2 FUNDAMENTALS OF

MATERIAL BALANCES

Chapter Contents
2.1. Introduction 2.11. Tie Components
2.2. The Equivalence of Mass and 2.12. Excess Reagent
Energy 2.13. Conversion, Selectivity, and Yield
2.3. Conservation of Mass 2.14. Recycle Processes
2.4. Units Used to Express 2.15. Purge
Compositions 2.16. Bypass
2.5. Stoichiometry 2.17. Unsteady-State Calculations
2.6. Choice of System Boundary 2.18. General Procedure for Material-
2.7. Choice of Basis for Calculations Balance Problems
2.8. Number of Independent 2.19. References
Components 2.20. Nomenclature
2.9. Constraints on Flows and 2.21. Problems
Compositions
2.10. General Algebraic Method

Key Learning Objectives

& How to use mass balances to understand process flows
& How to select a system boundary and design basis
& How to estimate reactor and process yields

49
50 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Material balances are the basis of process design. A material balance taken over the
complete process will determine the quantities of raw materials required and products
produced. Balances over individual process units set the process stream flows and
compositions, and provide the basic equations for sizing equipment.
A good understanding of material balance calculations is essential in process design.
In this chapter the fundamentals of the subject are covered, using simple examples to
illustrate each topic. Practice is needed to develop expertise in handling what can often
become very involved calculations. More examples and a more detailed discussion of
the subject can be found in the numerous specialist books written on material and
energy balance computations. Several suitable texts are listed in the ‘‘Bibliography’’
section at the end of this chapter.
For complex processes, material balances are usually completed using process
simulation software, as described in Chapter 4. Significant time and effort can be
wasted in process simulation if the fundamentals of material and energy balances are
not properly understood. Careful attention must be paid to selecting the best basis and
boundaries for material and energy balances; to predicting yields; and to understand-
ing recycle, purge, and bypass schemes. Shorthand calculations, of the type illustrated
in this chapter, should always be used to check process simulation results. Short
calculations can also be used to accelerate convergence of flowsheet simulations by
providing good initial estimates of recycle and make-up streams.
Material balances are also useful tools for the study of plant operation and
troubleshooting. They can be used to check performance against design, to extend
the often limited data available from the plant instrumentation, to check instrument
calibrations, and to locate sources of material loss. Material balances are essential to
obtaining high-quality data from laboratory or pilot plants.

2.2. THE EQUIVALENCE OF MASS AND ENERGY

Einstein showed that mass and energy are equivalent. Energy can be converted into
mass, and mass into energy. They are related by Einstein’s equation:
E ¼ mc2 (2:1)

where
E ¼ energy, J,
m ¼ mass, kg,
c ¼ the speed of light in vacuo, 3
108 m=s.
The loss of mass associated with the production of energy is significant only in
nuclear reactions. Energy and matter are always considered to be separately conserved
in chemical reactions.
2.4. UNITS USED TO EXPRESS COMPOSITIONS 51

2.3. CONSERVATION OF MASS

The general conservation equation for any process system can be written as
Material out ¼ Material in þ Generation  Consumption  Accumulation

For a steady-state process, the accumulation term is zero. Except in nuclear

processes, mass is neither generated nor consumed; but if a chemical reaction takes
place, a particular chemical species may be formed or consumed in the process. If
there is no chemical reaction, the steady-state balance reduces to
Material out ¼ Material in

A balance equation can be written for each separately identifiable species present,
elements, compounds, or radicals; and for the total material. Balances can be written
for mass or for number of moles.

Example 2.1
2000 kg of a 5% slurry of calcium hydroxide in water is to be prepared by diluting a
20% slurry. Calculate the quantities required. The percentages are by weight.
Solution
Let the unknown quantities of the 20% slurry and water be X and Y, respectively.
Material balance on Ca(OH)2
In Out
20 5 (a)
X ¼ 2000

100 100
Balance on water
(100  20) (100  5)
X þ Y ¼ 2000 (b)
100 100
From equation (a), X ¼ 500 kg.
Substituting into equation (b) gives Y ¼ 1500 kg
Check material balance on total quantity:
X þ Y ¼ 2000
500 þ 1500 ¼ 2000, correct

2.4. UNITS USED TO EXPRESS COMPOSITIONS

When a composition is specified as a percentage, it is important to state clearly the

basis: weight, molar, or volume.
The abbreviations w/w, wt%, and %wt are used for mass (weight) basis. Volume
basis is usually abbreviated vol%, LV%, or v/v.
52 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES

Example 2.2
Technical grade hydrochloric acid has a strength of 28% w/w. Express this as a mole
fraction.
Solution
Basis of calculation 100 kg of 28% w/w acid.
Molecular mass: water 18, HCl 36:5
Mass HCl ¼ 100
0:28 ¼ 28 kg
Mass water ¼ 100
0:72 ¼ 72 kg
28
kmol HCl ¼ ¼ 0:77
36:5
72
kmol water ¼ ¼ 4:00
18
Total mols ¼ 4:77
0:77
mol fraction HCl ¼ ¼ 0:16
4:77
4:00
mol fraction water ¼ ¼ 0:84
4:77
Check total 1:00

Within the accuracy needed for technical calculations, volume fractions can be
taken as equivalent to mole fractions for gases, up to moderate pressures (say 25 bar).
Trace quantities are often expressed as parts per million (ppm). The basis, weight
or volume, needs to be stated, for example, ppmw or ppmv.
quantity of component
ppm ¼
106
total quantity
Note: 1 ppm ¼ 104 percent.
Minute quantities are sometimes quoted in parts per billion (ppb). This refers to an
American billion (109 ), not a UK billion (1012 ).

2.5. STOICHIOMETRY

The stoichiometric equation for a chemical reaction states unambiguously the number
of molecules of the reactants and products that take part, from which the quantities
can be calculated. The equation must balance.
With simple reactions it is usually possible to balance the stoichiometric equation
by inspection, or by trial-and-error calculations. If difficulty is experienced in balanc-
ing complex equations, the problem can always be solved by writing a balance for
each element present. The procedure is illustrated in Example 2.3.
2.6. CHOICE OF SYSTEM BOUNDARY 53

Example 2.3
Write out and balance the overall equation for the manufacture of vinyl chloride from
ethylene, chlorine, and oxygen.
Solution
Method: Write out the equation using letters for the unknown number of molecules of
each reactant and product. Make a balance on each element. Solve the resulting set of
equations.
A(C2 H4 ) þ B(Cl2 ) þ C(O2 ) ¼ D(C2 H3 Cl) þ E(H2 O)
Balance on carbon
2A ¼ 2D, A ¼ D
on hydrogen
4A ¼ 3D þ 2E
A
substituting D ¼ A gives E ¼
2
on chlorine
A
2B ¼ D, hence B¼
2
on oxygen
E A
2C ¼ E, C¼ ¼
2 4
putting A ¼ 1, the equation becomes
C2 H4 þ 1=2Cl2 þ 1=4O2 ¼ C2 H3 Cl þ 1=2H2 O

multiplying through by the largest denominator to remove the fractions

4C2 H4 þ 2Cl2 þ O2 ¼ 4C2 H3 Cl þ 2H2 O

2.6. CHOICE OF SYSTEM BOUNDARY

The conservation law holds for the complete process and any subdivision of the
process. The system boundary defines the part of the process being considered. The
flows into and out of the system are those crossing the boundary and must balance
with material generated or consumed within the boundary.
Any process can be divided up in an arbitrary way to facilitate the material balance
calculations. The judicious choice of the system boundaries can often greatly simplify
what would otherwise be difficult and tortuous calculations.
No hard and fast rules can be given on the selection of suitable boundaries for all types
of material balance problems. Selection of the best subdivision for any particular process
54 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES

is a matter of judgment, and depends on insight into the structure of the problem,
which can only be gained by practice. The following general rules serve as a guide:
1. With complex processes, first take the boundary around the complete process
and if possible calculate the flows in and out. Raw materials in, products and
byproducts out.
2. Select the boundaries to subdivide the process into simple stages and make a
balance over each stage separately.
3. Select the boundary around any stage so as to reduce the number of unknown
streams to as few as possible.
4. As a first step, include any recycle streams within the system boundary (see
Section 2.14).
Example 2.4
The diagram shows the main steps in a process for producing a polymer. From the
following data, calculate the stream flows for a production rate of 10,000 kg/h.

Reactor selectivity for polymer 100%

slurry polymerization 20 wt% monomer/water
conversion 90% per pass
catalyst 1 kg/1000 kg monomer
short stopping agent 0.5 kg/1000 kg unreacted monomer
Filter wash water approx. 1 kg/1 kg polymer
Recovery column yield 98% (percentage recovered)
Dryer feed 5% water, product specification 0.5% H2 O
Polymer losses in filter and dryer 1%

Reactor
Monomer
water M
catalyst Wash
Short stop water

Polymer

Dryer
Filter

Recycle
monomer Recovery
column

Effluent
2.6. CHOICE OF SYSTEM BOUNDARY 55

Solution
Only those flows necessary to illustrate the choice of system boundaries and method
of calculation are given in the solution.
Basis: 1 hour
Take the first system boundary around the filter and dryer.

Filter Product
Input and 10,000 kg polymer
dryer 0.5% water
Water
+ monomer
Losses

With 1% loss, polymer entering subsystem

10,000
¼ ¼ 10,101 kg
0:99
Take the next boundary around the reactor system; the feeds to the reactor can
then be calculated.

Short stop
Water
10,101 kg
Reactor
Monomer polymer
Cat.
Recycle

10,101
At 90% conversion per pass, monomer feed ¼ ¼ 11,223 kg
0:9
Unreacted monomer ¼ 11,223  10,101 ¼ 1122 kg

Short-stop, at 0.5 kg/1000 kg unreacted monomer ¼ 1122
0:5
103 ¼ 0:6 kg

Catalyst, at 1 kg/1000 kg monomer ¼ 11,223
1
103 ¼ 11 kg

Let water feed to reactor be F1 , then for 20% monomer

11,223
0:2 ¼
F1 þ 11,223
11,223(1  0:2)
F1 ¼ ¼ 44,892 kg
0:2
Now consider filter-dryer subsystem again.
56 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES

Water in polymer to dryer, at 5% (neglecting polymer loss)

10,101
0:05
¼ ¼ 532 kg
0:95

Balance over reactor-filter-dryer subsystem gives flows to recovery column.

water, 44,892 þ 10,101  532 ¼ 54,461 kg

monomer, unreacted monomer ¼ 1122 kg

Now consider recovery system

Column
Water Monomer
54,461 kg
monomer
1122 kg
Effluent

With 98% recovery, recycle to reactor

¼ 0:98
1122 ¼ 1100 kg

Composition of effluent is 23 kg monomer, 54,461 kg water.

Consider reactor monomer feed
Fresh Reactor
feed feed

Recycle
1100 kg

Balance around tee gives fresh monomer required

¼ 11,223  1100 ¼ 10,123 kg

Note that this 12-line calculation would have required setting up a recycle and
three stream-adjusts in a process simulator, illustrating that simple problems can often
be solved more easily by hand or spreadsheet calculations if the boundaries for mass
balances are chosen carefully.

2.7. CHOICE OF BASIS FOR CALCULATIONS

The choice of the basis for a calculation often determines whether the calculation
proves to be simple or complex. As with the choice of system boundaries, no all-
embracing rules or procedures can be given for the selection of the right basis for
2.8. NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS 57

any problem. The selection depends on judgment gained by experience. Some guide
rules are
A. Time: Choose the time basis in which the results are to be presented; for
example kg/h, metric tons/y, unless this leads to very large or very small
numbers, where rounding errors can become problematic.
B. For batch processes, use one batch.
C. Choose as the mass basis the stream flow for which most information is given.
D. It is often easier to work in moles, rather than weight, even when no reaction is
involved.
E. For gases, if the compositions are given by volume, use a molar basis, remembering
that volume fractions are equivalent to mole fractions up to moderate pressures.

2.8. NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT COMPONENTS

A balance equation can be written for each independent component. Not all the
components in a material balance will be independent.
Physical Systems, No Reaction
If there is no chemical reaction, the number of independent components is equal to
the number of distinct chemical species present.
Consider the production of a nitration acid by mixing 70% nitric and 98% sulfuric
acid. The number of distinct chemical species is three: water, sulfuric acid, nitric acid.
H2SO4/H2O H2O
HNO3 Nitration
Mixer
H2SO4 acid
HNO3/H2O

Chemical Systems, Reaction

If the process involves chemical reaction, the number of independent components is
not necessarily equal to the number of chemical species, as some may be related by the
chemical equation. In this situation the number of independent components can be
calculated by the following relationship:
Number of independent components ¼ Number of chemical speciesNumber of
independent chemical equations (2:2)
Example 2.5

If nitration acid is made up using oleum in place of the 98% sulfuric acid, there will be
four distinct chemical species: sulfuric acid, sulfur trioxide, nitric acid, water. The
sulfur trioxide will react with the water producing sulfuric acid, so there are only
three independent components.
Oleum
H2SO4/H2O/SO3 H2O
HNO3 Nitration
HNO3/H2O H2SO4 acid
58 CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL BALANCES

Solution
Reaction equation SO3 þ H2 O ! H2 SO4
No. of chemical species 4
No. of reactions 1
No. of independent equations 3

2.9. CONSTRAINTS ON FLOWS AND COMPOSITIONS

It is obvious, but worth emphasizing, that the sum of the individual component flows
in any stream cannot exceed the total stream flow. Also, the sum of the individual
molar or weight fractions must equal 1. Hence, the composition of a stream is
completely defined if all but one of the component concentrations are given.
The component flows in a stream (or the quantities in a batch) are completely
defined by any of the following:
A. Specifying the flow (or quantity) of each component.
B. Specifying the total flow (or quantity) and the composition.
C. Specifying the flow (or quantity) of one component and the composition.

Example 2.6
The feed stream to a reactor contains ethylene 16%, oxygen 9%, nitrogen 31%, and
hydrogen chloride. If the ethylene flow is 5000 kg/h, calculate the individual com-
ponent flows and the total stream flow. All percentages are by weight.
Solution

Percentage HCl ¼ 100  (16 þ 9 þ 31) ¼ 44

5000
Percentage ethylene ¼
100 ¼ 16
total
100
hence total flow ¼ 5000
¼ 31,250 kg=h
16
9
so, oxygen flow ¼
31,250 ¼ 2813 kg=h
100
31
nitrogen ¼ 31,250
¼ 9687 kg=h
100
44
hydrogen chloride ¼ 31,250
¼ 13,750 kg=h
100
General rule: The ratio of the flow of any component to the flow of any other
component is the same as the ratio of the compositions of the two components.
The flow of any component in Example 2.6 could have been calculated directly
from the ratio of the percentage to that of ethylene and the ethylene flow.
44
Flow of hydrogen chloride ¼
5000 ¼ 13,750 kg=h
16
2.10. GENERAL ALGEBRAIC METHOD 59

2.10. GENERAL ALGEBRAIC METHOD

Simple material-balance problems involving only a few streams and with a few
unknowns can usually be solved by simple, direct methods. The relationship between
the unknown quantities and the information given can usually be clearly seen. For
more complex problems, and for problems with several processing steps, a more
formal algebraic approach can be used. The procedure is tedious if the calculations
have to be done manually, but should result in a solution to even the most intractable
problems, providing sufficient information is given for the problem to have a solution.
Algebraic symbols are assigned to all the unknown flows and compositions. Bal-
ance equations are then written around each subsystem for the independent compon-
ents (chemical species or elements).
Material-balance problems are particular examples of the general design problem
discussed in Chapter 1. The unknowns are compositions or flows, and the relating
equations arise from the conservation law and the stoichiometry of the reactions. For
any problem to have a unique solution, it must be possible to write the same number
of independent equations as there are unknowns.
Consider the general material balance problem where there are Ns streams each
containing Nc independent components. Then the number of variables, Nv , is given by

Nv ¼ Nc
Ns (2:3)

If Ne independent balance equations can be written, then the number of variables,

Nd , that must be specified for a unique solution, is given by
Nd ¼ (Ns
Nc )  Ne (2:4)

Consider a simple mixing problem:

1
2 Mixer 4
3

Let Fn be the total flow in stream n, and xn,m the concentration of component m in
stream n. Then the general balance equation can be written
F1 x1,m þ F2 x2,m þ F3 x3,m ¼ F4 x4,m (2:5)

A balance equation can also be written for the total of each stream:
F1 þ F 2 þ F 3 ¼ F 4 (2:6)

but this could be obtained by adding the individual component equations, and so is
not an additional independent equation. There are m independent equations, the
number of independent components.
This problem has 4m variables and m independent balance equations. There will be
a unique solution to the problem if we specify 3m variables, for example, the molar
flows of all m components in the three feeds or in two feeds and the product.