HOUR_1

Basic concepts and notations:

Set

A mathematical set is a collection of distinct objects, normally referred to as Elements or

members. Sets are usually denoted by a capital letter and the elements by small letters. Sets of
objects, numbers, departments, job descriptions, etc. are things that we all deal with every day of
our lives. Mathematical Set Theory just puts a structure around this concept so that sets can be
used or manipulated in a logical way. The type of notation used is a reasonable and simple one.

Example:
1) suppose a company manufactured 5 different products a, b, c, d, and e.
Mathematically, we might identify the whole set of products as P, say, and write:
P = (a,b,c,d,e)which is translated as 'the set of company products, P, consists of the members (or
elements) a, b, c, d and e.The elements of a set are usually put within braces (curly brackets) and
the elementsseparated by commas, as shown for set P above.
2)The employees of a company working in the purchase department could be
writtenas:P= (Jones, Wilson, Gopan, Smith, Hari)
The warehouse locations of a large supermarket chain could be written as:
W = (Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Triandrum, Kochi)

Notation:
Usually a set is represented in two ways (1) roster form(2)Set builder form
(1)Roster form
in this form all the elements of the set are listed ,if possible, separated by commas and
enclosed within braces
The warehouse locations of a large supermarket chain could be written as:
W = (Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Triandrum, Kochi)

(2)Set builder form

In set builder form , we define the elements of the set by specifying a property that they have in
common. Eg:V={x/x is a vowel; in English alphabet} =V{a,e,i,o,u}.

Types of sets:
Subsets.
A subset of some set A, say, is a set which contains some of the elements of
A. denoted as AB
Example:
ifA= (h,i,j,k,l), then:
X = (i,j,l) is a subset of A
Y = (h,1) is a subset of A
Z = (i,j) is a subset of A and also a subset of X.
Number of a set:
The number of a set.(cardinal or size ) The number of a set A, written as n[A], is defined as the
number of elements that A contains.
For example,
ifA= (a,b,c,d,e), then n[A] = 5 (since there are 5 elements in A);
ifD= (Sales, Purchasing, Inventory, Payroll), then n[D] = 4.
Set equality.
Two sets are equal only if they have identical elements. Thus, if
A = (x, y, z) and B = (x, y, z), then A = B.otherwise if AB and BA
The Universal Set.
A set is called universal set if it is the super set of all sets.
The complement of a set.
If A is any set, with some universal set U defined, thecomplement of A, normally written as A', is
defined as 'all those elements that are notcontained in A but are contained in U'. For the example
of the workers on the production line (given in d above), S was specified as the set of skilled
workers within the universalset of all workers on the line. Therefore, S' would be all the workers
that were not skilled.
i.e. the set of unskilled workers.
Null Set :
A set which contains no elements at all is called the null set or empty set and is denoted by the
symbol .Eg:A={x/x2+1=0, x is real}
Singleton Set :
A set which contains only one element is called a singleton set.eg:A={o},{n}
Finite Set:
A set which contains a finite number of elements is called a finite set.
B={x/x is an even positive integer (100 }
Infinite Set:
A set which contains a infinite number of elements is called a finite set.
B={x/x is an even positive integer}
Proper Subset:
Any subset A of the set B is called the proper subset of B , if there is atleast one element of B
which does not belong to A ie) AB but A≠B and is denoted as AB
Power set:
Given a set S, the set of all subsets of the set S is called the power set set of S and is denoted by
P(S).
Property :If a set S has n elements, then its power set has 2n elements

SET OPERATIONS:
In ordinary arithmetic and algebra there are four common operations that can be
performed; namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. With sets,
however, just two operations are defined. These are set union and set intersection.

Set Union:
The Union of two sets A and B is written as AB and defined as that set which
contains all the elements lying within either A or B or both.
For example, if A = (c,d,f,h,j) and B = (d,m,c,f,n,p), then the union of A and B is AB
=(c,d,f,h,j,m,n,p), these being the elements that lie in either A or B. So that any element of A must
be an element of AB; similarly any element of B must also be an element of AB.
Set union for three or more sets is defined in an obvious way. That is, if A, B and C are any three
sets, ABC is the set containing all the elements lying within (i) anyone of A, B or C, (ii) any
two of them or (iii) all three.
Example 2 (To demonstrate set union)
If A = (m,n,o,p); B = (m,o,p,q); C = (m,p,r); and the universal set is defined as
U = (k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s), then:
a) AB = (m,n,o,p,q)
b) AC = (m,n,o,p,r)
c) BC = (m,o,p,q,r)
d) ABC = (m,n,o,p,q,r)
e) (AB)' = (k,l,r,s), which is describing all the elements that are not in AB but are in the
universal set U.
Set Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B is written as A B and defined as that set
which contains all the elements lying within both A or B.
For example, if A = (a,b,c,d,f,g,) and B = (c,f,g,h,j), then the intersection of A and B is A B =
(c,f,g), since these are the elements that lie in both sets.
The intersection of three or more sets is a natural extension of the above. If P, Q and R are any
three sets then P QR is the set containing all the elements that lie in all three sets.
Any combinations of union and intersection can be used with sets. For, example, if X and Y are
the sets specified above and Z = (d,f,g,j). then: (XY) Z = (c,f,g) (d,f,g,j) =(c,d,f,g,j) which
can be described in words as 'the set of elements that are in either both of X and Y or in Z’.
Example 3 (To demonstrate set intersection)
If A=(m,n,o,p};B=(m,o,p.q);C=(n,q,r);with a universal set defined as (k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s).Then:
a) AB = (m,o,p), since a1l these elements are in both sets.
Similarly,
b) A e = (n)
c) BC = (q).
d) A B C has no elements, is sometimes called the empty set and can be written
A BC = {}. Note n[{}]=0.
e) (A B)' = (k,l,n,q,r,s) is the complement of AB and is the set of all elements that are
NOT in both A and B.
f) (AB) C =(m,n,o,p,q)Ç(n,q,r)= (n.q) is the set of all elements that are in A or B
and also in C.
Disjoint Set:
If AB is the empty set ie if A and B does not have any element in common then the sets A and B
are said to be disjoint.if A={1,3,5} and B={2,4,6,8} then A B= and hence A and B are
disjoint.
Diffference of A and B:
If A and B are any two sets then the set of elements that belong to A but donot belong to B is
called the difference of A and B or relative complement of B wrt A and is denoted by A-B or A\B.
Eg: If A={1,2,3} and B={1,3,5,7} then A-B={2} and B-A={5,7}.
Symmetric difference of A and B :
If A and B are any two sets ,the set of elements that belong toA or B, but not to both is called the
symmetric difference of A and B is denoted by AB or A B or A+B AB =(A-B)(B-A).
Eg:If A={a,b,c,d} and B={c,d,e,f} then AB ={a,b,e,f}.

The Algebraiuc laws of the set theory;

Identity Laws

A∪ø = A A∩U=A

A∪U = U A∩ø=ø
Domination Laws:

AU=U AU=

Inverse Law or Complement Laws:

AA’=U AA’=

Double complement law or involutioin law: A’’=A

Commutative Laws:

For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) A U B = B U A (ii) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

2. Associative Laws:
For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) (A U B) U C = A U (B U C) (ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Thus, union and intersection are associative.

3. Idempotent Laws:

For any finite set A:

(i) A U A = A (ii) A ∩ A = A

4. Distributive Laws:

For any three finite sets A, B and C;

(i) A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)(ii) A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)
Thus, union and intersection are distributive over intersection and union respectively.

5. De Morgan’s Laws:

For any two finite sets A and B;

(i) A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C) (ii) A - (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)

De Morgan’s Laws can also we written as:

(i) (A U B)’ = A' ∩ B' (ii) (A ∩ B)’ = A' U B'

Dual Statements and Principle of duality:

If s is a statement of equality of two sets expressions each of which may contain the sets
A,B,A’,B’ etc., and U and the only set operation symbols  and  then the dual of s, denoted
by sd is obtained from s by replacing (1) each occurrence of  and U(in S) by U and 
respectively and (2)each occurrence of  and  (in s) by  and  respectively.

The principle of duality states that whenever s a statement of equality of two set expression is a
valid theorem then its dual sd is also a valid theorem.

Problems:

(1) Prove that (A-C)(C-B)= analyically, where A ,B ,C are sets.Verify graphically.

Soln:
 (A-C)(C-B) = {x xA and x  C and x B}

= {xxA and (xC and x C and x B )}

={x(xA and x) and x B }

={xxA  and x B }

={xx and x B } ={ xx B } ={ xx}

=.

(2) If A,B and C are sets , prove both analytically and graphically, that A-(BC)=(A-B)(A-
C).

(3) If A,B and C are sets, prove both analytically and graphically, that A(B-C) =(AB)-(AC)

Soln:A(B-C) ={x xA and x (B-C)}

={x xA and (x  B and x C} ={x xA and (x  B and x C’}
={x x(AB C )} =AB C

Now (AB)-(AC) = {xx(AB) and x( A  C )}, by Demorgons law

= {xx(AB) and (x A or x C )},

={x(x(AB) and x A )or(x(AB) and x c )},

={x(x(AB A )or(x(AB C )},

= {x(x)or(x(AB C )},= {x(x(AB C )} =AB C .

 Hence the result

(4) If A,B and C are sets, prove that A∪(B∩C ) = (C∪B∩ A using set identities.

(5) If A, B and C are sets , prove algebraically that A×(BC)=(A×B)(A×C).

Soln:A×(BC) = {(x,y)(xA and y(BC)} ={(x,y)xA and (yB and yC}

={(x,y)(xA and yB) and (xA and yC)}

={(x,y)(x,y)AB and (x,y)AC)}

={(x,y)(x,y)AB AC} = (AB)( AC)

(6) If A,B,C, and D are sets , prove algebraically that (AB)×(CD)=(A×C)(B×D).Give an

example to support this result.

Hour -2
Ordered pair:
An ordered pair is a pair of objects with an order associated with them.
If objects are represented by x and y, then we write the ordered pair as (x, y).
Two ordered pairs a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d. For example the
ordered pair (1, 2) is not equal to the ordered pair (2, 1)
CartesianProduct:
The set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a is an element of A and b is an element of B, is called
the Cartesian product of A and B and is denoted by A×B .

Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then

A×B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} .

Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,

B× A = {(a , 1), (a , 2), (a , 3), (b , 1), (b , 2), (b , 3)} .

As you can see in these examples, in general, A×B≠B× A unless A= φ , B = φ or A = B.

Note that A×φ = φ×A = φ because there is no element in φ to form ordered pairs with
elements of A. The concept of Cartesian product can be extended to that of more than two sets.

Ordered n-tuple: An ordered n-tuple is a set of n objects with an order associated with them
(rigorous definition to be filled in). If n objects are represented by x1, x2, ...,xn, then we write the
ordered n-tuple as (x1, x2, ..., xn) .

Cartesian product: Let A1, ...,An be n sets. Then the set of all ordered n-tuples (x1, ...,xn) , where
x i ∈A i for all i, 1≤i≤n , is called the Cartesian product of A , ..., A , and is denoted by
1 n

A 1×A 2×.... A n .

Example 3:
Let A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b} and C = {5, 6}. Then
A 1 ×B×C = {(1, a, 5), (1, a, 6), (1, b, 5), (1, b, 6), (2, a, 5), (2, a, 6), (2, b, 5), (2, b, 6)} .

Equality of n-tuples: Two ordered n-tuples (x1, ...,xn) and (y1, ..., yn) are equal if and only if xi =
yi for all i, 1≤i≤n .
For example the ordered 3-tuple (1, 2, 3) is not equal to the ordered n-tuple (2, 3, 1).

Venn Diagrams
. A Venn diagram is a simple pictorial representation of a set.
Venn diagrams are useful for demonstrating general relationships between sets.

(7) Use Venn diagram to prove that  is an associative operation (AB)C = A(BC).
 let as label the various regions. Set A consists of the points in the region labeled 1,2,3,4; Set
B consists of the points in the region labeled 2,3,4,5,6; set C consists of the points in the
region labeled 3,4,6,7 ; Now AB = (AB)-(AB)= {R1,R2,R3,R4,R5,R6}-{R2,R3}where Ri
represents the region labeled i ={R1,R4,R5,R6}

(AB)C ={R1,R2,R3,R4,R5,R6,R7}-{R4,R6}={R1,R3,R5,R7}
Now BC ={R2,R3,R4,R5,R6,R7}}-{R3,R6} = {R2,R4,R5,R7}
A(BC) ={R1,R2,R3,R4,R5,R6,R7}-{R2,R4}={R1,R3,R5,R7}
Hence (AB)C =A(BC)

(8) Use Venn diagram to prove that (AB)×C =(A×C)(B×C), where A,B,C are sets.

(9) Simplify the following sets, using set identities a) A∪B∪( A∩B∩C )
b) ( A∩B )∪[ B∩((C∩D)∪(C∩D))]

Soln: a) A∪B∪( A∩B∩C ) = ( A∩B )∪[( A∩B)∩C ],by DeMorgan' sLaw

=[( A∩B )∪( A∩B )]∩[( A∩B )∪C ], by Distributive Law
=U ∩[( A∩B )∪C ],by inverse Law =( A∩B )∪C ,by identity Law
= A∪B∪C ,by Demorgons Law

b) ( A∩B )∪[ B∩((C∩D)∪(C∩D))] =

( A∩B )∪[ B∩((C∩( D∪D))] By Distributive Law
=( A∩B )∪[ B∩((C∩U )], by inverse Law =( A∩B )∪[ B∩C )], by identity Law
=(B∩A )∪[ B∩C )], by comutative Law =(B∩( A∪C )], by distributive Law

(10) A= ( B∩ A )∪( A∩B )

Write the dual of each of the following statements: a)
( A∩B )∪( A∩B)∪( A∩B )∪( A∩B) =U
b)
(11) For each of the following statements in which A,B,C and D are arbitrary sets, either prove
that it is true or give a counter example to establish that it is false:
A ∪C =B∪C→ A=B
a)
A ∩C =B∩C and A∪C = B∪C→ A = B
b)
A- (B×C ) = ( A−B )×( A−C )
c)
( A∪B )×(C∪D ) = ( A×C )∪( B×D )
d)
A ⊕C = B ⊕C → A = B
e)
f)
A ⊕( B∩C ) = ( A ⊕ B )∩( A ⊕ C )

(12)
Find the sets A and B , if a)A-B={1,3,7,11}, B-A = {2,6,8} and AB = {4,9}

b) A-B ={1,2,4},B-A ={7,8} and AB =

{1,2,4,5,7,8,9}

Soln: a)From venn Diagram, it is clear that A={1,34,7,9,11} and B={2,4,6,8,9}

b) From the venn diagram , it is clear that A={1,2,4,5,9} and B={5,7,8,9}

Hour-3

Relations:

When A and B are sets, a subset R of the Cartesian product AB is called a binary relation
from A to B viz., If R is a binary relation from A to B , R is a set of ordered pairs (a,b) where
aA and bB. when (a,b)R, we use the notation aRb.
Ex: Let A={0,1,2,3,4} , B={0,1,2,3} and aRb iff a+b = 4 then R = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1),(4,0)}.
Then R={(1,3),(2,2),(3,1),(4,0)}. The domain of R ={1,2,3,4} and the image of R ={0,1,2,3}

Universal Relation:

A relation R on a set A is Called a universal relation, if R = AA.

Ex: if A ={1,2,3} then R = AA= {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3)} is the

universal relation on A.

Void Relation:

A relation R on a set A is called a void relation, if R is the null set φ .

Ex: If A ={3,4,5} and R is defined as aRb iff a+b)10, then R is a null set ,since no element in
AA satisfies the given condition.

Identity relation:

A relation R on a set A is called an identity relation, if R = {(a,b)aA} and is denoted by IA.

Ex: If A={1,2,3} then R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} is the identity relation on A.

Inverse Relation:

When R is any relation from a set A to a Set B, the inverse of R , denoted by R -1,is the
relation from B to A which consists of those ordered pairs got by interchanging the elements
of the ordered pairs in R.

If A={2,3,5},B={6,8,10} and aRb iff aA divides bB, the R={(2,6),(2,8),(2,10),(3,6),

(5,10)} and now R-1={(6,2),(8,2),(10,2),(6,3),(10,5)}

OPERATIONS ON RELATIONS:

As binary relations are sets of ordered pairs, all set operations can be done on relations. The
resulting sets are ordered pairs and hence are relations.

If R and S denote two relations, the intersection of R and S denoted by RS, is defined by
a(RS)b = aRbaSb .

If R and S denote two relations, the union of R and S, denoted by RS,is defined by
a(RS)b = aRbaSb .
 If R and S denote two relations, the difference of R and S, denoted by R-S, is defined by
a(R-S)b = aRbaSb.

If R and S denote two relations, the complement of R denoted by R or ~R is defined by

a( R )b = aRb.

Ex: A={x,y,z}, B={1,2,3},C={x,y} and D={2,3}.Let R be a relation from C to D defined by

S= {(x,2),(y,3)} then RS ={(x,2),(y,3)} and RS = R, R-S = {(x,1)}, R`={(x,3),(y,1),(y,2),
(z,1),(z,2),(z,3)}

COMPOSITION OF RELATIONS:

If R is a relation from set A to a set B and S is a relation from set B to Set C, viz., R is a
subset of AB and S is a subset of BC, then the composition of R and S, denotedbyb RS is
defined by a(RS)c, if for some bB we have aRb and bRc.

PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS:

1) A Relation R on a set A issaid to be reflexive, if aRba for every aA, if(a,a)R for every
aA.

2) A relation R on a set A is said to be symmetric, if whenever aRb then bRa if whenever

(a,b)R then (b,a) also  R. Thus a relation R on A is not symmetric if there exists a,bA
Such that (a,b)R but (b,a)R

3) A relation R on a set A is said to be antisymmetric, whenever (a,b) and (b,a)R then a=b.If
there exists a,b A such that (a,b) and (b,a)R but ab, then R is not antisymmetric.

4) A relation R on a set A is said to be transitive, if whenever aRb and bRc then aRc viz., if
whenever (a,b) and (b,c)R then (a,c)R. if there exists a,b,cA such that (a,b) and (b,c)R
but (a,c)R, then R is not transitive.

5) A relation R on a set A is called an equivalence relation, if R is reflexive, symmetric and

transitive viz., R is an equivalence relation on a set A, if it has the following 3 properties:

1. aRa, for every aA

2. If aRb, then bRa

3. If aRb and bRc then aRc

6) A relation R on a set A is called a partial ordering or partial order relation ,if R is reflexive,
antisymmetric and transitive.

7) R is a partial order relation on A if it has the following three properties:

1) aRa, for every aA

2) aRb, then bRaa=b

3) aRb and bRc then aRc

A set A together with a partial order relation R is called a partiaally ordered set or poset

1. List the ordered pairs in the relation R from A={0,1,2,3,4} to B={0,1,2,3} where (a,b)R

iff (i)a=b (ii)a+b = 4 (iii)a)b (iv)a/b (v)gcd(a,b)=1 &

(vi)lcm(a,b) = 2
2. The relation R on the set A ={1,2,3,4,5} is defined by the rule (a,b)R,if 3 divides a-
b.(i)List the elements of R and R-1 (ii)Find the domain and range of R (iii)Find the
domain and range of R-1. (iv)List the elements of the complement of R.
Soln: The Cartesian product AXA consisits of {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(1,5), (2,1),(2,2),…
(2,5), (3,1),(3,2),…(3,5), (4,1),(4,2),…(4,5),(5,1),(5,2),…(5,5)}
(i)Since (a,b)R, if 3 divides (a-b),R ={(1,1),(1,4),(2,2),(2,5),(3,3),(4,1),(4,4),(5,2),(5,5)}
R-1(the inverse of R)={(1,1),(4,1),(2,2),(5,2),(3,3),(1,4),(4,4),(2,5),(5,5)} we noye that
R=R-1.
(ii)Domain of R =Range of R = {1,2,3,4,5}
(iii)Domain of R-1 =Range of R-1 = {1,2,3,4,5}
(iv) R’(the complement of R)= the elements of AXA that are not in R ={(1,2),(1,3),(1,5),
(2,1),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),(3,4),(3,5),(4,2),(4,3),(4,5),(5,1),(5,3),(5,4)}

3. If R={(1,2),(2,4),(3,3)} and S={(1,3),(2,4),(4,2)}, find (i)RS (ii)RS

(iii)R-S (iv)S-R (v)RS. Also verify that dom(RS)
=dom(R)dom(S) and range (RS) range(R)range(S)
Soln(i) RS ={(1,2),(1,3),(2,4),(3,3),(4,2)}
(ii) RS = {(2,4)}
(iii)R-S = {(1,2),(3,3)}
 (iv)S-R ={(1,3),(4,2)}
(v) RS =(RS)-(RS)={(1,2),(1,3),(3,3),(4,2)}
Dom(R)={1,2,3}; Dom(S)={1,2,4}
Now dom(R)dom(S)={1,2,3,4}=domain(RS)
Range (R)={2,3,4}; Range(S)={2,3,4}, Range(RS)={4} Clearly {4} {2,3,4}{2,3,4}
Ie Range (RS)  Range R  Range S
HOUR-4

4. R and S are “Congruent modulo 4” relations respectively on the set of integers. That is R

= {(a,b)ab (mod 3)} and S = {(a,b)ab (mod 4)}. Find (i)RS (ii)RS (iii)R-
S (iv)S-R (v)RS
5. If the relations R1,R2,R3,…R6 are defined on the set of real numbers as given below:

R1 = {(a,b)a)b} R2 = {(a,b)ab} R3 =
{(a,b)a(b} R4 = {(a,b)ab} R5= {(a,b)a=b}
R6 = {(a,b)ab}
Find The following composite relations.
R1R2, R2R2, R1R4, R3R5, R5R3, R6R3, R6R4 and R6R6.
Soln:
(i)R1R2=R1 for eg let(5,3)R1 and let (3,1),(3,2),(3,3)R2 then R1R2 consists of
(5,1),(5,2),(5,3)R2which belong to R1
Similarly (ii)R2R2 = R2
(iii)R1R4 =R2
(iv)R3R5= R3
(v)R5R3=R3
(vi)R6R3=R3
(vii) R6R4 =R2
(viii) R6R6=R2.

6. Determine whether the relation R on the set of all integers is reflexive, symmetric,

antisymmetric and/or transitive where aRbiff (i)ab (ii)ab0 (iii)ab1

 (iv)a is a multiple of b (v)ab(mod 7) (vi)la=bl =1 (vii)a=b2
(viii)ab2
HOUR-5

EQUIVALENCE CLASSES:

If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, the set of all elements of A that are related to an
element a of A is called the equivalence class of a and denoted by [a]R.

In other words The equivalence class of a under the relation R is defined as [a] =
{x│(a,x)R} any element b[a] is called a representative of the equivalence class [a].

The collection of all equivalence classes of elements of A under an equivalence relation R is

denoted by A/R and is called the quotient set of A by R.

Theorem:If R is an equivalence relation on non-empty set A and if a and b  A are

arbitrary , then (i)a[a] , for every aA , (ii)[a] = [b], if and only if (a,b)R, (iii)If [a][b]
 then [a] = [b].

PARTITION OF A SET :

If S is a non empty set, a collection of disjoint non empty subsets of s whose union is S is
called a partition of S. In other words, the collection of subsets Ai, is a parttion of s iff
¿ Ai ¿ Ai
(i)Ai, for each I (ii)AiAj = , for ij and (iii) i = S , where i represents the
union of the subsets Ai for all i.

PARTITIONING OF A SET INDUCED BY AN EQUIVALENCE RELATION:

Let R be an equivalence relation of a non- empty set A. Let A 1,A2,…Akbe the distinct
equivalence classes of A under R.For every aAi , a[a]R, by the above theorem.

[ ]
¿ a R =¿ Ai =A
a∈A i i
Ai = [a]R. therefore Also ,by the above theorem, when [a] R[b]R,
then [ a ] R∩[ b ]R = ϕ viz,. AiAj= , if [a]R = Ai and [b]R=Aj.

Therefore the equivalences classes of A fron a partition of A.

7. Which of the following relations on {0,1,2,3} are equivalence relations? Find the

properties of an equivalence relation that the others lack.

A)R1={(0,0),(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)}
b)R2={(0,0),(0,2),(2,0),(2,2),(2,3),(3,2),(3,3)}
c)R3 ={(0,0),(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),
(3,3)} d)R4={(0,0),(1,1),(1,3),(2,2),
(2,3),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3)} e)R5={(0,0),(0,1),
(0,2),(1,0),(1,1),(1,2),(2,0),(2,2),(3,3)}
Soln: (a)R1 is reflective, symmetric and transitive.  R1 is an equivalence relation.
(b)R2 is reflexive , R2 is symmetric, but not transtive , since (3,2) and (2,0)R2
but(3,0)R2R2 is not an equivalence relation.
(c)R3 is reflective, symmetric and transitive.  R3 is an equivalence relation.
(d)R4 is reflexive , R4 is symmetric, but not transtive , since (1,3) and (3,2)R4
but(1,2)R4R4 is not an equivalence relation.
(e)R5 is reflecive , but not symmetric since (1,2)R but (2,1)R.Also R5 is not
transitive, since (2,0) and (0,1)R, but (2,1)R. R5 is not an equivalence relation.

8. Show that the following relations are equivalent relations:

(i) R1 is the relation on the set of integers such that aR1b iff a=b or a=-b
(ii)R2 is the relation on the set of integers such that aR2b iff a 
b(mod m), where m is a positive integer )1
(iii)R3 is the relation on the set of real numbers
such that aR3b iff (a-b) is an integer.
9. (i)If R is the relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers such that (a,b),

(c,d)R whenever ad=bc, show that R is an equivalence relation.

(ii)If R is the relation on the set of positive integers such that
(a,b)R iffab is a perfect square, show that R is an equivalence relation.
10. (i)If R is the relation on the set of positive integers such that (a,b)R iff a2+b is even ,

prove that R is an equivalence relation.

 (ii)If R is the relation on the set of integers such that (a,b)R,iff 3a+4b = 7n for some
integer n, prove that R is an equivalence relation.
HOUR-6

MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF A RELATION:

If R is a relation from the set A={a1,a2,a3,…am}to the set B={b1,b2,b3,b4,….bn}where the

elements of A and B are assumed to be in a specific order ,the relation R can be represented

by the matrix. MR=[mij], where

m ij= {1,0, ifif (a(a ,, bb )∈R
i j
i j
)∉R
.In otherwords, the zero-one matrix
MR has a 1 in its (i-j)th position when ai is related to bj and a 0 in this position when ai is not
related by bj.

REPRESENTATION OF RELATIONS BY GRAPHS:

Let R be a relation on a set A. To represent R graphically, each element of A is represented by

a point. These points are called nodes or vertices. Whenever the element a is related to the
element b, an arc is drawn in from the point ‘a’ to the point ‘b’ .These arcs are called arcs or
edges. The arcs start from the first element of the related pair and go to the second element.
The direction is indicated by an arrow. The resulting diagram is called the directed graph or
digraph of R.

The edge of the form (a, a), represented by using an arc from the vertex a back to itself, is
called a loop.

The digraph representing the relation can be used to determine whether the relation has the
standard properties explained as follows:

(i)A relation R is reflexive iff there is a loop at every vertex of a digraph of the relation R, so
that every ordered pair of the form (a, a) occurs in R, If no vertex has a loop, then R is
irreflexive.

(ii)A relation R is symmetric iff for every edge between distinct vertices in its digraph there
is an edge in the opposite direction, so that (b, a) is in R whenever (a,b) is in R.

(iii)A relation R is antisymmetric iff there are never two edges in opposite directions between
distinct vertices.

(iv) A relation R is transitive iff whenever there is an edge from a vertex a to a vertex b and
from the vertex b to a vertex c, there is an edge from a to c.
11. (i)Prove that the relation  of set inclusion is a partial ordering on any collection of sets.

(ii)If R is the relation on the set of integers such that (a,b) R

iff b=am for some positive integer m, show that R is a partial ordering.

12. (i)If R is the equivalence relation on the set A={1,2,3,4,5,6,} given below , find the

partition of A induced by R: R={(1,1),(1,2),(2,1),(2,2),(3,3),(4,4),(4,5),(5,4),(5,5),(6,6)}.

(ii)If R is the equivalence relation on the set A = {(-
4,-20),(-3,-9),(-2,-4),(-1,-11), (-1,-3), (1,2), (1,5), (2,10),(2,14),(3,6),(4,8),(4,12)}, where
(a,b)R(c,d) if ad=bc, find the equivalent classes of R.
13. (i)If A={1,2,3,4}{1,2,3,4} and the relation R is defined on A by (a,b)R(c,d) if a+b =

c+d, verify that A is an equivalence relation on A and also find the quotient set of A by R.
(ii)If the relation R on the set of integers Z is defined by aRb if a b(mod 4), find the
partition induced by R
Soln:
(i)A= {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,1),(2,2),(2,3),(2,4),(3,1),(3,2),(3,3),(3,4),(4,1),(4,2),(4,3),
(4,4)}.
If we take R A, it can be verified that R is an equivalence relation. The quotient set A/R
is the collection of equivalence classes of R. It is easily seen that
[(1,1)] = {(1,1)}
[(1,2)] = {(1,2),(2,1)}
[(1,3)] = {(1,3),(2,2),(3,1)}
[(1,4)] = {(1,4),(2,3),(3,2),(4,1)}
[(2,4)] = {(2,4),(3,3),(4,2)}
[(3,4)] = {(3,4),(4,3)}
[(4,4)] = {(4,4)}
Thus [(1,1)],[(1,2)],[(1,3)],[(1,4)],[(2,4)],[(3,4)],[(4,4)] from the quotient set A/R.
(ii) The equivalence classes of R are the following:
[0]R = {…,-8,-4,0,4,8,12,…}
[1]R= {….,-7,-3,1,5,9,13,…}
[2]R={…,-6,-2,2,6,10,14,…}
 [3]R={…,-5,-1,3,7,11,15,…}
Thus [0]R,[1]R ,[2]Rand [3]Rfrom the partition of R.
HOUR-7

14. If R is the relation on A={1,2,3} such that (a,b)R, iffa+b= even, find the relational

matrix MR.Find also the relational matrices R-1,,̅Rand R2.

15. If R and S be relations on a set A represented by the matrices

[ ] [ ]
0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
MR = and MS=
Find the matrices that represent a)RS b)RS c)RS
d)SR e)RS.
Soln:

[ ] [ ]
0ν 0 1ν 1 0ν 0 0 1 0
1ν0 1ν 1 1ν 1 1 1 1
1ν1 0ν 1 0 ν1 1 1 1
(a)MRS=MRMS= =

[ ] [ ]
0∧0 1∧1 0∧0 0 1 0
1∧0 1∧1 1∧1 1 1 1
1∧1 0∧1 0∧1 1 0 0
(b)MRS=MRMS = =

[ ] [ ]
0ν 0ν 0 1ν 1ν0 0 ν1ν 0 0 1 1
0ν 0ν 1 1ν 1ν1 0 ν1ν 1 1 1 1
0ν 0ν 0 1ν 0ν 0 0ν 0ν 0 0 1 0
(c)MRS = MRMS = =

[ ] [ ]
0ν1 ν0 0ν1 ν0 0ν1 ν0 1 1 1
0ν 1ν1 0ν1 ν0 0ν1 ν0 1 1 1
0ν 1ν1 1ν1ν 0 0ν1 ν0 1 1 1
(d) M SR=MSMR= =

[ ] 0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 1
(e)MRS= .MRS-MRS=
 [ ]
1 0 1
0 1 0
16. Examine if the relation R represented by MR = 1 0 1
is an equivalence relation,
using the properties of MR.
HOUR-8

HASSE DIAGRAMS FOR PARTIAL ORDERING:

The simplest form of the digraph of a partial ordering on a finite set that contains sufficient
information about the partial ordering is called a Hasse diagram.

The simplification of the digraph as a Hasse diagram is achieved in three ways :

(i)Since the partial ordering is a reflexive relation, its digraph has loops at all vertices.

(ii)Since the partial ordering is transitive, we need not show those edge that must be present
due to transitivity.

(iii)If we assume that all edges are directed upward, we need not show the directions of the
edges.

Thus the Hasse diagram representing a partial ordering can be obtained from its digraph, by
removing all the loops, by removing all edges that are present due to transitivity and by
drawing each edge without arrows so that its initial vertex is below its terminal vertex.

TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO POSETS:

A poset is defined as a set S together with a partial order relation R. In a poset the notation
ab denotes that (a, b) R. ab is read as “a precedes b”.

When {P,} is a poset, an element aP is called a maximal member of P, if there is no

element bP such that a(b

Similarly an element aP is called a minimal member of P, if there is no element bP such
that b(a.

If there exists an element aP such that ba for all bP, then a is called the greatest member
of the poset. {P,}.

Similarly, If there exists an element aP such that ab for all bP, then a is called the least
member of the poset. {P,}.
When A is a subset of a poset {P,} and if u is an element of P such that au for all elements
aA, then u is called an upper bound of A. Similarly if l is an element of P such that l a for
all elements aA, then l is called a lower bound of A.

The element x is called the least upper bound (LUB) or supremum of the subset A of a poset
{P,}, if x is an upper bound that is less than every other upper bound of A.

Similarly the element y is called the greatest lower bound (GLB) or infimum of the subset A
of a poset {P,}, if y is a lower bound that is greater than every other lower bound of A.

17. List the ordered pairs in the relation on {1,2,3,4} corresponding to the following matrix:

[ ]
1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1

Also draw the directed graph representing this relation. Use the graph to
find if the relation is reflexive , symmetric and/or transitive

18. List the ordered pairs in the relation represented by the digraph given in the fig also use

the graph to prove that the relation is a partial ordering.Also draw the directed graphs

representing R-1 and R¯

Soln:
The ordered pairs in the relation are {(a,a),(a,c),(b,a),(b,b),(b,c),(c,c)}. Since there is a
loop at every vertex, the relation is reflexive. Though there are edges b-a,a-c and b-c the
edges a-b,c-a and c-b are not present in the digraph. Hence the relation is antisymmetric.
When edges b-a and a-c are present in the digraph the edge b-c is also present. Hence the
relation is transitive. Hence the relation is a partially ordering .The digraph of R-1 is got
by reversing the directionsbof the edges .The digraph of R contains the edges (a,b),(c,a)
and (c,b) as shown in the fig
 HOUR-9
19. Draw the digraphs representing the partial ordering {(a,b)a divides b} on the set

{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}.reduce it to the hasse diagram representing the given partial ordering.

20. Draw theHasse diagram representing the partial ordering {(A,B)(AB)} on the power

set P(S) where S = {a,b,c}.Find the maximal, minimal, greatest and least elements of the
poset.Find also the upper bounds and LUB of the subset({a},{b}, {c}) and the lower
bounds and GLB of the subsets ({a,b},{a,c},{b,c})