more adjectives are joined together to modify the same noun. These
terms should be hyphenated to avoid confusion or ambiguity.

These adjectives always appear before the noun they modify. For example – ten-page document, blue-green eyes etc.

One common structure in such adjectives is – Adjective + Noun

For example – The dog is a short-hair breed.
Do you have any last-minute tips for me?

Another common structure is – Adjective + Adjective

For example – Slavic people have blue-green eyes.
The scissors are in the bottom-left drawer

Combining an adjective and adverb does not make a compound adjective. Note that in this case a hyphen is not used.
For example – He is a terribly lazy person –> in this sentence the adverb – terribly - modifies the adjective ‘lazy’.
Demonstrative Adjectives
Refer to the slide on Demonstrative Pronouns
Comparing Adjectives
Adjectives are also used to denote the position on a scale of comparison. Three types of adjectives are used to
accomplish this.

The lowest point is the absolute form, the mid point is the comparative form and the highest point is the superlative
form.

Absolute Comparative Superlative

Sauron is powerful (Here, Sauron is more powerful than Sauron is the most powerful
‘powerful’ describes Sauron) Gandalf (‘More powerful’ of the Maiar. (‘Most powerful’
describes Sauron). describes Sauron).

The strong grizzly bear Stronger than the black bear, Largest of the land carnivores,
destroyed the pumpkin the grizzly is a kind of brown the grizzly is a feared predator
bear in North America
Comparing Adjectives – Comparative Forms
Comparative adjectives refer to those adjectives that help us to compare two things. (Not three or more)
For example – higher, greater, cheaper, nastier, more etc.

Note that we need a ‘than’ with comparative adjectives to make the comparisons clear.
For example – My wife is prettier than Susan./ Pebbles are smaller than rocks/ My Ferrari costs more than his.

How about this example - Identifying idioms is easy for native speakers. However, the task is more difficult for non-
native speakers.
In this sentence, the comparison is implied. The actual comparison implied is this – “the task is more difficult for non-
native speakers than for native speakers”.

What about this sentence - I will have higher energy bills.

This sentence would be considered incorrect as the comparison is not clear. “higher than last year? Than last month?
Than last quarter? Than in my previous apartment?”

DO NOT use ‘more’ with a comparative adjective.

For example – My wife is more prettier than Susan (Incorrect)
Comparing Adjectives – Superlative Forms and Other Considerations
Superlative adjectives refer to those adjectives that illustrate the extreme or highest degree of a quality of one thing in a
group of three or more things.
For example – most, highest, greatest, strongest etc.
Examples - Between the two towers, the west tower is the taller/tallest /
Frodo was the shortest/shorter among the nine companions

DO NOT use ‘most’ with superlative forms. Such constructions would be redundant.
For example – Frodo was the most shortest member of the fellowship of the ring. (Incorrect).

However, some adjectives cannot be intensified/graded.

For example – dead. A person cannot be more dead/less dead.
A person can however, be more intelligent/less intelligent.

Other common examples of these non-gradable adjectives are – square, circular, unique, essential, absolute, universal etc.

For example – A circular pin (implies that shape is 100% circular). The pin cannot be ‘more circular’ than that. Hence, it is a
non-gradable adjective.
Noun as Adjectives
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun "acts as" an adjective.
For example – love story, bicycle shop.

The noun as adjective always comes before the main noun.

For example – a cricket bat (a bat that is used to play cricket)
A bicycle shop (a shop that sells bicycles).

The noun as adjective is not pluralized to get the plural form. Only the main noun is.
For example – a cricket bat (singular) / cricket bats (plural) NOT crickets bats
bicycle shop (singular) / bicycle shops (plural) NOT bicycles shops

When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports, customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:
For example – clothes shop (singular) / clothes shops (plural)
Accounts manager (singular) / accounts managers (plural)

Multiple nouns can also be used as adjectives.

For example: - School cricket team coach, American Airways traffic investigation centre
Predicative Adjectives
Generally adjectives are used before the noun that they modify. Such adjectives are called attributive adjectives.
For example – I threw a tennis ball. / The pehelwan lifted a huge boulder.

However, when adjectives are used after verbs, they are called predicative adjectives.
For example – She is old / The room appears dark

Predicative adjectives can describe the subject of a sentence when they follow a sense verb or the verb ‘to be’. Sense verbs
are used to indicate perceptions, opinions, or bodily sensations.
For example – look, appear, feel, seem, smell, sound, taste
This Ravioli tastes good
The thoroughbred looks sleek
Frodo seems worried
Gandalf is a wizard - Note that all these adjectives describe the subject of clause.

Predicative adjectives can also describe the direct-object of verbs. Verbs of making (e.g., to make, to create, to paint) or
naming (e.g., to name, to call, to elect, to consider) often attract an object complement.
For example – The Barones painted the house yellow
We consider her stupid - Note that all these adjectives describe the objects of verbs – the house/her.
Predicative Adjectives
If sense verbs are used to denote ‘actions’ do not follow them with adjectives.
For example – I felt gentle around the table. (Incorrect) – Clearly, the verb ‘feel’ is not used as a ‘sense’ here but rather as an
action.
I felt gently around the table (Correct). – Note that ‘gently’ (adverb) describes the action verb ‘felt’.
The car appeared quick – Here the ‘quick’ is an adjective that describes ‘car’.
The car appeared quickly – Here ‘appeared’ is an action noun. ‘quickly’ describes how the car appeared and not the car itself.

Be careful of these words – good and well

For example – Hope you are doing good (Incorrect) – Note that ‘doing’ is not a sense verb and hence cannot be followed by
an adjective. Such verbs must be described by adverbs.
Hope you are doing well (Correct) – Note that ‘well’ is an adverb that describes ‘doing’.
She writes good (Incorrect)
She writes good English (Correct) / She writes well (Correct)

Use ‘alone’ only as a predicative adjective and ‘live’ can only be used as an attributive adjective.
For example - She was alone that evening. (Correct) / I saw an alone woman (Incorrect) – Note that ‘saw’ is not a sense
verb.
They don’t sell live fish. (Correct) / That fish is still live (Incorrect) – Note that in the 1st case ‘live’ describes fish.
Order of Adjectives
Adjectives denoting attributes usually occur in a specific order. Without this order, the sentence sounds unnatural, as in
“young healthy three tall men.”

Generally, the adjective order in English is:

1. Quantity or number - this adjective must come before all else. For example – three healthy cows, ten ivy league
business schools.

2. Quality or opinion – There are two types of opinion adjectives – General and Specific. General adjectives can be used to
describe almost any kind of noun. For example – good, bad, lovely, strange, beautiful, nice.

Specific adjectives can only be used with certain types of nouns.

For example - People and animals: intelligent, friendly, unfriendly, hard-working
Buildings and furniture: comfortable, uncomfortable
Food: tasty, delicious

General opinion adjectives are usually placed before specific adjectives.

For example – This is a nice, comfortable chair (Correct).
A handsome, nice man (Incorrect)
Order of Adjectives
3. Size – Some of the most common adjectives are – little, small, heavy, huge, big, tall, long, light etc. Usually, general
adjectives of size are used before specific adjectives.
For example – It was a huge, heavy table (Correct)
It was a heavy, huge table (Incorrect)

4. Shape – Some common examples are – round, rectangular, square etc.

5. Age – Some common examples are – young, youthful, old, elderly, ancient etc.

6. Colour – Some common examples are – pink, red, transparent, opaque etc.

7. Proper adjective (often nationality, other place of origin, or material) – Dutch, Japanese, Turkish etc.

8. Purpose or qualifier – Some common examples - cleaning, hammering, cooking etc.

Putting it all together –

I like those three big old red utility tractors in the museum.
ADVERBS
Adverbs
Adverbs are words or phrases that describe anything other than nouns or pronouns. Hence, adverbs can modify verbs,
adjectives, clauses or even other adverbs.

For example – She writes well. – In this example ‘well’ modifies the verb ‘writes’.
She is very beautiful – The adverb ‘very’ modifies the adjective ‘beautiful’.
Smiling, the Samurai committed Seppuku. – the adverb ‘smiling’ describes how the Samurai committed suicide.
The weather report is almost always right. – the adverb ‘almost’ describes the adverb ‘always’, which in turn modifies the
adjective ‘right’.

Adverbs are commonly formed by adding an –ly to adjectives.

For example - rapid/rapidly, strong/strongly.

The following verbs are also adverbs - fast, almost, always, everywhere, nowhere, often, well etc.

Adverbs are quite flexible in their placement.

For example - Usually, my mom cooks dinner.
My mom cooks dinner usually.
My mom usually cooks dinner.
Adverbs - Categories
Adverbs generally answer these questions – Where/When/How/How often/to what extent.

Type Description Examples

Adverbs of Time Answer the question – When? Now, yesterday, tomorrow, later, soon, early etc.
Adverbs of Place Answer the question – Where? Nowhere, everywhere, south, here, up etc.
Adverbs of frequency Answer the question – How often? Often, usually, frequently, sometimes, always,
weekly etc.
Adverbs of manner Answer the question – How? anxiously, carefully, kindly, loosely, suddenly,
etc.
Adverbs of degree Answer the question – to what extent? Nearly, quite, just, fairly, very, somewhat etc.
Focusing adverbs Used to emphasize some part of the clause Mostly, primarily, exclusively etc.
Conjunctive adverbs Used to link 2 independent clauses However, therefore, moreover, nevertheless etc.
Relative Clauses Used to introduce relative clauses Where, when and Why
Adverbs of Time
An adverb of time describes when, or how long, or how often a certain action happened.

Adverbs of time are generally placed at the end of sentences. They can also be used at the beginning of a sentence.

For example – Bilbo went to the shopping mall yesterday. (describes when the action happened) / Yesterday, Bilbo went
to the shopping mall.
Bilbo rode a pony all day. (describes how long the action happened) / Gollum was tortured in the dungeons of Barad-d r
for many weeks.
Bilbo smokes pipe weed every day. (describes how often the action happens).

Note that ‘for’ and ‘since’ can be used as adverbs of time that answer the question – How long?
For example – For 500 years, the One Ring poisoned Gollum’s mind / Since 1990, she has been living in Kuwait

However, some adverbs of time can be placed in the middle of sentences. For example – later, still, yet.
Examples – Bilbo later went to the shopping mall/ Later, Bilbo went to the shopping mall / Bilbo went to the shopping mall
later

This sentence, however, would be incorrect – Bilbo yesterday went to the shopping mall.
Adverbs of Time
Note that ‘yet’ as an adverb cannot be used at the beginning of a sentence.
For example – Frodo has not destroyed the one ring yet.
Frodo has not yet destroyed the one ring.

What about this sentence -

Smoke rises from the mountain of doom and the hour grows late, yet Frodo has not destroyed the ring – Here, ‘yet’ is used
as a conjunction and not as an adverb. (yet = despite that)

When using more than one adverb of time in a sentence, use them in the following order: -1. How long 2. How often AND
3. When
For example – I visited my native village for two days every quarter last year.

Note that ‘since’ does not follow the above order. If since is used along with other adverbs of time it must come after the
adverbs of frequency (how often) or at the beginning of the sentence.
For example – Since 2000, I have visited my native village every quarter / I have visited my native village every quarter
since 2000.

This sentence would be considered incorrect – I have visited my native village since 2000 every quarter.
Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of place answer the important question – Where?

Generally, adverbs of place occur after the main verb or the object of the main verb.
For example – Jon Snow went north / She threw his comic book collection out of the house.

Adverbs of place generally play one of these roles –

1. They indicate direction. Examples - Up, down, around, away, north, southeast. For example – The people looked
upwards at the sky.
2. They indicate distances. Examples - Nearby, far away, miles apart. For example – My friend stays nearby.
3. They indicate position. Examples - Below, between, above, behind, through, around. For example – Behind Gimli stood
Aragorn, a ranger from the North.
4. They indicate direction. Examples – towards, toward, eastwards, backward etc. For example – Jon Snow rode toward
the wall

Note - the preferred form in American English (and hence GMAT) is toward without the -s, while the preferred British
English form is towards with the -s. This general rule works with other directional words,
including forward, backward, upward, and downward, along with afterward.
Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of frequency are a subcategory of adverbs of time. These adverbs answer the question – How often?

Adverbs of frequency are often used to indicate routine or repeated activities, so they are often used with the present
simple tense.
For example – He is often late for work. / Every night my mother cooks dinner.

There are two categories of these adverbs – adverbs of definite frequency and adverbs of indefinite frequency.

Adverbs of definite frequency specify the exact frequency at which a certain action occurs.
For example – every week, daily, hourly, every minute etc.

Adverbs of definite frequency generally appear at the beginning or end of sentences.

For example – I jog 10 kms daily / Every week, my mother offers prayers at the local temple.

Note that ‘-ly’ adverbs of definite frequency at the beginning of sentences are generally considered incorrect.
For example – Weekly, my mother offers prayers at the local temple (Incorrect).
Adverbs of Frequency
The second category – adverbs of indefinite frequency – do not specify how often a certain event occurs. Some examples
– usually, frequently, often, rarely, sometimes etc.

These adverbs are generally placed before the main verb, as well as at the beginning or end of a sentence.

For example – I often go to the cinema / I have usually made my own bed. /
Often, I go to the cinema /
I go to the cinema often.

Note that these adverbs cannot be placed after the main verb in a sentence.
For example – I go often to the cinema (Incorrect)
He always runs late for work (Correct) / He runs always late for work (Incorrect).

One exception – if these adverbs describe adjectives, they can also be placed after the verb ‘to be’.
For example – My roommate is rarely present. / My roommate rarely is present
Adverbs of Frequency
We cannot use the following at the beginning of a sentence: Always, seldom, rarely, hardly, ever, never.
For example – Always he runs late for work (Incorrect) / Rarely she leaves the house unattended (Incorrect).

These sentences are however correct because they are inverted –

Never have I felt so insulted ( = I have never felt so insulted) /
Rarely does she leave the house unattended ( = she rarely leaves the house unattended.)

Frequency Adverb of Frequency

100% always
90% usually
Here is a handy list - 80% normally / generally
70% often / frequently
50% sometimes
30% occasionally
10% seldom
5% hardly ever / rarely
0% never
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner describe how something happens. Adverbs of manner are very often formed from adjectives by simply
adding “-ly.” – happily, beautifully, terribly, rapidly
For example – He runs very quickly / She writes well.

Adverbs of manner can be placed at the beginning, middle or end of sentences.

For example – Greedily, he ate the cake / he greedily ate the cake / he ate the cake greedily

However, they can never be placed between a verb and its direct object
For example – He ate greedily the cake (Incorrect) / She typed hurriedly the email (Incorrect)

Pay special attention to the position of these adverbs.

For example – She slowly decided to leave the party (Her decision was slow)
She decided slowly to leave the party (her decision was slow)
She decided to leave the party slowly (her leaving was slow)
She decided to slowly leave the party (her leaving was slow)
Slowly, she decided to leave the party (her decision was slow)

How about this sentence – She decided to leave slowly the party (Incorrect)
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner should come immediately after verbs which have no object (intransitive verbs).
For example – He waited patiently for his turn at the table. (Superior)
He waited for his turn at the table patiently (Inferior)

Some common adverbs are always placed after the verb. Examples – well, badly, hard and fast.
For example – the team played well at the tournament (correct)
The team well played at the tournament (Incorrect).

Adverbs of manner always come before the adjective they modify.

For example – You were incredibly brave.
Here, the adverb ‘incredibly’ describes the adjective ‘brave’. Note that ‘brave’ is not the object of the verb ‘were’. In fact,
the verb ‘to be’ does not take a direct object.

This sentence would be incorrect –

You were brave incredibly.
Adverbs of Degree
An adverb of degree is used to discuss the degree or intensity of an adjective, an action, or another adverb. These
adverbs answer the question – To what extent?

For example – Antarctica is extremely frigid. (‘extremely’ describes the adjective ‘frigid’)
He is almost done with his homework. (‘almost’ describes the verb ‘done’).
You are walking too slowly. (‘too’ modifies the adverb ‘slowly’).

Do not use ‘too’ as a substitute for ‘very’. ‘Very’ is used to make the adverb/adjective stronger.
For example – He speaks too quickly (Incorrect)
He speaks very quickly (Correct) / The waters are very frigid (Correct)

‘Too’ can mean ‘excessively’ or ‘also’. When it is used in the sense ‘excessively’, it suggests a problem.
For example – He speaks too quickly for me to understand. (Correct)
The waters are too frigid (Incorrect) / The waters are too frigid to go for a swim (Correct).
James is coming to the party too (Correct)
Focusing Adverbs
Focusing adverbs are used to draw attention to a particular part of a clause. Examples – chiefly, also, even, mostly, too,
just, particularly etc.

For example – Tom alone attended the party.

They played mostly rock music at the party.

Be careful of the placement of the focusing adverb ‘only’. The sentence can mean different things, depending on the
placement of ‘only’.

For example –

Only Aravind can teach Sentence Correction at the seminar (Nobody else can).
Aravind can only teach Sentence Correction at the seminar (Aravind cannot do anything else).
Aravind can teach only Sentence Correction at the seminar (Aravind cannot teach anything else)
Aravind can teach Sentence Correction only at the seminar (Aravind cannot teach anywhere else)
Conjunctive Adverbs
Focusing adverbs, as their name suggests, are used to join two independent clauses. Examples – nevertheless,
however, therefore, thus, on the other hand, hence, as a result etc.

Do not separate two independent clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb with a comma. Use semicolons or
periods instead.
For example – I was stuck in a traffic jam, therefore, I was late for work. (Incorrect)
I was stuck in a traffic jam; therefore, I was late for work. (Correct)
I was stuck in a traffic jam. Therefore, I was late for work. (Correct)
I was stuck in a traffic jam and therefore I was late for work. (Correct)

To denote contrast with completely opposing ideas, any conjunctive adverb that denotes contrast can be used.
For example – I hate questions on probability; On the other hand/in contrast/however, Aditya loves them

Note that ‘On the other hand/in contrast’ are strong contrast indicators. They are used to denote completely opposing
ideas.
‘However’ is a weak contrast indicator. It can also be used to contrast ideas that do not totally oppose each other.
Conjunctive Adverbs
When two sentences show ‘weak contrast’ (do not completely oppose each other), usage of strong contrast adverbs
such as on the other hand, in contrast, contrarily etc. would be incorrect.

For example – Bilbo loves magic. However, he is not very good at it. (Correct)
Aditya is wonderful at probability; On the other hand, he does not like it very much. (Incorrect)

Be careful with using ‘besides’. ‘Besides’ used as a preposition is the same as ‘in addition to’.
For Example:- Besides her role as a mother of three, Mary runs a charity and works part-time for her husband’s
company.

However, when used as a conjunctive adverb, ‘besides’ is the same as ‘in any case’. ‘in addition to/also’ is used to add
information of equal value.
For example: -
I’m really tired and I’d just like to stay home; Besides, I am not hungry (Correct)
The guests enjoyed a live dance band; Also, they enjoyed a 12 course banquet (Correct)
The guests enjoyed a live dance band; Besides, they enjoyed a 12 course banquet (Incorrect)
The guests enjoyed a live dance band; Besides the band, they enjoyed a 12 course banquet (Correct)
Relative Adverbs
Relative adverbs are used to describe how, when or why a certain action takes place. There are three relative adverbs
in the English language – why, when and where.

‘Why’ is used to introduce reason.

For example – I do not why Legolas is in the Hobbit movie.

‘What’ is used to introduce information about place.

For example – That is the restaurant where I work.

Use ‘where’ only to indicate physical locations. Do not use ‘where’ to indicate conditions, situations, circumstances etc.
Use ‘in which’ instead.
For example - He read a paper where he made the problem clear. (Incorrect)
He read a paper in which he made the problem clear. (Correct)
We did a science experiment where we dissected frogs. (Incorrect)
We did a science experiment in which we dissected frogs. (Correct)

‘When’ is used to denote time. Be careful to check the sentence to see if it makes logical sense.
For example – When you look closely at the house, it is on fire. (Incorrect)
VERBS AND TENSES
VERBS
Verbs
Verbs refer to words that depict action, existence, or happening. It is not possible to make a meaningful sentence without
a verb in it.
Some Examples – play, run, feel, is/was/are, write, speak etc.

For example –
The children will play in the evening.
She visits the hospital twice a week.

Some common types of verb forms are –

1. Action Verbs and State Verbs

2. Gerunds
3. Participles
4. Auxiliaries
Action Verbs
Action Verbs (or Dynamic Verbs) are used to denote the action performed by the subject. Some common examples – eat,
go, drink, kill etc.

Action verbs help us identify what the subject is doing.

For example –
Legolas killed the foul orc with his bow.
‘Killing’ is what Legolas did

Arun is teaching Sentence Correction.

‘Teaching’ is what Arun does

What about this?

Arun is the CEO of CrackVerbal.
‘Ising’ is not something that Arun is doing. ‘Is’ is a state verb. (See what I did there?)

What about is doing then?

State Verbs
State verbs are verbs that express a state rather than an action. They are used to express thoughts, emotions,
relationships, senses, states of being and measurements. Some examples – feel, is/are, become, see etc.

For example –
Sheila feels sick. ‘Feels’ describes a state Sheila is in and is not an action done by Sheila.
My pet Cheetah seems happy.

Common Categories of State Verbs (Memorize these verbs. We will revisit them when we discuss Tenses).
Type of Verb Examples
To be Is/was/are/were/be
Verbs of the Senses Feel, hear, smell, taste, appear, resemble, seem, sound, look
Verbs of Emotion love, hate, like, want, need, desire, wish
Verbs of Possession have, own, belong, possess, include, owe, hold
Verbs of Opinion / Perception know, believe, understand, recognize, prefer, agree/disagree,
approve/disapprove, suppose, suspect
Verbs Of States/Qualities weigh, contain, consist, measure, cost, exist, depend, deserve, involve, matter
State Verbs
Some State Verbs can be used both in an action sense and in a state sense.

As an Action Verb As a State Verb

The engineer felt around the wing surface to check for Susan feels exhausted
defects
Out of nowhere, the Eagle appeared on the branch The Falcon appeared happy to be reunited with its
master
The family is having (= experiencing) fun / Aragorn is James Bond has a death wish.
having (= eating) soup.
The pizza looks delicious We are looking at the stunning landscape

The grizzly weighs 360 kilograms Sulo, the Bearman, is weighing the largest Brown bear
in Alaska
She holds a PhD in biochemistry Aragorn held (= gripped) his sword tight

The pasta tastes good The connoisseur tasted the wine

Gerunds
Gerunds are nouns formed from verbs. ALL gerunds end in –ing. Some examples – running, walking, driving.

For example –
Exercising is good for health.
Eating breakfast brightens your day.

Gerunds are always Singular.

For example –
Lighting lamps are common during Diwali (Incorrect)
Lighting lamps is common during Diwali (Correct).

Gerunds commonly have 3 functions in a sentence –

1. As Subjects

Swimming is good exercise

Watching Game of Thrones is fun.
Gerunds
2. As Objects of Verbs

I love acting
Daniel quit smoking a year ago.

3. As Objects of Prepositions

I look forward to helping you paint the house.

You can tell a lot about a fellow's character by his way of eating jellybeans.

4. After the verb ‘to be’ (is/was/are/were/be/am)

Generosity is giving more than you can, and pride is taking less than you need.
My favourite thing about being in Japan is eating sushi

In all the above examples, the –ing forms act as nouns. What about these forms then? Are these Gerunds?
My friend is giving away all his money.
We were eating Sushi yesterday.
Participles
A participle is a word formed from a verb that can be used as an adjective.

The two types of participles are the present participle (-ing forms) and the past participle (-ed, -d, -t, -en, or -n forms).
Some examples – watching, watched, boiling, sworn, boiled etc.
For example –
the rising sun, battering ram, cooked meat, crooked arm, armoured vehicle
In all these examples, the participles function as adjectives. (Not as nouns or verbs)

The man carrying the bricks is my father – Carrying the bricks serves as an adjective to The man
The dog found by my Jim belongs to my neighbour – Found by Jim serves as an adjective to The dog
Smiling, she accepted the Verdict – Smiling serves as an adjective to She
Stunned by the blow from the Uruk, Aragorn quickly gathered his senses – Stunned by the blow serves as an adjective
to Aragorn.

What about these sentences then? Are these Gerunds/Participles? Do they serve as Nouns or Adjectives?
The man was carrying bricks
Aragorn was stunned by the blow from the Uruk
Gerunds and Participles
Present Participle form (-ing form) of a verb can be any of three things – Participle, Gerund or a Verb.
Past participle form (-ed, -en, –n etc. forms) of a verb can be one of two things – Participle or a Verb.

How do I differentiate between these forms?

Note that a participle serves as an adjective (describes a noun); A gerund functions as a noun; A verb describes an
action

Gerund Participle Verb

Washing clothes by hand is a These clothes are washed (Did the These dhobi washed my clothes
strenuous activity clothes wash themselves? Or does it
describe clothes?)
She enjoys cooking exotic dishes The chef cooking dinner is my cousin The chef is cooking dinner
(Which chef?)
Smiling is beneficial to health Smiling, she accepted the verdict She was smiling when the judge
announced the verdict

NOTE – When present participles are used as verbs, they are ALWAYS accompanied by the verb ‘to be’.
Auxiliaries
Auxiliary (or Helping) verbs are used together with a main verb to show the verb’s tense or to form a negative or
question. These auxiliary verbs are followed by another verb, referred to as the full verbs.

The most common auxiliary verbs are have, be, and do.
For example –
Did Gimli fight the Balrog? (did + fight  did is the auxiliary verb).
They are trying to block the gates (are + trying  are is the auxiliary verb)
He has visited Thailand (has + visited  has is the auxiliary verb)

What about this?

The one ring has the power to change Middle Earth (has is not an auxiliary verb here)

In addition to the three main auxiliary verbs, have, do, and be, there are additional auxiliary verbs. These are called modal
auxiliary verbs.

Here are all the modal auxiliary verbs:

Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Ought to, Shall, Should, Will, Would
TENSES
Tenses
Tenses are verb forms used to indicate time in English language.

There are three types of tenses:

1. Past tense
2. Present tense
3. Future tense

There are four variations of each of these three tenses:

1. Simple
2. Perfect
3. Continuous
4. Perfect Continuous

Let us look at the verb conjugation chart to understand them better.

Tenses – Verb Conjugation
Present Past Future
Simple I Run Ran Will run
He, she, it Runs Ran Will run
We, they Run Ran Will run
Continuous I Am running Was running Will be running
He, she, it Is running Was running Will be running
We, they are running Were running Will be running
Perfect I Have run Had run Will have run
He, she, it Has run Had run Will have run
We, they Have run Had run Will have run
Perfect Continuous I Have been running Had been running Will have been running
He, she, it Has been running Had been running Will have been running
We, they Have been running Had been running will have been running
Simple Present
Simple present is used to express habits or general truths.

These things have existed in the past, exist now (in the present) and will probably exist in the future.

REPEATED ACTIONS
I play tennis
× × × × × ×× × × × × × My mother cooks dinner everyday
The sun rises in the east
Past Present Future

GENERAL TRUTHS (or STATES)

Cats like milk
I work at CrackVerbal
Past Wood floats on water
Present Future
Bangalore is a metropolis.
Present Continuous
The present continuous tense expresses an action that began in the past, is in progress now and will probably
continue into the future.

It indicates actions happening right now.

HAPPENING RIGHT NOW
I am playing tennis
My mom is cooking dinner
We are learning Sentence Correction
Past Present Future

It can also be used for actions that are not finished yet (Not necessarily happening right now)
For example - Norton is working at KFC this semester, but he isn’t there now because he is sick.

DO NOT USE STATIVE VERBS(for ex – know, understand, want) IN ANY CONTINUOUS TENSES. USE SIMPLE PRESENT
INSTEAD OF PRESENT CONTINUOUS. These would be incorrect –

I am wanting to go home
We are understanding Sentence Correction
I am loving it.
Present Perfect – With a length of time
The present perfect uses the form – has/have + past participle. It is also the most confusing tense in English. Don’t
worry, we will break it down for you.

With a length of time With a length of time, present perfect means that the action
started in the past and has continued to the present.

Jim has worked at the supermarket for 10 years

Past Present Future She has taught English since she was 22.

With a length of time + FREQUENCY When the number of times (along with a length of time) is also
indicated, it means that the action has happened repeatedly.

He has watched Lord of the Rings seven times since July

Past Present Future He has written ten books since 1995.
× × × × ×
Present Perfect – Without a length of time
Without a length of time, present perfect means that the action
Without a length of time happened at an unspecified time before now. (the action ended)

× I have lived in Delhi (= I no longer live there).

Past Present Future John has fixed the car.

DO NOT USE present perfect when a specific time is given. USE simple past instead.
For example –
Yesterday, my mother has cooked dinner. (Incorrect)

When the number of times is also indicated, it implies that the

Without a length of time + FREQUENCY action might happen again

He has watched Lord of the Rings seven times. (He might watch it
Past Present Future again)
× × × × × He has written ten books. (He will write another one).

DO NOT USE this function when referring to people who are dead
For example – Shakespeare has written several poems (Incorrect. He CANNOT write another one)
Present Perfect Continuous
The present perfect continuous uses the form – has/have + been + present participle. It means that the action has
started in the past and has continued till now.

With/Without a length of time Present perfect continuous means that the action started in the
past and has continued till now. It is the same as present perfect +
a length of time.

Past Present Future I have been writing this letter for an hour.
I have been reading this book.

DO NOT USE state verbs with continuous tenses. USE Present perfect instead. These sentences are incorrect –
John has been believing in Santa Claus since he was 2 years old.
John has been loving Sarah since the day they met.

DO NOT USE continuous tenses with frequency words. USE Present perfect instead. These are incorrect –
Joey has been visiting the zoo three times this month
He has been writing 3 books since July (indicates that he is writing all 3 three books at the same time.)
Simple Past
Simple past uses the form Verb + - ed, en, n, t, etc.

COMPLETED ACTIONS
He fixed the car.
× She taught English.
Last year, I visited Germany
Past Present Future

WITH A LENGTH OF TIME

I lived in Japan for 2 years ( = I no longer live there)
She taught English for 20 years
Past Present Future They sat at the beach all day

NOTE THAT SINCE AS A TIME INDICATOR CANNOT BE USED WITH SIMPLE PAST. WE NEED PRESENT PERFECT.
For example –
She has taught English since she was 22 years old. (Incorrect)
Simple Past
WITH HABITS IN THE PAST
I walked everyday to school
He played the violin
When I was in Delhi, I called my parents every week.
Past Present Future
×× ××
GENERAL TRUTHS IN THE PAST
She was a shy girl when she was a child.
The moon used to brighten the night sky before it was destroyed by
Jackie Chun
Past Present Future I did not like Bhindi before I visited Delhi.

WHEN A SPECIFIC TIME IN THE PAST IS GIVEN, ALWAYS USE THE PAST TENSE.
For example – In 1991, Saddam invaded Kuwait.

When past tense is used with a frequency word, it means that the action WILL NOT HAPPEN AGAIN.
For example – I wrote ten novels this year (It indicates that I will not write anymore novels this year)
 Past Continuous
Past Continuous uses the form was/were + present participle (-ing form).

Past Continuous is used to indicate that a longer action in the past was
interrupted by a shorter action in the Simple Past. We use when/while
INTERRRUPTED ACTIONS IN PAST before interruptions.
× My mom was cooking diner when I arrived.
While I was eating cereal yesterday, the cat jumped into my bowl.

Past Present Future The interruption can also be denoted by a specific time in the past.

Last evening at 6 PM, I was eating dinner.

At midnight, we were driving through the valley.
When we discuss 2 past actions, and the longer action is interrupted by a shorter action, DO NOT USE simple past for the
longer action.

Last night at 6 PM, I ate dinner. (I started eating exactly at 6 PM and finished at the same time)
When he got home, his wife talked to her friend on the phone.
 Past Continuous

Past Continuous is also used to indicate that two actions happened over
time together.
PARALLEL ACTIONS IN PAST
While I was studying for the GMAT, Aditya was playing football.
Were you paying attention while I was talking?

Past Present Future Generally, while is followed by past continuous and when is followed by
past tense.

DO NOT USE state verbs with continuous tenses. USE Past tense instead. These sentences are incorrect –

John was believing in Santa Claus when he was a kid.

John was understanding Chemistry when he attended the lectures.
Past Perfect
Past Perfect uses the form had + past participle (-ed, en, n, t etc. form).

COMPLETED ACTIONS BEFORE SOME The past perfect is used to denote that some other action happened
OTHER PAST ACTION before another action in the past.
× Aditya had finished cleaning the driveway when his wife came home.
Past Present Future Before Legolas went to the council meeting, he had met with Gandalf
the Grey.

WITH A TIME FRAME With a specific time frame, we use the Past Perfect to show
that something started in the past and continued up to another
× action in the past.

Past Present Future She had been a teacher for 10 years before she attended
Cambridge.
I was really tired because I had worked since 7:00
Past Perfect

Note that the usage of past perfect is not always necessary if the sequence of events can be inferred from context

Before Legolas went to the council meeting, he (had) met with Gandalf the Grey.
Frodo Baggins returned to the Shire after he (had) finished his quest.
The whale (had) beached on the shore and was subsequently/then butchered by hominids.

Note that we cannot use WHEN in the same way.

When his wife arrived, he cleaned the driveway. (both actions happened at the same time).

You need to use the past perfect WHEN you are speaking about past “In your life” sentences.

I never visited New York before 1996. (Incorrect)

I had never visited New York before 1996. (Correct)
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect uses the form had + been + present participle (-ing form).

Past perfect continuous is used for actions that began in the past and
WITH/WITHOUT A LENGTH OF TIME
continued until another action in the past. They convey the same
× meaning as Past Perfect + a length of time.

Past Present Future I had been teaching English for 10 years before I joined CrackVerbal.
He was tired because he had been exercising.

DO NOT USE Past Continuous when Past Perfect Continuous is required.

For example -
He was tired because he was exercising. (exercising and feeling tired happened at the same time)

DO NOT USE State Verbs with Continuous Tenses. Use the Past Perfect instead.
For example -
He had been hating Leslie Jones even before he watched Ghostbusters. (Incorrect)
He (had) hated Leslie Jones even before he watched Ghostbusters. (Correct)
Simple Future
The Future tense takes two forms in English Language – will OR going to. GMAT prefers using will.

EVENTS IN THE FUTURE/PREDICTIONS

Tomorrow, the party will announce its nominee for the elections
× He will go to Bermuda next week
Trump will make sweeping changes to US foreign policy
Past Present Future

HABITS IN THE FUTURE

When I visit Bermuda, I will go jogging for one hour everyday.
××× × He will play the violin when he joins the orchestra
I will visit my hometown every month.
Past Present Future

DO NOT USE THE Future Tense with clauses beginning WITH TIME EXPRESSIONS such as: when, while, before, after, by
the time, as soon as, OR WITH CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS such as if, unless, etc. USE Simple Present.

When you will arrive tomorrow, we will go out to the mall (Incorrect)
When you arrive tomorrow, we will go out to the mall (Correct)
 Future Continuous
Future Continuous uses the form will + present participle (-ing form).
Future Continuous is used to indicate that a longer action in the future will
be interrupted by a shorter action in the Future.
INTERRRUPTED ACTIONS IN PAST

× My mom will be cooking diner when I arrive tonight.

When the train leaves at 5 PM, my relatives will be waiting for me at the
station.

Past Present Future The interruption can also be denoted by a specific time in the past.

At 6 PM today, I will be watching WestWorld.

Next week, we will be driving through the valley.
When we discuss 2 past actions, and the longer action is interrupted by a shorter action, DO NOT USE simple future for
the longer action.

Today at 6 PM, I will eat dinner. (I will start eating exactly at 6 PM and will finish at the same time)
When he gets home, his wife will talk to her friend on the phone.
 Future Continuous

PARALLEL ACTIONS IN FUTURE Future Continuous is also used to indicate that two actions happened
over time together.

Tonight, I will be studying for the GMAT, whereas Gollum will be playing
football.
Past Present Future
Will you be paying attention while I give the seminar?

DO NOT USE state verbs with continuous tenses. USE Future tense instead. These sentences are incorrect –

John will be owning a new bike next month.

John will be understanding Chemistry when he attends the lectures.

DO NOT USE Future Tenses with time clauses. This sentence is considered incorrect.

While I will be finishing my homework, she will be cooking dinner (Incorrect)

While I am finishing my homework, she will be cooking dinner (Correct)
Future Perfect
Future Perfect uses the form wil + have + past participle (-ed, en, n, t etc. form).

COMPLETED ACTIONS BEFORE SOME The Future perfect is used to show that some action happened before
OTHER FUTURE ACTION another action in the future.
× Aditya will have finished cleaning the driveway when his wife comes
Past Present Future home.
Before Legolas goes to the council meeting, he will have met with
Gandalf the Grey.

WITH A TIME FRAME With a specific time frame, we use the Future Perfect to show
that some action will continue up to another action in the future.
× She will have been a teacher for 10 years when she joins
Past Present Future Cambridge next Summer.
The Surgeon will be really tired tomorrow because he will have
worked for 10 hours straight.
Future Perfect

Note that the usage of Future perfect is not always necessary if the sequence of events can be inferred from context

Before Legolas goes to the council meeting, he (will have met) will meet with Gandalf the Grey.

Note that we cannot use WHEN in the same way.

When his wife arrives, he will clean the driveway. (both actions happened at the same time).

DO NOT USE Future Tenses with Time Clauses. Use Simple Present instead.

Frodo Baggins will return to the Shire after he will have finished his quest. (Incorrect)
What about this ?
Frodo Baggins will return to the Shire after he will finish his quest. (Incorrect)

Frodo Baggins will return to the Shire after he finishes his quest. (Correct)
Future Perfect Continuous
Future Perfect Continuous uses the form will + have + been + present participle (-ing form).

Future Perfect Continuous is used to indicate that an action will continue

WITH/WITHOUT A TIME FRAME up to another point/action in the future.

× When he gets home, he will have been working for 8 hours

By the time the teacher arrives, the students will have been working on
Past Present Future their assignments.

DO NOT USE Future Continuous when Future Perfect Continuous is required.

For example -
He will be tired because he will be exercising. (exercising and feeling tired happened at the same time)
He will be tired because he will have been exercising (Correct)
Future Perfect Continuous
DO NOT USE State Verbs with Continuous Tenses. Use the Past Perfect instead.

For example -
Next year, We will have been owning this house for 10 years. (Incorrect)
Next year, we will have owned this house for 10 years. (Correct)

DO NOT USE Future Tenses with time clauses. This sentence is considered incorrect.

You will not get a promotion until you will have been working here for 10 years. (Incorrect)
You will not get a promotion until you have worked here for 10 years. (Correct)
Future in the Past

FUTURE FROM PAST PERSPECTIVE We use would to talk about the future from the perspective of the
past.
×
In 1996, I thought I would climb Mt. Everest. (climbing Mt. Everest
Past Present Future was the future in 1996).
He promised that he would send a postcard from Patagonia.

DO NOT USE Future in the Past with clauses beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the
time, as soon as, or with clauses indicating conditionality such as: if, unless, provided etc.

We use SIMPLE PAST instead.

Frodo told Bilbo that when Gandalf would arrive, he would surprise him. (Incorrect)
Frodo told Bilbo that when Gandalf arrived, he would surprise him. (Correct)
If I would have been president, I would declare war on the Vulcans. (Incorrect)
If I were president, I would declare war on the Vulcans. (Correct)
PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions
Prepositions are used to connect nouns, pronouns to other words in a sentence.

Note that prepositions must always be followed by a noun or pronoun. These nouns/pronouns are called objects of the
preposition.

Some commonly prepositions – in, on, with, for, about, around, of, to.

Note that infinitives are not prepositions.

For example –
He works hard to pay his tuition fees. (to pay is an infinitive - to + Verb)
We went to the movies. (to the Movies is a prepositional phrase – to + Noun).

Preposition + Noun/Pronoun is called a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases can play two roles –
1. Adjectives
2. Adverbs
Prepositions
Prepositional phrases can be used either as adjectives or as adverbs.

For example –

The book on the table belongs to her. (On the table describes the book)
She placed the book on the table. (on the table describes the verb placed)
The book is on the table. (on the table modifies the noun the book).
They usually go on vacation to France in summer. (on vacation to France modifies the verb go. to France modifies the
noun vacation. In summer modifies the verb go).
Columbus sailed to America in the 1600s. (to America modifies the verb sailed; in the 1600s also modifies the verb sailed)
We loaded the equipment in the room on the truck. (in the room modifies the noun equipment; on the truck refers to the
verb loaded; It does not refer to room as the room is not on the truck)

You will learn more about Modifiers(Adjectives/Adverbs) in the GMAT Sentence Correction Course.
Prepositions – Common Errors
Note that prepositional phrases can never be the subjects of a clause.
On the table is a book on Idioms and a pen. (Incorrect)
On the table are a book on Idioms and a pen. (Correct; the Subject = a book on Idioms and a pen).

With is commonly used in the sense – together with/along with.

I had breakfast with Idli, Sambar and Vada. (Incorrect; idli, sambar, and vada did not have breakfast along with me).
I had Idli, sambar and vada for breakfast (Correct)
I had idli and vada with sambar for breakfast (Correct)
I had breakfast with Aditya (Correct)

We went to jog falls with my car (Incorrect)

We went to jog falls in my car (Correct)
We went to jog falls by bus (Correct)
Prepositions – Common Errors
To used as preposition usually describes a motion from Point A to Point B. At, however, does not describe motion but
location at a certain point.

I went to the Himalayas during summer. (from my home, presumably)

I stayed at the Himalayas during summer. (No movement)
I went at the mountain top. (Incorrect. Needs the preposition to to indicate movement)

Prepositions in/into are used in the same sense as inside.

I was nervous as I went in for my exam. (I went inside the exam room)
I went to London for my exam. (suggests movement)
I went into London for my exam. (Incorrect)

A major tobacco company is test- marketing a cigarette in which thin layers of extra paper are used. (Correct. The thin
layers are inside the cigarette)
A major tobacco company is test- marketing a cigarette for which thin layers of extra paper are used. (Incorrect. Suggests
that thin layers are used for the sake of test-marketing)
Prepositions – Common Errors
The preposition of suggests belonging or possession. However, we speak about countries and things being in the world,
not of the world.

Lake Baikal is the largest freshwater lake of the world. (Incorrect)

Lake Baikal is the largest freshwater lake in the world. (Correct)
Lake Baikal of Russia is the largest freshwater lake in the world. (Incorrect)
Lake Baikal in Russia is the largest freshwater lake in the world. (correct)

When we describe someplace to which a person or thing is native, we use of and not in.

I am a citizen of India.
I am a citizen in India. (Incorrect. Implies that as soon as I am abroad, I am no longer a citizen).
Lions of Africa are ferocious creatures.
Lions in Africa are ferocious creatures. (Incorrect. Implies that they will not be ferocious when removed from Africa).
Prepositions – Common Errors
The adjective good is commonly followed by at not in whereas the adverb well is commonly followed by the in not at.

Aditya is good at Math. (correct)

Arun is good in English. (incorrect)
Aravind did well in school. (correct)
Aravind did well at school. (incorrect)
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions
Conjunctions link words, phrases, and clauses, making lists or contrasts.
Some examples – and, but, for, or etc.

She went to the mall and then went to have dinner. (introduces a list of two things).
Shelob loves hobbit meat but hates orc meat. (introduces a contrast).

There are three types of conjunctions in the English language –

1. Coordinating Conjunctions
2. Subordinating Conjunctions
3. Correlative Conjunction
Coordinating Conjunctions
There are seven coordinating conjunctions in the English language.

They are – for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. You can remember this as FANBOYS.

Coordinating conjunctions are used to connect –

1. Individual words
I ordered pizza and red sauce pasta from Dominos.

2. Phrases
I like watching football but not playing it.

3. Independent Clauses
I was intoxicated, so I called a cab to take me home.
Coordinating Conjunctions
FOR
For used as a conjunction is used in the same sense as because.
For example -
My mother hates wasting food, for food is considered a holy gift.
He did attend the webinar, for he was sick.

AND
And is used to introduce a list.
For example –
I like running, swimming, and skiing.
In culture and in politics, we are the last custodians of language-because of the books we read.

Note that and introduces a list. It does not indicate a causal relationship between the items.
For example –
I was caught in a traffic jam and was late to work. (We have no idea why I was late to work. 2 items on the list are
independent).
Coordinating Conjunctions
NOR
Nor is used to introduce an additional negative idea when a negative idea has already been stated.

Note that the second clause must convey a positive idea.

He does not like computer games nor does he like software programming.
We did not get to see the castle nor did we see the cathedral.

We use nor to join two clause not phrases. Use or instead.

He does not like computer games nor like software programming. (Incorrect; this creates a double negative – not + nor.)
He does not like computer games or like software programming. (Correct)
He can’t play football nor basketball. (Incorrect; He cannot play nor basketball).
He cannot play football or basketball. (correct)
Coordinating Conjunctions
BUT
But is used to denote contrast between two nouns, phrases or clauses.

They did not seem frightened, but chirped softly, as if they knew they were safe.
I tried hard to teach her my sign language, but she was dull and inattentive.

Do not use but when no contrast is indicated.

The tiger is an endangered animal but is overhunted. (Incorrect)

OR
Or is used to present alternatives between two nouns, phrases or clauses.

We can go to the movies or to the game.

We can go to the movies or we can go to the game.
Coordinating Conjunctions
YET
Yet is used to denote contrast between two nouns, phrases or clauses.

The movie was terrible yet incredibly funny to watch.

It’s poured rain all day, yet they haven’t cancelled the football game.

SO
So is used to denote effect in a causal relationship.

I was stuck in a traffic, so I was late for work.

I have spent hours on this project, so it is going to be awesome.
Coordinating Conjunctions – Placement of Comma
1. Two Independent Clauses

When you connect two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, use a comma immediately before the
conjunction.

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE + , + COORDINATING CONJUNCTION + SECOND INDPENDENT CLAUSE

I like to watch movies, but my roommate likes to watch sports.

2. Two Words or Phrases

We do not use a comma when we connect two words or phrases with a coordinating conjunction.

WORD/PHRASE+ COORDINATING CONJUNCTION + SECOND WORD/PHRASE

He did not join the army but joined the navy.

My dog has beautiful blue eyes and a strong personality.
Coordinating Conjunctions – Placement of Comma
3. Three or more items in a list.

When we connect three or more items in a list we normally use a comma before the coordinating conjunction. However,
the use of this comma is considered optional on the GMAT.

ITEM + , + ITEM 2 + , (optional) + AND + ITEM 3

I love hiking, skiing, and kayaking.

I love hiking, skiing and kayaking.
I have always wanted to buy a house in the mountains, sell everything, and contemplate on the meaning of life.
Conjunctions – Subordinate Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction joins an independent clause to a dependent/subordinate clause.

The subordinating conjunction tells us that the dependent clause is lesser in importance than the main/independent
clause.

The subordinating conjunction also tells us the relationship between the independent and the dependent clause.
For example –
Because she is tall, she was selected to the basketball team. (Because signifies a causal relationship between the main
clause and the dependent clause.)

Note that dependent clauses cannot function independently as complete sentences.

Because she is tall (Incorrect)

When the cat jumped (Incorrect)
Conjunctions – Subordinate Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction can belong to one of these categories –

1. Cause Indicator.

We use these conjunctions to indicate cause - as, because, and since. They can be used interchangeably.

He scored a 700 because he had worked hard.

He scored a 700 since he had worked hard.
He scored a 700 as he had worked hard.

2. Contrast Indicator.

We use these conjunctions to indicate contrast – while, whereas, although, though, even though.

While I studied very hard, my roommate wasted his time playing computer games.
I love playing Skyrim whereas I hate playing Diablo.
We went to eat at Kamat’s although/though/even though the restaurant’s ratings were abysmal.
Conjunctions – Subordinate Conjunctions
3. Place

We use the relative pronouns where and wherever to indicate place.

Do you know a shop where they sell used laptops?

He likes to bike wherever he goes.
I do not know where she went.
Wherever she went, she was followed by press photographers.

Note that wherever is used to indicate any/every place. Where is used to refer to a specific location.

4. Intent

We use so that to specify intent.

I asked her to make detailed notes on Sentence Correction topics so that she would not forget the rules.
Conjunctions – Subordinate Conjunctions
5. Condition

We use these conjunctions – if, even if, provided that, in case – to make conditional statements.

I will buy you dinner if you help me with my project. (If you help me, I will definitely buy you dinner; Otherwise, I may or
may not).

Provided that has a stronger emphasis than if.

I will buy you dinner provided that you help me with my project. (I will only buy you dinner if you help me; Otherwise
not).

Even if is used to state that something will happen despite the fact that something else might not happen.
I will buy you dinner even if you do not help me with my project. (I will buy you dinner no matter what).

We use in case to suggest a precaution against a hypothetical possibility.

I am carrying a jacket in case the weather turns dreadful. (I am worried that the weather might turn dreadful.)
Conjunctions – Subordinate Conjunctions
6. Time

We use these conjunctions – when, while, as soon as, whenever, before, after, until – to indicate time.

While I was watching TV, my roommate was studying for the exam next day. (While is used in the same sense as at the
same time as).
When I arrived home, my mother had already cooked dinner.
He rushed to the hospital as soon as he could.

The conjunctions before and after are used to denote sequence of events.
My mother cooked dinner before I came home. (the cooking happened first)
My mother cooked dinner after I came home. (the cooking happened later)

We use whenever to indicate general truths.

My cat runs in fear whenever it sees milk.
Conjunctions – Subordinate Conjunctions
Until is used in the same sense as up to the time that. The clause that follows until indicates the end point
of the action in the previous clause.

I can’t wait until the summer holidays begin. (I will stop waiting when the summer holidays begin).
He ran track until he moved here. (He stopped running track when he moved here.)

Note that we cannot use until when the previous action does not have a end point.
The movie will be finished until 9 pm. (finished does not need a end point. It is an end point)

Until clauses are not usually placed before the independent clause
No one left the room until the talk ended.
Until the talk ended no one left the room.

Recall that we cannot use future tenses with any of the time clauses.
I can’t wait until the summer holidays begin.
I can’t wait until the summer holidays will begin. (Incorrect)
Subordinate Conjunctions – Placement of Comma
Subordinating conjunctions are used in two configurations –

SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + , + MAIN CLAUSE

OR
MAIN CLAUSE + SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

While I was eating dinner, my cat jumped into the bowl.

Although he was talented, he could not find any work.
He could not find work because he was lazy.
My mother cooked dinner after I came home.

When we use relative clauses (such as when, where, who etc.), commas are not used when the information is essential
to the meaning of the sentence. If the information is non-essential, we use commas.

My uncle who owns a casino in Las Vegas gifted me a Ferrari. (I have many uncles. I need to refer to a specific person.
Otherwise it is not clear to whom I am referring).
Uncle Enzo, who owns a casino in Las Vegas, gifted me a Ferrari. (I know which uncle I am referring to).
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are sets of conjunctions that are always used together.

Like coordinating conjunctions, they join words, phrases, or independent clauses of similar or equal importance and
structure.

Unlike coordinating conjunctions, they can only join two elements together, no more.

Some of the most common correlative conjunctions are:

1. both X and Y
2. either X or Y
3. just as X so Y
4. neither X nor Y
5. not X but Y
6. not only X but also Y
7. whether X or Y
Correlative Conjunctions
When we use correlative conjunctions to connect two subjects, the verb must agree with the second subject.

For example –
Every single day, either my parents or my brother washes dirty dishes with his own hands.
Every single day, either my brother or my parents wash dirty dishes with their own hands.
Every single day, either my parents or my brother wash dirty dishes with their own hands. (Incorrect)

Not only Mike but also his friends from college are coming with us.
Not only my parents but also my cousin from Minnesota is coming with me.
Not only my parents but also my cousin are coming with me. (Incorrect)

There is only one exception to the rule. When we use the correlative conjunction both X and Y, the verb is always plural.

Both the electrician and the plumber are here. (Correct)

Neither the electrician nor the plumber is here. (Correct)
Correlative Conjunctions
When we use correlative conjunctions, we require both the structures connected to be equal. That is the structures must
be parallel.

For example –
This laptop is both fast and light.” (Two adjectives are joined.)
Let us either go shopping or go fishing.” (Two verb phrases are joined.)
Either your father will pick you up, or you will get a ride home with a friend.” (Two independent clauses are joined.)

Using correlative conjunctions to join non-parallel structures is considered incorrect.

For example –
I am not sure whether the white paint or painting it green would be better. (Incorrect – a white paint is placed in parallel
to painting it green – Not similar structures.)
Let us go either shopping or go fishing. (Incorrect—a noun is joined with a verb phrase go shopping.)
Either your father will pick you up or a friend. (Incorrect—an independent clause is joined with a noun phrase.)
Correlative Conjunctions
Now that the rules are clear, let us look at some of these conjunctions –
Both X and Y
We use this conjunction to emphasize the two structures used – X and Y. X and Y must reinforce each other.

I prepared both pasta and lasagne.

Both my brother and my sister read Brandon Sanderson.

Either X or Y
We use this conjunction to present two options.

We can either go swimming or go skiing.

Either you change your behaviour or you lose access to the WiFi for a month.

Neither X nor Y
We use this conjunction to negate two options.

I have neither the time nor the patience for silly TV programs.
Neither Lanfear nor the other Forsaken expressed their disappointment with Shai’tan.
Correlative Conjunctions
Not X but Y
We use this conjunction to negate X and emphasize Y.

The eerie noises were caused not by a ghost but by my dog.

French fries were invented not in France but in Belgium.

Not only X but also Y (Other variations – not just X but also Y/ not only X but Y)
We use this conjunction when we want to reinforce two ideas X and Y. If X and Y do not reinforce each other, then we
cannot use this conjunction.

The survival of coral colonies is being threatened not only by pollutants but also by dropped anchors, probing drivers, and
global warming.
By pressing a tiny amount of nitrogen between two diamonds to a pressure of 25 million pounds per square inch,
scientists were able not only to transform the gas into a solid but to create a semiconductor similar to silicon.
The company’s profits were not only threatened by increased competition but also bolstered by investments in new
technologies. (Incorrect. Threatened and bolstered do not reinforce each other).
Correlative Conjunctions
Just as X so Y
We use this conjunction to compare two similar things X and Y. Note that the so is optional.

Just as an archaeologist needs a background in art history to evaluate finds of ancient art, so a nautical archaeologist
needs specialized knowledge of the history and theory of ship design in order to understand shipwrecks.
Just as French is spoken in France, English is spoken in England.

Whether X or Y
We use this conjunction to present a choice between two things – X and Y. Note that the or is optional if the meaning is
clear through the context.

I do not know whether the white paint or the green paint is better.
1998 was the year when a large number of faculty members began questioning whether the computer screen was an
adequate replacement for the classroom. (Whether the computer screen is an adequate replacement or not is implied)
Correlative Conjunctions – Placement of Comma
Correlative conjunctions are used in two configurations –

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION 1 + CLAUSE + , + CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION 2 + CLAUSE

OR

CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION 1 + NOUN/PHRASE + CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTION 2 + NOUN/PHRASE

Either you will pass with flying colors, or you will fail miserably. (two complete clauses).
I not only cleaned the room but also washed the dishes. (two verb phrases in parallel).
Not only did Michael prepare the project report, but he also organized the seminar. (two complete clauses in parallel).
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections
Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They are included in a sentence (usually at the
start) to express a sentiment such as surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm.

You will probably never see them in formal writing.

Some examples –

Hi! Nice to see you here.

Hmm! I think you are right.
Ouch! The injection is so painful.

Introductory expressions such as yes, no, indeed, and well are also classified as interjections.

Indeed, this is not the first time the stand has collapsed.
Yes, I do intend to cover the bet.
Well, What do you think about this project?
No, I do not want to marry you.
PUNCTUATION
Apostrophe
Apostrophes are used to indicate possession.

When the noun is singular, possession is indicated by Noun + ‘ + s

For example –
My mother’s earrings, the company’s employees.

When a plural noun that ends in s is used, the apostrophe is placed after the s.
For example –
Countries’ presidents, dragons’ claws.

When a name ends with an s, the use of s after the apostrophe is optional.
For example –
Delores’ boyfriend, Delores’s boyfriend.

We cannot use apostrophes with possessive pronouns such as its, his, her, my, our, ours, your, yours.

Note that it’s is not a possessive form.

It’s = it is. (Contrast this with its)
Apostrophe
If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the second name only.

For example -
Cesar and Maribel's homes are both lovely. (joint possession of the house; presumably husband and wife).
Cesar's and Maribel's homes are both lovely. (separate ownership)

Apostrophes can also be used to shorten words. These shortened forms are called contractions.

For example –
I’m = I am
Shouldn’t = should not
Won’t = will not
Haven’t = have not
It’s = it is
You’re = you are
We’ve = we have
Don’t = do not.
Comma
The comma has several uses. We will discuss few of them here –

1. To separate items in a list

For example –
I like swimming, rafting, and rock-climbing. OR
I like swimming, rafting and rock-climbing.

If lack of a comma before the and causes confusion, insert the comma before the and.
For example –
The money was split between Joey, Rachel, Chandler and Monica. (implies a three-way split).
The money was split between Seinfeld, George, Elaine, and Kramer. (four-way split).

2. To separate the day and month from the year.

For example –
I graduated from college on Mar 20, 1987.
Comma
3. To separate a city from the state and after the state.
For example –
Corey Williams has lived in Anchorage, Alaska, for two years.
Corey Williams has lived in Anchorage, AL for two years.

Note that we omit the comma after the state if the abbreviated name is used.

4. With degrees or titles.

For example –
Dr. Gregory House, M.D., is a famous diagnostician.

5. With coordinating and subordinating conjunctions

Refer to Conjunctions.

6. To separate non-essential information.

For example –
Uncle Billy, from Las Vegas, gifted me a Porsche.
My uncle from Las Vegas gifted me a Porsche.
Comma
7. To separate contrasting statements in a sentence.
For example –
George said that the toys were his, not Kramer’s.

8. With conjunctive adverbs such as however, nevertheless, therefore etc.

For example –
You can, however, call the police.
Therefore, you must immediately report the crime.
Semicolon
Semicolons are used to split sentences that are grammatically independent but still have closely linked meaning.
For example -
Annie is fond of ice creams; Joseph prefers chocolates.

Sometimes, conjunctions can be used in place of semicolons.

For example -
Annie is fond of ice creams but Joseph prefers chocolates.

Note that we cannot use a comma to connect two independent clauses. We need to use either a conjunction or a
semicolon.
Annie is fond of ice creams, Joseph prefers chocolates. (Incorrect).

Do not use semicolons along with coordinating conjunctions with independent clauses. Such a thing is considered
redundant on GMAT.
For example -
I have a lot of work; so, I cannot go out tonight. (Incorrect).
I have a lot of work; therefore, I cannot go out tonight
I have a lot of work, so I cannot go out tonight.
Semicolon
Semicolons are also used to connect two or more lists when the lists themselves contain commas.
For example -
Please order these things from the store: cheese-burst pizza and margarita pizza; eggs, bacon, and butter; and potato
chips, cola, and soda.

Semicolons are also frequently used with conjunctive adverbs.

For example –
Jack and Jill are married; however, they live separately.

Note that the semicolon must connect two complete clauses.

For example –
Jack and Jill are inseparable; going shopping together. (Incorrect. The second part is not a clause).
Jack and Jill are inseparable; they go shopping together.

When we connect two independent clauses using semicolons, we must ensure that the two clauses are connected in an
independent way.
For example –
Jack and Jill are married; they live separately. (Incorrect. Does not make sense.)
Jack and Jill are married but they live separately. (Correct.)
Colon
A colon provides description/explanation of the information before it.
For example –
There was only one possible explanation: the flight had never arrived.

Colon is generally used to provide a list.

For example –
Beth is planning to buy a few vegetables: capsicum, ladyfinger, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower and snake gourd.

Note that the left hand side of the colon must be a complete clause.
For example –
Beth is planning to buy : capsicum, ladyfinger, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower and snake gourd. (Incorrect).

Whatever needs explanation needs to placed as close to the colon as possible.

For example –
A possible explanation was put forth: the flight had never arrived. (Worse)
There was only one possible explanation: the flight had never arrived. (Better).
Dash
A dash provides additional description. A set of two dashes functions in much the same way as commas to provide a
strong interruption.

Dashes provide stronger interruption than commas.

For example –
When his Enfield was finally delivered – nearly six months after he ordered it – he decided that he no longer wanted it.

Note that dashes are different from hyphens. Hyphens are shorter and are used to connect two words.

For example –
Gandalf: Behold the great realm and city of Dwarrowdelf.
Samwise: There is an eye-opener and no mistake.
Dash
Note that the sentence must make sense if the information contained in the dashes is removed.

For example –
Everyone onboard the Prometheus – the spacecraft commissioned to find the origins of mankind – were killed when it
rammed into an alien vessel. (Incorrect).
Everyone onboard the Prometheus were killed when it rammed into an alien vessel. (Incorrect)

Dashes are used to clarify things if the usage of commas makes the meaning ambiguous.

For example –
My three best friends, Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas, and I went to the movies. (Suggests that 7 people went to the movies.)
My three best friends - Aragorn, Gimli, and Legolas - and I went to the movies. (Suggests that 4 people went to the
movies.)
ARTICLES
Articles
There are three articles in the English language – a, an, the.

A/An can precede only singular count nouns. A is used with words that begin with a consonant sound. An is used with
words that begin with a vowel sound.

For example –
a glass of water, a company, an hour, a university, a uniform, a European car, an endemic disease, an honour, a football,
an elephant.

We use A/An for general statements or to introduce a new subject that has not been discussed before.

For example –
A productivity suite is used in most offices. (A general statement)
I met a girl today. (Introduce a new subject).
Articles - The
We use the to talk about things the listener is already familiar with. We do not use the to introduce new subjects.
For example –
The sun is a giant ball of gas. (there is only one sun).
The professor taught Quantum Mechanics. (We know which professor the speaker is talking about).

We use The to refer to specific things.

For example –
The professor taught Quantum Mechanics. (refers to a specific professor)
Professors teach at Universities. (refers to professors in general).
I like grapes. (refers to grapes in general)
The grapes in this vineyard are excellent. (refers to specific grapes).
Articles - The
Use ‘The’ Do not use ‘The’

The Sun, the Moon, the Earth Planets – Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Mars

Some countries (except Great Britain) – the US, the UK, One word Countries – India, China, Burma; Continents –
the Russian Federation, the Philippines, the UAE Asia, Africa; States – Karnataka, Bihar; Cities – Bangalore,
New York
Mountains – the Misty Mountains, the Himalayas, the Mounts – Mount Everest, Mount Kailash
Urals
Oceans, Rivers, Seas, Gulfs – the gulf of Kutch, the Black Singular lakes – Lake Baikal, Lake Superior
Sea, the Indian Ocean, the Ganges
Schools, Colleges and Universities – the University of Colleges that begin with a proper noun – Ohio State
North Carolina University, Texas A&M
Sports – Cricket, Basketball, Tennis.

Abstract Ideas – love, intelligence, hate

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