INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER
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ONE
 CONTENTS
• Definition
• Cables

• Function
• Arches

• Phases of Construction
• Muller-Breslau’s Principle

• Structural Elements
• Influence Lines for Trusses

• Structural Systems

• Application of Influence Lines

• Loads on Structures

• Absolute Maximum Response

• Tributary Loads

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 Definition
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load. Important examples
related to civil engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in other branches of
engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and
electrical supporting structures are important.

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 Function
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer must
account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic
and environmental constraints.

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 Function
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer must
account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic
and environmental constraints.

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 Function
When designing a structure to serve a specified function for public use, the engineer must
account for its safety, aesthetics, and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic
and environmental constraints.

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 Function
Often this requires several independent studies of different solutions before final judgment can
be made as to which structural form is most appropriate. This design process is both creative
and technical and requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and the laws of
mechanics which govern material response.

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 Phases of Structural Engineering Projects
I. PLANNING PHASE
The planning phase usually involves the establishment of the functional requirements of the
proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration of the
possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or truss) that may be feasible and the types of
materials to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced concrete).

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 Phases of Structural Engineering Projects
II. PRELIMINARY STRUCTURAL DESIGN PHASE
In the preliminary structural design phase, the sizes of the various members of the structural
system selected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate analysis, past
experience, and code requirements.

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 Phases of Structural Engineering Projects
III. ESTIMATION OF LOADS
Estimation of loads involves determination of all the loads that can be expected to act on the
structure.

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 Phases of Structural Engineering Projects
IV. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
In structural analysis, the values of the loads are used to carry out an analysis of the structure in
order to determine the stresses or stress resultants in the members and the deflections at
various points of the structure.

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 Phases of Structural Engineering Projects
V. SAFETY AND SERVICEABILITY CHECKS
The results of the analysis are used to determine whether or not the structure satisfies the safety
and serviceability requirements of the design codes.

AGEEE, BALBALEG
MAY ACTUAL TO
NEN SAMAY
ALLOWABLE ULITEN
KO MAGANO

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 Phases of Structural Engineering Projects
VI. REVISED STRUCTURAL DESIGN
If the code requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes are revised and phases 3
through 5 are repeated until all the safety and serviceability requirements are satisfied. If these
requirements are already satisfied, then the design drawings and the construction specifications
are prepared, and the construction phase begins.

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!14
 A structure consists of
structural elements and
systems.
 Structural Elements
Tie Rods

Beams

Columns

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 Structural Elements
Tie Rods
Structural members subjected to a tensile force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts.
Due to the nature of this load, these members are rather slender, and are often chosen from rods,
bars, angles, or channels.

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 Structural Elements
Beams
Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often
they are classified according to the way they are supported. In particular, when the cross section
varies the beam is referred to as tapered or haunched. Beam cross sections may also be “built
up” by adding plates to their top and bottom. They can be made from either steel, concrete or
timber.

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 Structural Elements
Beams
Beams are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often
they are classified according to the way they are supported. In particular, when the cross section
varies the beam is referred to as tapered or haunched. Beam cross sections may also be “built
up” by adding plates to their top and bottom. They can be made from either steel, concrete or
timber.

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 Structural Elements
Columns
Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads are referred to as
columns. Tubes and wide-flange cross sections are often used for metal columns, and circular
and square cross sections with reinforcing rods are used for those made of concrete.
Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment as shown in
the figure. These members are referred to as beam columns.

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 Structural Systems
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed is
referred to as a structural system.

Trusses

Cables and Arches

Frames

Surface Structures
 Structural Systems
Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an important criterion for
design, a truss may be selected. Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in
triangular fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane and are
frequently used for bridge and roof support, whereas space trusses have members extending in
three dimensions and are suitable for towers.

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 Structural Systems
Cables and Arches
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly used to support
bridges. When used for these purposes, the cable has an advantage over the beam and the
truss, especially for spans that are greater than 150 ft (46 m). These are tension structures.

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 Structural Systems
Cables and Arches
The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a reverse curvature to that of the
cable. Arches are frequently used in bridge structures. These are compression structures.

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 Structural Systems
Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that are either pin
or fixed connected. The loading on a frames usually causes bending of its members.

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 Structural Systems
Surface Structures
A surface structure is made from a material having a very small thickness compared to its other
dimensions.

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 Loads
Once the dimensional requirements for a structure have been defined, it becomes necessary to
determine the loads the structure must support.

Often, it is the anticipation of the various loads that will be imposed on the structure that
provides the basic type of structure that will be chosen for design.

A building floor slab would be designed first, followed by the supporting beams, columns, and
last, the foundation footings.

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 Loads
The design loading for a structure is often specified in codes. In general, the structural engineer
works with two types of codes: general building codes and design codes.

General building codes specify the requirements of governmental bodies for minimum design
loads on structures and minimum standards for construction.

Design codes provide detailed technical standards and are used to establish the requirements
for the actual structural design.

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 Types of Loads
Dead Loads

Live Loads

Building Loads

Bridge Loads

Impact Loads

Wind Loads

Earthquake Loads

Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

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 Types of Loads
Dead Loads
Dead loads consist of the weights of the various structural members and the weights of any
objects that are permanently attached to the structure.

Hence, for a building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns, beams, and girders,
the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures, and other miscellaneous
attachments.

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 PROBLEM 1
The floor beam is used to support the 6-ft width of a lightweight plain concrete slab having a
thickness of 4 in. The slab serves as a portion of the ceiling for the floor below, and therefore its
bottom is coated with plaster. Furthermore, an 8-ft-high, 12-in.-thick lightweight solid concrete
block wall is directly over the top flange of the beam. Determine the loading on the beam
measured per foot of length of the beam.

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 Types of Loads
Live Loads
Live Loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They may be caused by the weights
of objects temporarily placed on a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces.

The live floor loading in this classroom consists of desks, chairs and laboratory equipment.
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 Live Loads
Building Loads
The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads, which depend on the
purpose for which the building is designed.

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 Live Loads
Building Loads
For some types of buildings having very large floor areas, many codes will allow a reduction in
the uniform live load for a floor, since it is unlikely that the prescribed live load will occur
simultaneously throughout the entire structure at any one time. This is used when members have
an influence area (KLLAT) of 400 ft2 or more.

where

L = reduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area supported by the member.

Lo = unreduced design live load per square foot or square meter of area supported by the member.

KLL = live load element factor. For interior columns KLL = 4.

AT = tributary area in square feet or square meters.

The reduced live load is limited to not less than 50% of LO for members supporting one floor,
or not less than 40% of LO for members supporting more than one floor.

No reduction is allowed for loads exceeding 100 psf, or for structures used for public
assembly, garages, or roofs.

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 PROBLEM 2
A two-story office building shown in the photo has interior columns that are spaced 22 ft apart
in two perpendicular directions. Determine the reduced live load supported by a typical interior
column located at ground level.

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 Live Loads
Highway Bridge Loads
The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic, and the heaviest vehicle loading
encountered is that caused by a series of trucks.

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 Live Loads
Impact Loads
Moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and therefore they impart
an impact to the deck. The percentage increase of the live loads due to impact is called the
impact factor, I.

where:

I = not larger than 0.3

L = length of the span in feet subjected to

live load

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 Wind Loads
When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy is converted into potential
energy of pressure, which causes a wind loading.

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 Wind Loads
The side of the building is subjected to a wind loading that creates a uniform normal pressure of
15 kPa on the windward side and a suction pressure of 5 kPa on the leeward side. Determine the
horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pin connections A, B, and C of the
supporting gable arch.

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 Earthquake Loads
Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with the ground and its
response characteristics. These loadings result from the structure’s distortion caused by the
ground’s motion and the lateral resistance of the structure.

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 Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the pressure developed by
these loadings becomes an important criterion for their design.

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 Tributary Loadings
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or roofs are supported by a structural frame, it is
necessary to determine how the load on these surfaces is transmitted to the various structural
elements used for their support.

There are generally two ways in which this can be done. The choice depends on the geometry of
the structural system, the material from which it is made, and the method of its construction.

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 Tributary Loadings
One-Way System
A slab or deck that is supported such that it delivers its load to the supporting members by one-
way action, is often referred to as a one-way slab.

L2
>2
L1
2
where:

L1 = width of the free slab

2
L2 = length of the free slab 2
4
2
4
 Tributary Loadings
Two-Way System
The load is assumed to be delivered to the supporting beams and girders in two directions if the
length of the free slab is less than twice its width. When this is the case the slab is referred to as
a two-way slab.

L2
≤2
L1
where:

L1 = width of the free slab

L2 = length of the free slab

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 PROBLEM 3
The floor of a classroom is to be supported by the bar joists shown. Each joist is 15 ft long and
they are spaced 2.5 ft on centers. The floor itself is to be made from lightweight concrete that is
4 in. thick. Neglect the weight of the joists and the corrugated metal deck, and determine the
load that acts along each joist.

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 PROBLEM 4
The flat roof of the steel-frame building shown in the photo is intended to support a total load of
2 KPa over its surface. Determine the roof load within region ABCD that is transmitted to beam
BC. AB = 4 m, AD = 5 m.

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 PROBLEM 5
The concrete girders shown in the photo of the passenger car parking garage spanning 30 ft
and are spaced 15 ft on centers. If the floor slab is 5 in. thick and made of reinforced stone
concrete, and the specified live load is 50 psf. Determine the distributed load the floor system
transmits to each interior girder. Assume that the beams are invisible.

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 PROBLEM 6
The floor system used in a school classroom consists of a 4-in. reinforced stone concrete slab.
Sketch the loading that acts along the joist BF and side girder ABCDE. Set a = 10 ft, b = 30 ft.

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 PROBLEM 7
The frame is used to support a 2-in.-thick plywood floor of a residential dwelling. Sketch the
loading that acts along members BG and ABCD. Set a = 5 ft, b = 15 ft.
2

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 PROBLEM 8
The steel framework is used to support the 4-in. reinforced stone concrete slab that carries a
uniform live loading of 500 psf. Sketch the loading that acts along members BE and FED. Set b
= 10 ft, a = 7.5 ft.

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 Cables
Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to transmit loads from one
member to another. When used to support suspension roofs, bridges, and trolley wheels, cables
form the main load-carrying element in the structure. Two cases will be considered in the
sections that follow: a cable subjected to concentrated loads and a cable subjected to a
distributed load.

 Cables
Cable Subjected to Concentrated Loads
When a cable of negligible weight supports several concentrated loads, the cable takes the form
of several straight-line segments, each of which is subjected to a constant tensile force.

When performing an equilibrium analysis for a problem of this type, the forces in the cable can
also be obtained by writing the equations of equilibrium for the entire cable or any portion
thereof.
 PROBLEM 9
Determine the tension in each segment of the cable shown below. Also, what is the dimension
h?

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 Cables
Cable Subjected to Distributed Loads
Cables provide a very effective means of supporting the dead weight of girders or bridge decks
having very long spans. A suspension bridge is a typical example, in which the deck is
suspended from the cable using a series of close and equally spaced hangers.

 Cables
Cable Subjected to Distributed Loads
The height from the lowest point to an arbitrary point within the cable is given by:
where:

wo = uniform horizontally distributed vertical load

FH = tension in the lowest point of the cable

x = distance from the lowest point to an arbitrary point within the cable

The maximum tension in the cable occurs at the supports and is given by:

where:

L = distance from the lowest point to the support

 PROBLEM 10
The cable supports a girder which weighs 850 lb/ft. Determine the tension in the cable at points
A, B, and C.

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 PROBLEM 11
The suspension bridge is constructed using the two stiffening trusses that are pin connected at
their ends C and supported by a pin at A and a rocker at B. Determine the maximum tension in
the cable. The cable has a parabolic shape and the bridge is subjected to the single load of 50 kN.

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 PROBLEM 12
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the pin-connected girders AB and BC. The cable has
a parabolic shape.

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 PROBLEM 13
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for beams AB and BC. The cable has a parabolic shape.

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 PROBLEM 14
The cable AB is subjected to a uniform loading of 200 N/m. If the weight of the cable is
neglected and the slope angles at points A and B are 30° and 60°, respectively, determine the
curve that defines the cable shape and the maximum tension developed in the cable.

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 PROBLEM 15
Determine the forces P1 and P2 needed to hold the cable in the position shown, i.e., so segment
CD remains horizontal. Also find the maximum loading in the cable.

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 PROBLEM 16
The cable supports the loading shown. Determine the magnitude of the horizontal force P so
that xB = 6 ft.

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 Arches
Essentially, an arch acts as an inverted cable, so it receives its load mainly in compression
although, because of its rigidity, it must also resist some bending and shear depending upon
how it is loaded and shaped.

 Arches

Two-Hinged Arch
Fixed Arch
Three-Hinged Arch
Tied Arch
 Arches

Fixed Arch Three-Hinged Arch

Two-Hinged Arch Tied Arch

 Arches
Three-Hinged Arch
In this case, the third hinge is located at the crown and the supports are located at different
elevations.
 PROBLEM 17
The The three-hinged open-spandrel arch bridge has a parabolic shape. If this arch were to
support a uniform load and have the dimensions shown, show that the arch is subjected only to
axial compression at any intermediate point such as point D. Assume the load is uniformly
transmitted to the arch ribs.

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 PROBLEM 18
The three-hinged tied arch is subjected to the loading shown. Determine the force in members
CH and CB. The dashed member GF of the truss is intended to carry no force.

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 PROBLEM 19
The three-hinged trussed arch shown supports the symmetric loading. Determine the required
height h1 of the joints B and D, so that the arch takes a funicular shape. Member HG is intended
to carry no force.

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 PROBLEM 20
The arch structure is subjected to the loading shown. Determine the horizontal and vertical
components of reaction at A and D, and the tension in the rod AD.

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 Muller-Breslau’s Principle
Qualitative Influence Lines
The influence line for a force (or moment) response function is given by the deflected shape of
the released structure obtained by removing the restraint corresponding to the response function
from the original structure and by giving the released structure a unit displacement (or rotation) at
the location and in the direction of the response function, so that only the response function and
the unit load perform external work.
Muller-Breslau’s Principle
Qualitative Influence Lines
 PROBLEM 21
Draw the influence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and E, the reaction moment at
support A, the shear at point B, and the bending moment at point D of the beam shown.

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 PROBLEM 22
Draw the influence lines for the vertical reactions at supports A and C of the beam shown.

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 Influence Lines for Trusses
As shown below, the loading on the bridge deck is transmitted to stringers, which in turn transmit the loading to
floor beams and then to the joints along the bottom chord of the truss. Since the truss members are affected only
by the joint loading, we can therefore obtain the ordinate values of the influence line for a member by loading each
joint along the deck with a unit load and then use the method of joints or the method of sections to calculate the
force in the member.
 PROBLEM 23
Draw the influence lines for the forces in members AF, CF, and CG of the Parker Truss shown.
Live loads are transmitted to the bottom chord of the truss.

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 PROBLEM 24
Draw the influence line for the force in member HL of the K Truss shown.

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 Application of Influence Lines
1. To determine the maximum positive value of a response function due to a single moving
concentrated load, the load must be placed at the location of the maximum positive ordinate
of the response function influence line, whereas to determine the maximum negative value of
the response function, the load must be placed at the location of the maximum negative
ordinate of the influence line.

2. To determine the maximum positive (or negative) value of a response function due to a
uniformly distributed live load, the load must be placed over those portions of the structure
where the ordinates of the response function influence line are positive (or negative).

3. To determine the maximum positive value of a response function due to a series of

concentrated loads, the first load from the left must first be located on the highest point in the
influence line and proceeding to the next until a maximum value is acquired.
 PROBLEM 25
For the beam shown, determine the maximum upward reaction at support C due to a 15-kN/m
uniformly distributed live load.
 PROBLEM 26
For the beam shown, determine the maximum positive and negative shears and the maximum
positive and negative bending moments at point C due to a concentrated live load of 90 kN, a
uniformly distributed live load of 40 kN/m, and a uniformly distributed dead load of 20 kN/m.
 PROBLEM 27
Determine the maximum axial force in member BC of the Warren Truss due to the series of four moving
concentrated loads shown

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 Absolute Maximum Response
Thus far, we have considered the maximum response that may occur at a particular location in a
structure. In this section, we discuss how to determine the absolute maximum value of a
response function that may occur at any location throughout a structure.
 Absolute Maximum Response
Force Envelopes for Simply Supported Beams

Envelope for Maximum Shear under a Concentrated Load Envelope for Maximum Shear under a Uniformly
Distributed Load

Envelope for Maximum Bending Moment under a Envelope for Maximum Bending Moment under a
Concentrated Load Uniformly Distributed Load
 Absolute Maximum Response
In simply supported beams:

The absolute maximum shear develops at sections just inside the supports.

The absolute maximum bending moment due to a single concentrated, or a uniformly

distributed live load occurs at the beam midspan.

The absolute maximum bending moment due to a series of moving concentrated loads occurs
under one of the loads near the resultant of the loads when the midspan of the beam is located
halfway between the load and the resultant.
 PROBLEM 28
Determine the absolute maximum bending moment in the simply supported beam due to the
wheel loads of the truck shown.

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