A Project Report on

“Remote Control for Home Appliances”

Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of Award of
Bachelor of Technology
Degree

By

Ms. Khushboo Singh

(0416131028)

Project Incharge Project Guide

Prof. P. K. Srivastava Mrs. Arpita Gupta
Lecturer (E&C)

Head Of the Department

Prof. K. K. Dangda

Electronics & Communication Engineering

(2007-2008)

Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad (U.P.)

 A Project Report on

“Remote Control for Home Appliances”

Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of Award of
Bachelor of Technology
Degree

By

Ms. Archana Sharma

(0416131011)

Project Incharge Project Guide

Prof. P. K. Srivastava Mrs. Arpita Gupta
Lecturer (E&C)

Head Of the Department

Prof. K. K. Dangda

Electronics & Communication Engineering

(2007-2008)

Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad (U.P.)

 A Project Report on

“Remote Control for Home Appliances”

Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of Award of

Bachelor of Technology
Degree

By

Ms. Nidhi Sharma

(0416131037)

Project Incharge Project Guide

Prof. P. K. Srivastava Mrs. Arpita Gupta
Lecturer (E&C)

Head Of the Department

Prof. K. K. Dangda

Electronics & Communication Engineering

(2007-2008)

Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad (U.P.)

 A Project Report on

“Remote Control for Home Appliances”

Submitted for Partial Fulfillment of Award of

Bachelor of Technology
Degree

By

Ms. Neetika Mehta

(0416131035)

Project Incharge Project Guide

Prof. P. K. Srivastava Mrs. Arpita Gupta
Lecturer (E&C)

Head Of the Department

Prof. K. K. Dangda

Electronics & Communication Engineering

(2007-2008)

Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad (U.P.)

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to our

project Incharge Prof. P. K. Srivastava and project guides Mrs.
Arpita Gupta for their consistent super vision, valuable guidance
and encouraging attitude during the preparation of this project.
I am also highly indebted to all the faculty members and specially for
Mr. K.K. Dangda (HOD of Electronics and Communication) for
providing a very congenial atmosphere to avail each and every
opportunity.
At last but not least I want to thanks my parents, colleagues and
teachers for helping me and giving valuable suggestion and moral
support.

Khushboo Singh
(0416131028)
(Electronics & communication)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to our

project Incharge Prof. P. K. Srivastava and project guides Mrs.
Arpita Gupta for their consistent super vision, valuable guidance
and encouraging attitude during the preparation of this project.
I am also highly indebted to all the faculty members and specially for
Mr. K.K. Dangda (HOD of Electronics and Communication) for
providing a very congenial atmosphere to avail each and every
opportunity.
At last but not least I want to thanks my parents, colleagues and
teachers for helping me and giving valuable suggestion and moral
support.

Archana Sharma
(0416131011)
(Electronics & communication)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to our

project Incharge Prof. P. K. Srivastava and project guides Mrs.
Arpita Gupta for their consistent super vision, valuable guidance
and encouraging attitude during the preparation of this project.
I am also highly indebted to all the faculty members and specially for
Mr. K.K. Dangda (HOD of Electronics and Communication) for
providing a very congenial atmosphere to avail each and every
opportunity.
At last but not least I want to thanks my parents, colleagues and
teachers for helping me and giving valuable suggestion and moral
support.

Nidhi Sharma
(0416131037)
(Electronics & communication)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to our

project Incharge Prof. P. K. Srivastava and project guides Mrs.
Arpita Gupta for their consistent super vision, valuable guidance
and encouraging attitude during the preparation of this project.
I am also highly indebted to all the faculty members and specially for
Mr. K.K. Dangda (HOD of Electronics and Communication) for
providing a very congenial atmosphere to avail each and every
opportunity.
At last but not least I want to thanks my parents, colleagues and
teachers for helping me and giving valuable suggestion and moral
support.

Neetika Mehta
(0416131028)
(Electronics & communication)
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “REMOTE CONTROL

FOR HOME APPLIANCES” submitted by Khushboo Singh
(Roll No. 0416131028), student of Final-Year Electronics and
Communication engineering, is a record of work carried out
under my guidance and supervision.

Project Guide Project Incharge

Mrs. Arpita Gupta Prof. P. K. Srivastava
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “REMOTE CONTROL

FOR HOME APPLIANCES” submitted by Archana Sharma
(Roll No. 0416131011), student of Final-Year Electronics and
Communication engineering, is a record of work carried out
under my guidance and supervision.

Project Guide Project Incharge

Mrs. Arpita Gupta Prof. P. K. Srivastava
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “REMOTE CONTROL

FOR HOME APPLIANCES” submitted by Nidhi Sharma
(Roll No. 0416131037), student of Final-Year Electronics and
Communication engineering, is a record of work carried out
under my guidance and supervision.

Project Guide Project Incharge

Mrs. Arpita Gupta Prof. P. K. Srivastava
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “REMOTE CONTROL

FOR HOME APPLIANCES” submitted by Neetika Mehta
(Roll No. 0416131035), student of Final-Year Electronics and
Communication engineering, is a record of work carried out
under my guidance and supervision.

Project Guide Project Incharge

Mrs. Arpita Gupta Prof. P. K. Srivastava
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION

2. BLOCK DIAGRAM

3. COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION
 LED
 Resistor
 Capacitor
 Voltage Regulator
 Crystal oscillator
 Serial Communication via RS232 port
 Hex Inverter
 Switch
 Microcontroller
 AT89C51
 AT89C2051

4. MAIN CIRCUIT
 Circuit Description

5. SOFTWARE
 C Programming
 Hex Coding

6. CONCLUSION

7. FUTURE PROSPECTS

8. REFERENCES
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “REMOTE CONTROL

FOR HOME APPLIANCES” submitted by Archana Sharma,
Khushboo Singh, Neetika Mehta and Nidhi Sharma students
of Final-Year Electronics and Communication engineering, is
a record of work carried out under my guidance and supervision.

Project Guide Project Incharge

Mrs. Arpita Gupta Prof. P. K. Srivastava
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to take this opportunity to express our gratitude to our

project Incharge Prof. P. K. Srivastava and project guides Mrs.
Arpita Gupta for their consistent super vision, valuable guidance
and encouraging attitude during the preparation of this project.
We are also highly indebted to all the faculty members and specially
for Mr. K.K. Dangda (HOD of Electronics and Communication)
for providing a very congenial atmosphere to avail each and every
opportunity.
At last but not least we want to thanks our parents, friends and
teachers for helping us and giving valuable suggestion and moral
support.

Archana Sharma (0416131011)

Khushboo Singh (0416131028)
Neetika Mehta (0416131035)
Nidhi Sharma (0416131037)
(4th Year)
(Electronics & communication)
1
INTRODUCTION
Built-in communication capabilities, nowadays added to home
appliances, are the enabler of a variety of new features, services
and exciting usage models. These capabilities result in higher
quality of life, cost saving, increased convenience and allow us to
manage our time in higher efficiency.

This opens a whole new world of services, beyond traditional home

control beneficial to users, manufacturers and service providers
alike. Appliance can be leased with payment per use only model,
saving customers the need to spend a relatively high down payment.

Appliance manufacturers have now for the first time, a direct link to
the end user, allowing them to provide remote service and fault
diagnostics and additional new services, taking advantage of their
enormous customer base.

The cheapest way to remotely control a device within a visible

range is via Infra-Red light. Almost all audio and video equipment
can be controlled this way nowadays. Due to this wide spread
use the required components are quite cheap, thus making it
ideal for us to use IR control for our own project, controlling the
home appliances with the help of remote control, based on
infrared.

A remote control is an electronic device used for the remote

operation of a machine.
2
The term remote control can be also referred to as "remote" or
"controller" when abbreviated. It is known by many other names as
well. Commonly, remote controls are used to issue commands
from a distance to televisions or other consumer electronics such
as stereo systems and DVD players. Remote controls for these
devices are usually small wireless handheld objects with an array
of buttons for adjusting various settings such as television channel,
track number, and volume. In fact, for the majority of modern
devices with this kind of control, the remote contains all the
function controls while the controlled device itself only has a
handful of essential primary controls. Most of these remotes
communicate to their respective devices via infrared (IR) signals
and a few via radio signals.

Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength

longer than that of visible light, but shorter than that of microwaves.
The name means "below red" (from the Latin infra, "below"), red
being the color of visible light with the longest wavelength. Infrared
radiation has wavelengths between about 750 nm and 1 mm.
Humans at normal body temperature can radiate at a wavelength
of 10 microns.Infrared imaging is used extensively for both military
and civilian purposes.

Infra-Red actually is normal light with a particular color. We

humans can't see this colour because its wave length is below
the visible spectrum. That's one of the reasons why IR is chosen
for remote control purposes. Another reason is because IR LEDs
are quite easy to make, and therefore can be very cheap.

3
There are many sources of Infra-Red light. The sun is the
brightest source of all. Others are: light bulbs, candles, central
heating system, and even our body radiates Infra-Red light.
In fact everything that radiates heat, does radiate Infra-Red
light.

Therefore we have to take some precautions to guarantee

that our IR message gets across the receiver without errors.

Modulation is done to make our signal stand out above the

noise. With modulation we make the IR light source blink at a
particular frequency. The IR receiver will be tuned to that
frequency, so it can ignore everything else.

4
5
IR TX WITH IR RX WITH LED1
MICRO MICRO LED2
CONTROLL CONTROLLER

POWER
Key Pad SUPPLY

HEX CODING
For Transmitter:

:0E044F003838383838383838383838383800C7
:1004EB00D297D296D295D294759850758920758DE6
:1004FB00F4D28ED2992097087BFF7A03795F801410
:10050B002096087BFF7A03799F800920950B7BFF50
:10051B007A0379DD12006580DC2094D97BFF7A04A5
:07052B00791D12006580CE6E
:030000000205599D
:0C055900787FE4F6D8FD7581210204EBE8
:10000300E518240CF8E60518227809300702780C65
:10001300E475F0011204B502045D2000EB7F2ED2DB
:10002300008018EF540F2490D43440D4FF30040BD5
:10003300EF24BFB41A0050032461FFE519600215D1
:1000430019051CE51C7002051B30070D7809E475C2
:10005300F0011204B5EF0204A30205327403D207C0
:100063008003E4C207F5188B098A0A890BE4F519A2
:10007300F51BF51CE51960077F2012003E80F5751E
:100083001AFFC201C200C202C203C205C206C208ED
:1000930012000CFF700D3007057F0012004FAF1CDC
:1000A300AE1B22B4255FC2D5C20412000CFF24D0BC
:1000B300B40A00501A75F00A781930D50508B6FF4E
:1000C3000106C6A426F620D5047002D20380D924E3
:1000D300CFB41A00EF5004C2E5D20402024FD2019A
:1000E30080C6D20080C0D20280BCD2D580BAD205ED
:1000F30080B47F2012003E2002077401B51900402E
:10010300F1120003FF12003E020077D208D20680EC
:1001130095120003FB120003FA120003F94A4B7015
:100123000679207A037BFF20022EE519602A7E00E0
:100133008E8275830012047660060EEE651A70F0E7
:10014300C2D5EBC0E0EAC0E0E9C0E0EE120296D00F
:10015300E0F9D0E0FAD0E0FB12045DFF60AAEBC047
50

:10016300E0EAC0E0E9C0E012003ED0E02401F9D0A
:10017300E03400FAD0E0FBE51A0460DCD51AD9803C
:10018300877BFF7A027992D202809C791080027970
:1001930008C206C2088008D2D5790A8004790AC247
:1001A300D5E51A047002F51AE4FAFDFEFF12000306
:1001B300FC7B08200113120003FD7B1030000A12A0
:1001C3000003FE120003FF7B20EC3382D592D5504F
:1001D30013C3E43000069FFFE49EFEE42001039D69
:1001E300FDE49CFCE4CBF8C201EC700CCFCECDCC8B
:1001F300E824F8F870F38017C3EF33FFEE33FEED16
:1002030033FDEC33FCEB33FB994002FB0FD8E9EBF6
:10021300300105F8D0E0C448B201C0E00AEC4D4E0D
:100223004F78207B0070C2EAB51A0040BCC0E012D0
:100233000298D0F0D0E0200104C4C0E0C4B201C0F1
:10024300F0120027D0F0D5F0EB0200771204C501BD
:100253001453018E5800E54C00E14201924F019A7C
:0F02630044019A4900FA4301A0550184460184E1
:100272004501844703405000E92D00ED2E01102B6B
:1002820000F123010E20032E2A00A94800000108D4
:100292003F3F3F00790AA2D5200314300509B91067
:1002A200020404B9080104A2D52006025001042068
:1002B20002689202B519005034C0E07F2030031961
:1002C2007F30A20272067205500F1202EFC202C202
:1002D20006C205C2087F30800F300503E9C0E01274
:1002E200003E300503D0E0F9D0E0B519CC30051757
:1002F2007F30B9100C12003E7F583004077F78809F
:1003020003B9080312003E3002057F2D02003E7F32
:10031200202008F87F2B2006F322920280CF286E3D
:10032200756C6C29002D50434958D20112000330DC
:1003320001F8C201781930D50108F60200A91200AD
:10034200032403B405004001E49003279312002F15
:0D035200743A12002FD20375190402018EB7
:10045D00BB010689828A83E0225002E722BBFE029D

51
:09046D00E32289828A83E49322D0
:10047600BB010CE58229F582E5833AF583E022503B
:1004860006E92582F8E622BBFE06E92582F8E22285
:0D049600E58229F582E5833AF583E493229F
:1004A300BB010689828A83F0225002F722BBFE0138
:0204B300F32232
:1004B500FAE6FB0808E6F925F0F618E6CA3AF62248
:1004C500D083D082F8E4937012740193700DA3A3C6
:1004D50093F8740193F5828883E4737402936860DA
:0604E500EFA3A3A380DFDA
:10053200EFB40A07740D12053D740A309811A89998
:10054200B8130CC2983098FDA899C298B811F63029
:0705520099FDC299F5992201
:00000001FF

52
For Receiver:
:10002500759850758920758DF4D28ED2A0D2A712FD
:04003500000380FB49
:100003003098FDAF99C298EF24CA600D14600D14A7
:10001300600D2403700BC2A722D2A722C2A022D252
:01002300A03C
:0100240022B9
:03000000020039C2
:0C003900787FE4F6D8FD758109020025EF
:00000001FF

53
 7

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode, usually called an LED, is a semiconductor diode
that emits incoherent narrow-spectrum light when electrically biased in
the forward direction of the p-n junction. This effect is a form of
electroluminescence.
LEDs are often used as small indicator lights on electronic devices and
increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area
lighting. The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and
condition of the semiconducting material used, and can be infrared, visible,
or ultraviolet. LEDs can also be used as a regular household light source.
Besides lighting, interesting applications include sterilization of water and
disinfection of devices.

Example:        Circuit symbol:   

Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
Connecting and soldering
LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be
labeled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for
cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat
on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode
is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method).
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless
you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most
LEDs.

Testing an LED
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply.
It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass
through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for
quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your
supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the correct
way round.

Calculating an LED resistor value

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through
the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly.
The resistor value, R is given by:
R = (VS - VL) / I
VS = supply voltage
VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted
If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor
value which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose.
In fact you may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the
current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the LED less
bright.
9

9
Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law
Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where:
  V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case)
  I = the current through the resistor
So   R = (VS - VL) / I
Colors of LEDs
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow,
green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are
much more expensive than the other colors.
The color of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the
coloring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colors are available in
uncolored packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described
as 'water clear'). The colored packages are also available as diffused (the
standard type) or transparent.
Connecting LEDs in series
If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to
connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs
with the same current as just one LED.
All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they
are all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to
provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another
2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add up all
the LED voltages and use this for VL.
10

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel!

Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between
them is generally not a good idea.
If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will
light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it.
Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one
resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap
and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs individually. If
LEDs are in parallel each one should have its own resistor.

Advantages of using LEDs

1. LEDs produce more light per watt than incandescent bulbs; this is useful in
battery powered or energy-saving devices.
2. LEDs can emit light of an Intended color without the use of color filters that
traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial
costs.
3. LEDs are Ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off
cycling
4. LEDs can be very small and are easily populated onto printed circuit board
Disadvantages of using LEDs
1. LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the
operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures
may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device
failure.
2. LEDs must be supplied with the correct current.
11

Application Of Light Emitting Diode

1. Devices, medical applications, clothing, toys:
a) In optical fiber and Free Space Optics communications
b) Movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice
c) Remote controls, such as for TVs and VCRs, often use infrared LEDs.
d) Movement sensors, for example in optical computer mice
e) Toys and recreational sporting goods, such as the Flashflight
2. Lighting:
a) Large scale video displays
b) Backlighting for LCD televisions and displays
c) Architectural lighting, Light bulbs, Lanterns, and Streetlights
3. Indicators and signs:
a) Status indicators on a variety of equipment
b) Traffic lights and signals
c) Exit signs, Railroad crossing signals, and Continuity indicators

12

RESISTOR
A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that opposes
an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in
accordance with Ohm's law
Ohm's Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R). It can
be written in three ways:
I= R=
 V  V

V=I×R  or   or 

 R  I

where: V = voltage in volts (V) or: V = voltage in volts (V)

 I  = current in amps (A) I  = current in milliamps (mA)
R = resistance in ohms ( ) R = resistance in kilohms (k )

Example:        Circuit symbol:   

The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor
divided by the current through the resistor while the temperature remains the
same. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits.
Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in
series with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the
LED.
Connecting and soldering
Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat
when soldering.

13

Resistor values - the resistor color code

Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .
1 is quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M .
1 k = 1000     1 M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands.
Each color represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have 4 bands: The Resistor
Color Code
 The first band gives the first digit. Color Number
 The second band gives the second digit. Black 0
Brown 1
 The third band indicates the number of zeros.
Red 2
 The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance Orange 3
(precision) of the resistor, this may be ignored for
Yellow 4
almost all circuits but further details are given below:.
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.

Resistance
Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the flow of
electric current. Energy is used up as the voltage across the component
drives the current t hrough it and this energy appears as heat in the
component.

14

Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .

1 is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in k and M .
Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 or as
high as 10 M .
Resistors connected in Series
When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance is equal to
the individual resistances added together. For example if resistors R1 and R2
are connected in series their combined resistance, R, is given by:
Combined resistance in series:   R = R1 + R2
This can be extended for more resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 +...
Note that the combined resistance in series will always be greater than
any of the individual resistances.
Resistors connected in Parallel
When resistors are connected in parallel their combined resistance is less
than any of the Individual resistances. There is a special equation for the
combined resistance of two resistors R1 and R2:

Combined resistance of  R1 × R2

R=
two resistors in parallel:    R1 + R2

15

For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation
must be used. This adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to
give the reciprocal of the combined resistance, R:
  1    1    1    1 
 =  + + + ...
R R1 R2 R3
The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use!
Note that the combined resistance in parallel will always be less than any
of the individual resistances.

Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

The resistance of an object depends on its shape and the material from
which it is made. For a given material, objects with a smaller cross-section
or longer length will have a greater resistance.
Materials can be divided into three groups:
 Conductors which have low resistance.
Examples: metals ( aluminium, copper, silver etc. ) and carbon.
 Metals are used to make connecting wires, switch contacts and lamp
filaments. Resistors are made from carbon or long coils of thin wire.
 Semiconductors which have moderate resistance.
Examples: germanium, silicon.
Semiconductors are used to make diodes, LEDs, transistors and
integrated circuits (chips).
16

 Insulators which have high resistance.

Examples: most plastics such as polythene and PVC (polyvinyl
chloride), paper, glass.
PVC is used as an outer covering for wires to prevent them making
contact.

Power Ratings of Resistors

Electrical energy is converted to heat
when current flows through a resistor.
Usually the effect is negligible, but if the
resistance is low (or the voltage across the
resistor high) a large current may pass
making the resistor become noticeably
warm. The resistor must be able to High power resistors
withstand the heating effect and resistors (5W top, 25W bottom)
have power ratings to show this. Photographs © Rapid Electronics
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most
circuits the standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare
cases where a higher power is required it should be clearly specified in the
parts list, these will be circuits using low value resistors (less than about 300
) or high voltages (more than 15V).
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I² × R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)
or I  = current through the resistor in amps (A)
P = V² / R R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)

17
CAPACITOR
A capacitor is an electrical/electronic device that can store energy in the
electric field between a pair of conductors (called "plates"). The process of
storing energy in the capacitor is known as "charging", and involves electric
charges of equal magnitude, but opposite polarity, building up on each plate.
Capacitors are often used in electric and eletronic circuits as energy-storage
devices. They can also be used to differentiate between high-frequency and
low-frequency signals. This property makes them useful in electronic filters.
Capacitors are occasionally referred to as condensers.

Capacitance
The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q)
stored on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which
appears between the plates:

C = Q/V
Where :
C = Capacitance in farads(F)
Q = Charge in coulombs(C)
V = Voltage in volts(V)
In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one
coulomb of charge is stored due to one volt applied potential difference
across the plates. Since the farad is a very large unit, values of
capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (µF), nanofarads (nF), or
picofarads (pF).

18
The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate
and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also
proportional to the permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting)
substance that separates the plates.
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by:
C ≈ ЄA/d ; A>> d2
where ε is the permittivity of the dielectric (see Dielectric constant), A is the
area of the plates and d is the spacing between them.
In the diagram, the rotated molecules create an opposing electric field that
partially cancels the field created by the plates, a process called dielectric
polarization.

When there is a difference in electric charge between the plates, an electric

field is created in the region between the plates that is proportional to the
amount of charge that has been moved from one plate to the other. This
electric field creates a potential difference V = E·d between the plates of
this simple parallel-plate capacitor.

19

Stored energy
As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the
separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor due to the
electric field of these charges. Ever-increasing work must be done against
this ever-increasing electric field as more charge is separated. The
energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is equal to the
amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and
therefore the electric field. The energy stored is given by:
 EStored =1/2CV2 = 1/2 VQ
where V is the voltage across the capacitor.

The maximum energy that can be (safely) stored in a particular capacitor

is limited by the maximum electric field that the dielectric can withstand
before it breaks down. Therefore, capacitors made with the same
dielectric have about the same maximum energy density (joules of energy
per cubic meter), if the dielectric volume dominates the total volume.
Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Combined capacitance (C) of   1    1    1    1 
 =  + + + ...
capacitors connected in series:   C C1 C2 C3
Combined capacitance (C) of
C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...
capacitors connected in parallel:  

Two or more capacitors are rarely deliberately connected in series in real

circuits, but it can be useful to connect capacitors in parallel to obtain a very
large capacitance, for example to smooth a power supply.

20
 Figure shows the Capacitors in Series and Parallel

There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups,
polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.
Polarised capacitors (large values, 1µF +)

Examples:        Circuit symbol:   

Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the
correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -.
They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

21
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are
attached to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at
the same end (10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller
and they stand upright on the circuit board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly
printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be
quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting
an electrolytic capacitor. It the project parts list does not specify a voltage,
choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power
supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)

Examples:        Circuit symbol:   

Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way
round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one
unusual type (polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V,
usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small
capacitors because there are many types of them and several different
labeling systems!
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a
multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier
should be!
For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example:   4n7 means 4.7nF.

22

Capacitor Number Code

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult:
 the 1st number is the 1st digit,
 the 2nd number is the 2nd digit,
 the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF.
  Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating.
For example:   102   means 1000pF = 1nF   (not 102pF!)
For example:   472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

Capacitor Color Code

A color code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now
obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colors should be read
like the resistor code, the top three color bands giving the value in pF. Ignore
the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating).
For example:   brown, black, orange   means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01µF.
Note that there are no gaps between the color bands, so 2 identical bands
actually appear as a wide band.
For example: wide red, yellow   Colour Code
means 220nF = 0.22µF. Colour Number
Black 0
Brown 1

Red 2

Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
23
White 9

Uses of Capacitors
Capacitors are used for several purposes:
 Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the
charging and discharging.
 Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
 Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system
and to connect a loudspeaker.
 Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
 Tuning - for example in a radio system.
 Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.
 Power conditioning
 Signal processing
 Power factor correction

24
 1 1 .0 5 9 2 M H Z
U7
31 39
VCC E A /V P P 0 .0 38
19 P 0 .1 37
XL 1 X1 P 0 .2 36
P 0 .3 35
18 P 0 .4 34
1 0 M /6 3 V X2 P 0 .5 33
P 0 .6 32
RST 9 P 0 .7 L2
R E S ET 21 YE LLOW
P 2 .0 VCC
R 34 22
10 k 12 P 2 .1 23
13 IN T 0 P 2 .2 24
14 IN T 1 P 2 .3 25
15 T0 P 2 .4 26
T1 P 2 .5 27 L2
1 P 2 .6 28 RE D
2 P 1 .0 P 2 .7
3 P 1 .1 17
4 P 1 .2 RD 16
5 P 1 .3 WR 29
6 P 1 .4 PSEN 30
7 P 1 .5 A L E /P 11
8 P 1 .6 T XD 10
P 1 .7 R XD

8 9 c5 1

VCC 47

U9A U8A
10 K
7

74 HC14 74 HC14
1 2 1 2

L2 L2
14

14

RED RED
 49

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
50
 48

VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The power supply which provides a constant output voltage
irrespective of variations in the input voltage or load current is
called a regulated power supply is called as voltage regulator.
The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a stable dc voltage
for powering other electronic circuits. A voltage regulator should be
capable of providing substantial output current.
Thus in short, a voltage regulato is an electrical regulator
designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level.
The three terminal voltage regulators category we have positive
voltage regulators and negative output voltage regulators.
The 78XX series is a series of positive voltage regulators and
79XX is the series of negative voltage regulators.
78XX Series IC :
78XX series are three terminal positive voltage regulators.Here
XX indicates the output voltage. In our project the output voltage
is regulated 5 volts.

25
 26

A 5V voltage regulator (7805) is used to ensure that no more than

5V is delivered to the Digilab board regardless of the voltage
present at the J12 connector (provided that voltage is less than
12VDC). The regulator functions by using a diode to clamp the
output voltage at 5VDC regardless of the input voltage - excess
voltage is converted to heat and dissipated through the body of
the regulator. If a DC supply of greater than 12V is used,
excessive heat will be generated, and the board may be
damaged. If a DC supply of less than 5V is used, insufficient
voltage will be present at the regulators output.
If a power supply provides a voltage higher than 7 or 8 volts, the
regulator must dissipate significant heat. The "fin" on the regulator
body (the side that protrudes upward beyond the main body of the
part) helps to dissipate excess heat more efficiently. If the board
requires higher currents (due to the use of peripheral devices or
larger breadboard circuits), then the regulator may need to
dissipate more heat. In this case, the regulator can be secured to
the circuit board by fastening it with a screw and nut (see below).
By securing the regulator tightly to the circuit board, excess heat
can be passed to the board and then radiated away.

27

CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical

resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create
an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency
is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches),
to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to
stabilize frequencies for radio transmittes/receivers.
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or
ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending
in all three spatial dimensions.
Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a
crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural
resonant frequencies of vibration.
The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the
speed of sound in the material. When a crystal of quartz is properly
cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by
applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This
property is known as piezoelectricity.
When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field
as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage.
The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed
of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant
frequency.

28

APPLICATIONS :
Used in consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios,
computers, and cellphones. Quartz crystals are also found inside
test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal
generators, and oscilloscopes.
 Figure shows the symbol of Crystal Oscillator

29

Serial Communication via RS232 Port

Introduction to RS-232:
RS232 is the most known serial port used in transmitting the data in
communication and interface. Even though serial port is harder to
program than the parallel port, this is the most effective method in
which the data transmission requires less wires that yields to the
less cost. The RS232 is the communication line which enables
the data transmission by only using three wire links. The three
links provides ‘transmit’, ‘receive’ and common ground.
The ‘transmit’ and ‘receive’ line on this connecter send and receive
data between the computers. As the name indicates, the data is
transmitted serially. The two pins are TXD & RXD. There are other
lines on this port as RTS, CTS, DSR, DTR, and RTS, RI. The ‘1’ and
‘0’ are the data which defines a voltage level of 3V to 25V and -3V to
-25V respectively.
 The electrical characteristics of the serial port as per the EIA
(Electronics Industry Association) RS232C Standard specifies a
maximum baud rate of 20,000bps, which is slow compared to
today’s standard speed. For this reason, we have chosen the new
RS-232D Standard, which was recently released.
            
The RS-232D has existed in two types. i.e., D-TYPE 25 pin
connector and D-TYPE 9 pin connector, which are male connectors
on the back of the PC. We need a female connector on your
communication from Host to Guest computer.

RS-232 Waveforms:-
RS-232 communication is asynchronous. That is a clock signal is
not sent with the data. Each word is synchronized using it's start bit,
30

and an internal clock on each side, keeps tabs on the timing.

 Figure: Serial Logic Waveform

The diagram above shows the expected waveform from the

UART when using the common 8N1 format. 8N1 signifies 8 Data
bits, No Parity and 1 Stop Bit. The RS-232 line, when idle is in the
Mark State (Logic 1). A transmission starts with a start bit which
Is (Logic 0). Then each bit is sent down the line, one at a time.
The LSB (Least Significant Bit) is sent first. A Stop Bit (Logic 311) is
then appended to the signal to make up the transmission.

The diagram shows the next bit after the Stop Bit to be Logic 0.
This must mean another word is following, and this is it's Start Bit.
If there is no more data coming then the receive line will stay in its
idle state (logic 1). We have encountered something called a
"Break" Signal. This is when the data line is held in a Logic 0 state
for a time long enough to send an entire word. Therefore if you
don't put the line back into an idle state, then the receiving end
will interpret this as a break signal.

The data sent using this method, is said to be framed. That is the
data is framed between a Start and Stop Bit. Should the Stop Bit
be received as a Logic 0, then a framing error will occur. This is
common, when both sides are communicating at different speeds.

31
The above diagram is only relevant for the signal immediately at
the UART. RS-232 logic levels uses +3 to +25 volts to signify a
"Space" (Logic 0) and -3 to -25 volts for a "Mark" (logic 1). Any
voltage in between these regions (i.e. between +3 and -3 Volts)
is undefined. Therefore this signal is put through a "RS-232 Level
Converter". This is the signal present on the RS-232 Port of your
computer, shown below.
 Figure: RS-232 Logic Waveform

The above waveform applies to the Transmit and Receive lines on

the RS-232 port. These lines carry serial data, hence the name
Serial Port. There are other lines on the RS-232 port which, in
essence are Parallel lines. These lines (RTS, CTS, DCD, DSR,
DTR, RTS and RI) are also at RS-232 Logic Levels.
RS-232 Level Converters:-

Almost all digital devices which we use require either TTL or

CMOS logic levels. Therefore the first step to connecting a device
to the RS-232 port is to transform the RS-232 levels back into 0
and 5 Volts.

Two common RS-232 Level Converters are the 1488 RS-232

Driver and the 1489 RS-232 Receiver. Each package contains 4
inverters of the one type, either Drivers or Receivers. The driver
requires two supply rails, +7.5 to +15v and -7.5 to -15v. As you
could imagine this may pose a problem in many instances where
only a single supply of +5V is present. However the advantages
of these I.C's are they are cheap.

32
Figure Pinouts for the MAX-232, Figure Typical MAX-232 circuit
RS-232 Driver/Receiver.

Another device is the MAX-232. It includes a Charge Pump, which

generates +10V and -10V from a single 5v supply. This I.C. also
includes two receivers and two transmitters in the same package.
This is handy in many cases when we only want to use the
Transmit and Receive data Lines. We don't need to use two chips,
one for the receive line and one for the transmit. However all this
convenience comes at a price, but compared with the price of
designing a new power supply it is very cheap.

33
The advantages of using serial data transfer rather than
parallel:-

1. Serial Cables can be longer than Parallel cables. The serial port
transmits a '1' as -3 to -25 volts and a '0' as +3 to +25 volts where
as a parallel port transmits a '0' as 0v and a '1' as 5v. Therefore the
serial port can have a maximum swing of 50V compared to the
parallel port which has a maximum swing of 5 Volts.Therefore
cable loss is not going to be as much of a problem for serial cables
than they are for parallel.
2. There is no need of as many wires as in parallel transmission. If
device needs to be mounted a far distance away from the
computer then 3 core cable (Null Modem Configuration) is going to
be a lot cheaper that running 19 or 25 core cable. However one
must take into account the cost of the interfacing at each end.

3. Infra Red devices have proven quite popular recently. Many

electronic diaries and palmtop computers have infra red
capabilities build in. Serial transmission is used where one bit is
sent at a time.

4. Microcontroller's have also proven to be quite popular recently.

Many of these have in built SCI (Serial Communications Interfaces)
which can be used to talk to the outside world. Serial
Communication reduces the pin count of these MPU's. Only two
pins are commonly used, Transmit Data (TXD) and Receive Data
(RXD) compared with at least 8 pins when used 8 bit Parallel
method.

34

A microcontroller (also MCU or µC) is a computer-on-a-chip. It is a

type of microprocessor emphasizing high integration, low power
consumption, self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a
general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC). In addition
to the usual arithmetic and logic elements of a general purpose
microprocessor, the microcontroller typically integrates additional
elements such as read-write memory for data storage, read-only
memory, such as flash for code storage, EEPROM for permanent
data storage, peripheral devices, and input/output interfaces. At
clock speeds of as little as a few MHz or even lower,
microcontrollers often operate at very low speed compared to
modern day microprocessors, but this is adequate for typical
applications. They consume relatively little power (milliwatts), and
will generally have the ability to sleep while waiting for an interesting
peripheral event such as a button press to wake them up again to do
something. Power consumption while sleeping may be just
nanowatts, making them ideal for low power and long lasting battery
applications.
Microcontrollers are frequently used in automatically controlled
products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems,
remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys.
By reducing the size, cost, and power consumption compared to a
design using a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output
devices, microcontrollers make it economical to electronically control
many more processes.
HEX INVERTER
The 74HC14 and 74HCT14 are high-speed Si-gate CMOS devices
and are pin compatible with low power Schottky TTL
The 74HC14 and 74HCT14 provide six inverting buffers with
Schmitt-trigger action. They are capable of transforming slowly
changing input signals into sharply defined, jitter - free output
signals.

Features

1) Applications:
 Wave and pulse shapers
 Astable multivibrators
 Monostable multivibrators.
2) Complies with JEDEC standard no. 7A
3) ESD protection:
a) HBM EIA/JESD22-A114-A exceeds 2000 V
b) MM EIA/JESD22-A115-A exceeds 200 V.
4) Specified from -40 to +85º C and -40 to +125 Cº.
SWITCH

A switch is a mechanical device used to connect and disconnect a

circuit.
In the simplest case, a switch has two pieces of metal called
contacts that touch to make a circuit, and separate to break the
circuit.
The contact material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion,
because most metals form insulating oxides that would prevent the
switch from working.
Contact materials are also chosen on the basis of electrical
conductivity, hardness (resistance to abrasive wear), mechanical
strength, low cost and low toxicity.
REFERENCES

1) www.atmel.com/dyn/resources/prod-
documents/doc0265.pdf
2) www.nxp.com
3) www.wikipedia.com/wiki/switch
4) www.wikipedia.com/light-emitting-diode
5) www.technologystudent.com
6) www.atmel.com/atmel/acrobat/doc0368.pdf
7) www.wikipedia.org/wiki/infrared
8) www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/resistance
/capacitance
 45
C Programming for Transmitter:

1 /*.......................*/

2 #include <AT89X51.H> /* special function register declarations */

3 /* for the intended 8051 derivative */

5 #include <stdio.h> /* prototype declarations for I/O functions */

6 /* standard I/O .h-file */

7 #include <ctype.h> /* character functions */

8 #include <string.h>

9 #ifdef MONITOR51 /* Debugging with Monitor-51 needs */

char code reserve [3] _at_ 0x23; /* space for serial interrupt if */

#endif

12 void delay (void);

13 sbit sw_1 =P1^7;

14 sbit sw_2 =P1^6;

15 sbit sw_3 =P1^5;

16 sbit sw_4 =P1^4;

17
18
19

46
20
21
22
23
24 void MAIN(void)

25 {

26 1 unsigned char x;

27 1 sw_1 =1;

28 1 sw_2 =1;

29 1 sw_3 =1;

30 1 sw_4 =1;

31 1

32 1

33 1

34 1

35 1 #ifndef MONITOR51

36 1 SCON = 0x50; /* SCON: mode 1, 8-bit UART, enable rcvr */

 37 1 TMOD = 0x20; /* TMOD: timer 1, mode 2, 8-bit reload */

38 1 TH1 = 0xf4; /* TH1: reload value for 2400 */

39 1 TR1 = 1; /* TR1: timer 1 run */

40 1 TI = 1; /* TI: set TI to send first char of UART */

41 1 #endif

47

42 1 while(1)

43 1 {

44 2 if (sw_1==0)

45 2

printf("555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555
555555");

46 2 else if (sw_2==0)

47 2
printf("666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666
6666");

48 2
49 2
50 2 else if (sw_3==0)

51 2
printf("777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
777777");

52 2 else if (sw_4==0)
 53 2
printf("888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888
888888");

54 2 }
55 1
56 1
57 1
58 1
59 1
60 1 }

48
C Programming for Receiver:

1 #include <AT89X51.H> /* special function register declarations */

2 /* for the intended 8051 derivative */

3
4 #include <stdio.h> /* prototype declarations for I/O functions */

5 /* standard I/O .h-file */

6 #include <ctype.h> /* character functions */

7 #include <string.h>

8 void rx_buf(void );

9 sbit yellow =P2^0;

10 sbit red =P2^7;

11
12
13 unsigned char r_data,f;
14 void main (void)

15 {

16 1 /* main program */

17 1 /* define operation */

18 1 SCON = 0x50; /* SCON: mode 1, 8-bit UART, enable rcvr */

19 1 TMOD = 0x20; /* TMOD: timer 1, mode 2, 8-bit reload */

20 1 TH1 = 0xf4;

49
21 1 TR1 = 1;
22 1
23 1
24 1 yellow =1;

25 1 red =1;
26 1
27 1
28 1 while (1) { /* repeat forever */

29 2 rx_buf();
30 2
31 2 }
32 1
33 1
34 1
35 1 }
36
37
38 void rx_buf(void )
39 {
40 1
41 1 unsigned char i ;

42 1 while(RI==0);
43 1
44 1
45 1 i=SBUF;
46 1
47 1
48 1
49 1
50 1 RI=0;
51 1
52 1
53 1 switch(i)

54 1 {

50

55 2 case '5':

56 2 red =0;
57 2
58 2 break;

59 2 case '6':
60 2
61 2 red=1;

62 2 break;
63 2
64 2
65 2
66 2
67 2 case '7':
68 2
69 2 yellow=0;

70 2 break;

71 2 case '8':

72 2 yellow =1;
73 2
74 2 break;
 75 2 }
76 1 }
77

51

CONCLUSION
An easy and inexpensive remote control for home appliances are
described in this project report. It is based on infrared.Connect
this circuit to any of the home appliances such as lamp, fan,
radio, etc. to make the appliances on or off, to regulate their
output power, and to set their usage timing.The circuit can be
activated from upto 10 meters. This system was tested and
responded successfully, which verifies the feasibility of this
system's theory and concept This project has a very secure
structure.
In our daily life people often forget to switch off the light, so it is
a very inexpensive and easy instrument to switch off the various
home appliances without any inconvenience. so its become a
very cost effective as it is saving electricity and electricity bill’s .
 60

FUTURE PROSPECT
The remote control for home appliances which is to be implemented
future will have better throughput, very cheap and are less prone to
the errors.
Here we can also control the home appliances with help of personal
computer, mobile phone or land line phones.