Applied Structural Geology in Exploration and Mining
Applied Structural Geology in Exploration and Mining
Applied Structural Geology in Exploration and Mining
Ivo Vos, Ph.D., P.Geo., is a Senior Consultant (Structural Geology) with SRK,
based in the Toronto office. Ivo has over 10 years of experience in the regional
and local structural analysis of mineral deposits and has successfully applied his
knowledge to the discovery of new gold deposits in East Africa. He is an expert in
deciphering structural controls on the distribution of mineralization for a variety of
deposit styles, including mesothermal and epithermal precious metal deposits,
nickel sulphide deposits, iron-oxide copper-gold deposits, porphyry-copper
deposits and unconformity-related uranium deposits.
Ivo combines his field skills with deposit-scale 3D modelling, structural and
geological interpretation of geophysical data, and has a special interest in (multi-
commodity) regional exploration targeting studies. He has been involved in
exploration and deposit-scale studies for a variety of commodities in Canada,
East and West Africa, Australia, South America and the Middle East.
Furthermore, Ivo has been actively teaching the Applied Structural Geology
Courses with SRK.
WORKSHOP SCHEDULE
Housekeeping Notes
• Emergency Exits;
• Bathrooms.
What is SRK?
Ulaanbataar, Mongolia
• SRK Consulting is an
independent, international
consulting practice that
offers services from
exploration through
feasibility, mine planning,
and production to mine
closure.
www.srk.com
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
Course Schedule
0800-0815 Welcome and Introduction.
A Risky Situation?
A man floating along in a hot air balloon began
to realise he was lost. He reduced his altitude
and spotted a person below. He descended
a little more and shouted:
A Risky Situation?
“Well," said the geologist,
Most operations do
not maximize the
value of continued
geological input.
Geology
underpins
every aspect
of the mining
process
Solubility of Metals
Cu, Zn = not constrained by solubility in saline
solutions, therefore approximate abundance in rocks.
Au = not constrained by solubility in hydrothermal
solutions, especially those containing S, therefore
approximate abundance in rocks.
Exercise 1:
Fluids and Plumbing
Fluid Required
Toronto Skydome (Rogers Centre):
Volume roof closed: 1,600,000 m3 1m3 = 1000 litres
1.6 x 109 litres
5Moz Au deposit:
Minimum fluids: 5.0 x 1012 litres
3,125 Skydomes
• Topography;
• Seismic pumping;
• Metamorphic dehydration;
• Magmas emplaced in fluid-saturated rocks;
• Fluids expelled from crystallising magmas;
• Buoyancy:
• Temperature (thermal expansion);
• Salinity;
• Viscosity - range of 1 order of magnitude: Mt St Helens Phreatic
Eruption
• 40-400 µPa*s at T = 100-800ºC and 50-300
Mpa.
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
Driving Forces for Fluid Flow
• Permeability:
• Porous sandstone (Ø>15%) = 1 darcy (10-12 m2);
• Crystalline granite = 10-10 darcies (10-22 m2);
• Fault at mid-crustal depth = 1 darcy (10-12 m2);
• 10 orders of magnitude!
Dilation
sucks!!
bother?
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
Example Domains:
• Mineralized / unmineralized (or grade shell domains)
• Structural terranes or geometry changes
• Lithological layers or stratigraphic zones
• Alteration type or intensity
• Permeable / impermeable (hydrology)
• Good / bad mineral exploration target areas
• Structurally complex / simple
• Rock mass weak / strong (geotechnical)
Structural Mapping
Structural mapping includes:
Map Patterns
Santos et al., 2011
Magnetic Patterns
2. Map Contacts
• And be aware of the
nature of the contact:
• Conformable?
• Unconformable?
• Intrusive?
• Faulted?
• Sheared?
• Healed by a dyke?
• Veined?
• Mineralized?
• Where does it go in 3D?
1
2
3
20
Colluvium 10
35
Conglomerate
A
Sandstone 5
50
Limestone 50
30 B C
5
Granite
C
C
7 5
5 2 5
5 5 3
5 10
25
50 5
4. Think in 4D
• Tectonic regimes
change over time;
• An understanding of
the event history is
fundamental to place
mineralization in the
correct context; and
• Keep timing in mind.
Our interpretations
must capture the
timing of structures
Class 3
Example Domain Classes
Class 2
Orientating Core
• BallMark ® System
• Ezy-Mark Tool
Three different gravity and
non-magnetic measurements
Quality Control System
Acoustic
Televiewer
Optical
Televiewer
• Can generate very accurate orientations;
• Orientation is affected by changes in the magnetic field;
• Picking is complicated by strongly laminated rock;
• Powerful supplementary tool particularly when core
orientation fails or is not done.
SRK Convention:
• Measured clockwise;
• From bottom of ellipse.
Support rods
(graduated in degrees)
Tightening
screws
Frame to
hold cor e
Hinge
Moveable
compass
Horizontally
rotating arm
Core
Protractor
one; and
n=1
n=1
n=1
n=1
Num to
3D Rotation - Visualization
A B C D E
Shepard, R and Metzler. J. "Mental rotation of three dimensional objects." Science 1971. 171(972):701-3
A B C D E
2.
A B C D E
3.
A B C D E
4.
A B C D E
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
Exercise 2:
Granny Smith Structure Contours
Modeling Software
• Geomodeller
• Has the ability to accept primary geological observations (such as structural information) to
build a 3D geological model that adheres to built-in geological rules;
• Contact Intrepid Geophysics – Phil McInerney;
• Gocad – Sparse
• Can quickly build structural surfaces from sparse data that represent complex regional-
scale geological objects;
• Contact Mira Geoscience – Gervais Perron;
• GoCad – SKUA
• Is a new implicit geological modelling module from GOCAD, similar to Geomodeller in
terms of built-in geological knowledge;
• Contact Mira Geoscience – Gervais Perron;
• Leapfrog
• 3D interpolation from drillhole data, primarily developed for contouring of assay data,
adapted for geological modeling;
• Contact Zaparo – Andy Abraham;
• Sirovision
• photogrammetric mapping tool for
remote data gathering e.g. pit walls,
allows accurate measurement and
location
• Geophysical Inversion
• 3D inversion software for magnetics,
density and EM data to help constrain
and define geometries of geological
units in the subsurface.
3D model + 3D
GIS. Area of all
west dipping –
plunging
intersections of
major faults on
west wall of pit
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
Conclusions
1. The quality of geological interpretation is still highly
dependant on fundamental geology skills needed in
exploration and mining.
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics; Movement sense and
direction;
Veining
Note operation
of 4 faults
Fault networks
HUNGARY
100km
Fault networks
On a global scale,
linked networks of
divergent, convergent
and transform (strike-
slip) plate boundaries
form a first-order fracture
system in Earth’s
lithosphere
Fault networks
Also 2nd order fault system – transfer faults
Fault networks
• Rock type;
• Confining pressure;
• Pre-existing anisotropy or surfaces;
• Subsequent deformation/flattening.
© Marli Miller, University of Oregon
Fault Classification
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics; Movement sense and
direction;
Veining.
Fault Displacement
Fault Growth
• Despite the geometrical differences between fault types, the
growth of all faults are controlled by two basic processes:
• Fault propagation and segmentation; and
• Fault segment linkage.
• These processes account for nearly all aspects of fault geometry
and fault rock content.
(c) (d)
Fault Linkage
Dilational Jogs
Dilational Jogs
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics; Movement sense and
direction;
Veining.
Damage zones around irregularities along fault zone are zones of enhanced
permeability
Ductile
• Deformation is continuous with wall rocks;
• Strongly developed planar and linear preferred
orientation fabrics; and
• Strain is reflected in the intensity of the foliation.
Rock-types in faults
Incohesive
gouge and
breccia ±
pseudotachylite
Rock-types in faults
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics; Movement sense and
direction;
Veining.
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics; Movement sense and
direction;
Veining.
Kinematic Analysis
Kinematic Indicators
Shear sense
Ground Rules:
• Shear sense can be reliably determined only on sections at high
angle to fault / shear zone and parallel to transport / stretching
direction (i.e. lineation);
• If possible, determine direction of displacement before looking for
shear sense indicators; and
• You must say which way you are facing to be unambiguous.
Lineations
• Lineations probably are the most useful of
all structures
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics – Brittle Faults;
Veining.
b.
Steps on fault surfaces
Steps perpendicular to
slickenlines and mineral fibres
are assumed to face in direction of
movement of opposite side of fault
lineation
STEP
Steps perpendicular to
slickenlines & mineral fibres;
Surface dips 90 degrees;
What is the sense and
direction of shear?
Exercise 3:
Fault Problems
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics – Ductile shear zones;
Veining.
Stretching Lineation
Aligned and stretched clasts
and/or minerals.
Schistosity
Planar foliation defined by
alignment of platy minerals.
Foliation Definitions
• Foliation: a planar fabric that is usually associated with a
deformational origin.
• Slaty Cleavage: typical of slates (e.g., weakly
metamorphosed shales) — individual aligned mica flakes
(too small to observe by eye).
Increasingly coarse
• Schistosity: (schistose foliation): typical of moderately to
strongly metamorphosed schists —individual mica grains
define foliation (large enough to observe in hand
specimens).
• Gneissosity: (gneissose foliation): typical of high-grade
metamorphic rocks —coarser-grained, non-micaceous
minerals predominate —folia tend to anastomose around
pods of minerals more resistant to deformation.
Stretching lineations
Stretching lineation
Strong stretching lineation in ductile fault zone
Stretching lineation
Strong stretching lineation (quartz and amphibole) in
vertical ductile fault zone
Porphyroblasts of
staurolite not
lineated!!
What does this
indicate about
timing of ductile
deformation vs.
metamorphism?
S / C fabrics (continued)
The less deformed layers are equivalent to the margins of
the shear zone proper, and may develop an oblique foliation
related to the sense of shear
C-surface
S-surface
Ox Mountains, Ireland
Cerro de Maimon,
Dominican Republic What is the sense of shear?
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
Strain Markers
Cross-section View
Boudinaged veins
in combination
with a lineation
can be powerful
kinematic
indicators.
Strain Markers
Cross-section View
Cross-section View
3 possibilities:
Shear bands
Shear bands may develop in homogeneous, strongly foliated
rocks especially in the most intensely deformed parts of
shear zones
Plan View
Analysis of faults
Geometry of faults in 3D;
Fault networks, patterns and
classification;
Fault growth and dilational jogs;
Character; Brittle vs. ductile,
alteration, veining;
Timing;
Kinematics;
Veining.
Vein variation, Sheepshead anticline, Bendigo Laminated and extensional veins, Swan
from Cox (2005) decline, Bendigo
Vein styles
Vein Internal Structural Formation
Geometry
Type Features Site Mechanism
laminated structure;
shear fracturing;
foliated wallrock slivers; shear zone or fault;
Fault-fill veins slip surfaces; fold limbs
parallel to host structure extensional opening of
existing fractures
fibres at low angles to vein walls;
filli
mineral fibres at high outside shear zones;
Extensional veins angle to vein walls AC joints in folds
planar veins at moderate angle
extensional fracturing;
to shear zone;
extensional-shear fracturing
perpendicular to fold hinge
Extensional
internal layering: multiple openings within shear zones
vein arrays
2 or more oblique to
Stockworks orthogonal vein sets
non specific tabular to cigar shaped zones
Breccia Veins
Jigsaw Puzzle angular clasts, no rotation along faults parallel to host structure
Vein styles
Schematic representation of
lateral zoning in vein to
wallrock ratio
Fault-fill veins with carbonate alteration. Fault-fill veins with carbonate alteration.
Motherlode, California Pamour deposit, Timmins
U-bearing qtz-hem bx, Mt. Gee, Australia Vein stockwork, Black Fox deposit, Timmins
• Sub-horizontal veins:
• Contractional.
• Sub-vertical veins:
• Parallel to faults:
extensional.
• Or
• Oblique to faults:
transcurrent.
After Sibson (1990)
Vein
(tension gash)
Tension Veins
S-shaped en echelon
tension veins
indicate a sinistral
movement
Z-shaped veins
indicate dextral
movement
Tension Veins
Tension Veins
Plan View
Dextral movement
Vein networks
a
Relationship between a
reverse (compressional)
fault, dilation and b
veining.
a
Vein networks
fluid pathway
magma/fluid source
Vein networks
Relationship
between strike-slip
(wrench) fault,
dilation and veining.
veins
vei ns
Normal Fau t
STRIKE-SLIP FAULT
veins
vei ns
Strike Slip
Fault
Indicates vei ns
two different
episodes of Veins characteristic of dextral strike-slip
movement overprinting horizontal veins
typical of compressional or reverse faulting.
faulting This type of relationship indicates two
episodes of faulting.
Folds
• Basic geometry;
• Orientations of bedding and axial planar
foliation;
• Fold vergence;
• Intersection lineations as indicators of fold
axes;
• Younging and structural facing;
• Fold sequencing and fold patterns; and
• Recognizing transposition.
Fold Geometry
Symmetrical Fold Asymmetrical Fold
Interlimb angle
Fold axial plane Fold axial plane
Isoclinal Tight
Fold Geometry
Cylindrical folds:
• Rectilinear hinge line;
• Constant limb orientations;
• Planar axial surfaces.
Non-cylindrical folds:
• Curvilinear hinge lines;
• Variable, but usually systematic,
limb orientations;
• Planar or curviplanar axial
surfaces.
Fold Geometry
Doubly-plunging Folds
Crenulation Cleavage
• Development of a foliation
(cleavage or schistosity)
depends on presence of
platy minerals (e.g. clays,
micas, amphiboles etc.);
and
• Foliation can appear very
different in rocks with
more / less abundant
platy minerals.
Parasitic Folds
‘S’ Folds in Sand/Silts
Z
S
M? W
Additional examples:
domainal development of
parasitic folds
Vergence Reality
Variable plunge
causes apparent
changes in
Vergence.
Always determine
vergence when
looking DOWN-
PLUNGE.
Intersection Lineation
• The intersection of
bedding and
cleavage form an
intersection lineation,
which is parallel to
the fold axis.
Intersection Lineation
Intersection Lineation
(from http://nvcc.edu/home/cbentley/geoblog/labels/virginia.html)
Intersection Lineation
LEFT RIGHT
LEFT RIGHT
Structural Facing
Facing — Outcrop A
Is the facing direction upwards or downwards?
Graded
bedding
Facing — Outcrop A
Facing — Outcrop B
Is the facing direction upwards or downwards?
Cross-bedding
Facing — Outcrop B
Exercise 5:
Fold Problems
Fold Sequencing
Polyphase Folding
Structural sucession
• Primary compositional
layering (S0); S2 &
• Early penetrative foliation F2ap
parallel to layering (S1),
shown by minor veins;
F3
• Isoclinal folding of S0 and S1
around F2 and development of
new axial planar foliation S2;
• Folding of S0, S1 and S2
around F3. No axial planar
foliation is observed. S0/S1
Only 2
fold phases!
BUT ALSO:
On the outcrop, the pattern will
depend on the orientation of
the exposed surface
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
TYPE 1 or Dome-and-Basin
Fold Pattern is produced
where fold axial traces are at
high angle and both fold
generations are upright or
inclined
TYPE 2 or Arrowhead /
Mushroom Pattern is
produced where fold axial
traces are at high angle, but
one fold generation is upright
to inclined and the other is
recumbent or reclined
TYPE 2 or Arrowhead /
Mushroom Pattern
Fold Interference
What type of interference pattern
is defined here?
Foliation Generations
• It may be possible to
distinguish between
different generations of
foliation and relate these
to different fold events;
and
• If so, it is possible to
analyze structure using
S2/S1 relations etc. as
analogy to S1/S0 relations
in regions with only one
phase of folding.
Foliation Generations
Foliation Generations
• Also remember that some
rocks develop an early
bedding-parallel foliation
- it is common to have
one more phase of
foliation than of folding!
• The foliation may be
related to extension rather
than folding – look for
other evidence e.g.
boudinage.
Things to Remember
• Fold symmetry
• Parasitic folds
• Vergence (careful of plunge!)
• Fold–fabric relationships
• Axial planar foliation
• Folded?
• Mineralization?
• Structural facing
• Need ‘way-up’ indicators
• Important for identifying overturned beds, especially where ‘way-
up’, alone, doesn’t work
• Fold sequencing
• Don’t be intimidated by ‘crazy’ patterns
• Be mindful of the orientation of the exposed surface
• Folding and High Strain – Transposition and Sheath Folds
• Enveloping surface
• Competence contrasts
• Rotation of fold axes
REMEMBER:
Folds are fractal. Small scale mimics larger scales. Relationships identified on the
outcrop scale can be applied to the deposit scale and larger.
Structural Geology Short Course
Ulaanbaatar, March 22, 2014
THANK YOU!
Баярлалаа
Exercises
• Assume 100% efficiency in depositing the gold from the hydrothermal fluid at the
deposit site;
Method:
Calculate how much hydrothermal fluid is required to form a 135,000 t uranium deposit
(e.g. MacArthur River)?
• Assume 100% efficiency in depositing the gold from the hydrothermal fluid at the
deposit site;
Method:
1. Construct a cross-section representing a key high grade gold location along the
granite-greenstone contact, then use it to answer the following questions:
b. What could this tell you about the structural regime during gold
mineralization?
Is the fault sketched in Fig. 3.1 a normal, reverse or strike-slip fault? Why?
breccia wit h
q uar t z - sulp hide
m at r i x
(a) Does the fault shown in Fig. 3.2 have a prospective site on it? Why?
granit e
f au l t
2 00 m
quart z fibre
lineat ion
010
50
The drill section attached summarizes the results of the initial diamond drilling beneath a
mineralized fault + vein which outcrops as shown. Before planning additional drilling, it is
important to try to work out as much as you can about the structural (and other) controls on the
localization of mineralization. Understanding the structural controls will enable you to plan the
most effective and efficient drilling program to outline the mineralization and define the resource.
It is also important to plan drilling to maximize the acquisition of useful information.
After you have examined the drill section, answer the following questions.
Discovery outcrop -
narrow silicified fault zone & veins.
Fault dips 60 degrees East. 35 g/t Au vein sample.
DDH 1 DDH 2 DDH 3 DDH 4
Dilational Qtz-vein
breccia averaging
25 g/t Au over widths
shown. Narrow silicified fault zone –
same as outcrop
2m @ 6 g/t Au
50m
Narrow, crustiform quartz vein –
Grading 4 g/t Au over 2m.
a. 87
51
72
03
overturned bedding
73