MATERIAL SCIENCE

MODULE-2

Stress Strain Curve For Ductile Material

 Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)
• From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-
strain curve is a straight line.

• This linear relation between the axial force causing was first
noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke’s Law,
that within the proportional limit, stress is directly proportional to
strain.

• σ directly proportional to ε

The constant Proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E or

young’s modulus and is equal to the slope of stress –strain diagram
from O to P. Then ,

σ = kε

Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go
back to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the
maximum stress that may e developed such that there is no permanent
or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic
range. The region from P to R is called the plastic range.

Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate
strength or tensile strength.

Rupture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also
known as the breaking strength.

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to
up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure). The resilience of
the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a
permanent distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as
the force is gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be
calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R).
The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without
causing it to break.

Working Stress, Allowable Stress, and Factor of Safety

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a
given loading. The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is
termed as the allowable stress. The allowable stress should be limited
to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However, since
proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable
tress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a
factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield strength) to
allowable strength is called the factor of safety.
Brittle Material
• The area between Points 1 and 2 is called the elastic region. If
stress is removed, the material will return to its original length.

• Point 2 is the proportional limit or elastic limit, point 3 is the yield

strength or yield point.

• The area between points 2 and 5 is known as the plastic region

because the material will not return to its original length.

• Point 4 is point the point of ultimate strength and point 5 is the

fracture point at which failure of material occurs.
Difference between Ductile and Brittle material
• The ductile material where the strength is small, and the
plastic region is great. The material will bear more strain
(deformation) before fracture.

• The Brittle Material where the plastic region is small and the
strength of the material is high.

Examples of Ductile and Brittle Materials

• Copper, aluminum, and steel are examples of ductile metals

• Examples of brittle materials include cast iron, concrete, and

some glass products.

Creep

When a weight is hung from a piece of lead and left for a number of
days the lead will stretch. This is said to be creep. Problems with
creep increase when the materials are subject to high temperature
or the materials themselves have low melting points such as lead.
Creep can cause materials to fail at a stress well below there tensile
strength.

Fatigue
• Fatigue is due to the repeated loading and unloading.
• When a material is subjected to a force acting in different
directions at different times it can cause cracking. In time this
causes the material to fail at a load that is much less than its
tensile strength, this is fatigue failure. Vibration for example is
a serious cause of fatigue failure.

• Fatigue can be prevented with good design practice.

1. A smooth surface finish reduces the chance of surface cracking.
2. Sharp corners should be avoided.
3. Corrosion should be avoided as this can cause fatigue cracks.

Load / extension graph.

Youngs Modulus (E)

E = Stress

Strain

• Stress = Load
Cross section area

• Strain = Extension
Original length
 MATERIALS TESTING
Why are metals tested ?
 Ensure quality
 Test properties
 Prevent failure in use
 Make choices in using materials
Two forms of testing
 Mechanical tests – the material may be physically tested to
destruction. Will normally specify a value for properties such
as strength, hardness, toughness, etc.
 Non-destructive tests (NDT) – samples or finished articles
are tested before being used.
HARDNESS TESTING
Hardness is the ability to withstand indentation or scratches
1. Brinell’s Hardness tester
2. Rockwell
3. Vicker’s
Hardness testing machine
 The indenter is pressed into the metal
 Softer materials leave a deeper indentation
 Rockwell hardness tests
• Gives direct reading.

• Rockwell B (ball) used for soft

materials.

• Rockwell C (cone) uses diamond

cone for hard materials.

• Flexible, quick and easy to use.

Vickers hardness test

• Uses square shaped pyramid

indentor.

• Accurate results.

• Measures length of diagonal

on indentation.

• Usually used on very hard

materials
 HB- BRINELL’S HARDNESS NUMBER

• HB = 2F/ (3.14D*(D-(D² - Di²)½))

• Where F- applied load, kg D – indenter diameter, mm Di – indentation diameter, mm.

• In order to eliminate an influence of the specimen supporting base, the specimen should be
seven times (as minimum) thicker than indentation depth for hard alloys and fifteen times
thicker than indentation depth for soft alloys.
Toughness and Toughness tests
• . In order to be tough, a material must be both strong
and ductile.
• For example, brittle materials (like ceramics) that are
strong but with limited ductility are not tough;
conversely, very ductile materials with low strengths
are also not tough.
• To be tough, a material should withstand both high
stresses and high strains.
• Generally speaking, strength indicates how much force
the material can support, while toughness indicates
how much energy a material can absorb before
rupturing.
• The toughness of a material can be measured using a
small specimen of that material.
• A typical testing machine uses a pendulum to strike a
notched specimen of defined cross-section and deform
it.
• The Charpy and Izod notched impact strength tests are
typical ASTM tests used to determine toughness.
 Impact Tests
• Toughness of metals is the ability to withstand impact.
 Izod test

• Strikes at 160 Joules.

• 75*10*10---28 distance
• Test specimen is held vertically.

• Notch faces striker. 90deg

Charpy impact test

• Strikes form higher position
with 300 Joules.

• Test specimen is held

horizontally.
• 135 deg
• Notch faces away from
striker.
Difference between Izod and Charpy
• In the Izod method, the test material was placed in a vertical
position, while in the Charpy method, the test material was
placed horizontally.
• The notch in the izod test is facing the striker, fastened in a
pendulum, while in the charpy test, the notch is positioned
away from the striker.
• In the Charpy method, there are two kinds of notches, the V-
notch and the U-notch, while in the Izod method, there is only
one kind of notch.
• In Izod method, the striker is placed at an angle of 90 deg,
while in Charpy the angle is 135 deg

Tensile Testing
• Uses an extensometer to apply measured force to an test
specimen. The amount of extension can be measured and
graphed.
• Variables such as strain, stress, elasticity, tensile strength,
ductility and shear strength can be gauged.
• Test specimens can be round or flat.
Extensometer
 Tensile test specimens

Test results
Cup and cone fracture A shear fracture would
signifies a ductile material indicate a brittle material
 Non-destructive
testing (NDT)
Why use NDT?
 Components are not destroyed
 Can test for internal flaws
 Useful for valuable components
 Can test components that are in use

ND Tests

 Penetrant testing
 Magnetic particle testing
 Eddy current testing
 Ultrasonic testing
 Radiography (X-ray) Testing
Penetrant testing

 Used for surface flaws.

 The oil and chalk test is a traditional version of this type of
testing. Coloured dyes are now used.
 Magnetic particle testing

 Used for ferrous metals.

 Detects flaws close to the surface of the material.
 The component to be tested must first be magnetized.
 Magnetic particles which can be dry or in solution are
sprinkled onto the test piece.
 The particles stick to the magnetic field and flaws can be
inspected visually by examining the pattern to see if it has been
distorted.
 The component must be demagnetized after testing.
 Eddy current testing
 Used for non-ferrous metals
 A.C. current is passed through the coil.
 The test piece is passed under the coil causing secondary
currents called eddy currents to flow through the test
piece. This causes a magnetic field to flow in the test piece.
 The flaws are detected on an oscilloscope by measuring a
change in the magnetic field.
 Ultrasonic testing
Ultrasonic Sound waves are bounced off the component and back to a
receiver. If there is a change in the time taken for the wave to return this
will show a flaw. This is similar to the operation of a sonar on a ship.
Operation.
1. The ultrasonic probe sends the sound wave through the
piece.
2. The sound wave bounces off the piece and returns.
3. The results are then placed on the display screen in the form
of peaks.
4. Where the peaks fluctuate this will show a fault in the piece.
Uses.
5. This is generally used to find internal flaws in large forgings,
castings and in weld inspections.
 Radiography (X-ray) Testing
1. The x-ray are released by heating the cathode.
2. They are then accelerated by the D.C. current and directed
onto the piece by the tungsten anode.
3. The x-rays then pass through the test piece onto an x-ray film
which displays the results.
4. The x-rays cannot pass through the faults as easily making
them visible on the x-ray film.
Uses.

• This is a test generally used to find internal flaws in materials.

It is used to check the quality of welds, for example, to find
voids or cracks.
Advantages of x-rays:

X-rays are used to treat malign tumors before its spreads throughout the
human body.

• They help radiologists identify cracks, infections, injury, and abnormal

bones.

• They also help in identifying bone cancer.

• X-rays help in locating alien objects inside the bones or around them.
Disadvantages of x-rays:
• x-rays makes our blood cells to have higher level of hydrogen peroxide
which could cause cell damage.

• a higher risk of getting cancer from X-rays.

• The X-rays are able to change the base of the DNA.