Lec 1&2 PDF
Lec 1&2 PDF
Transmission Lines:
Introduction
Parts 1&2. Vector Algebra & Calculus
Adrian Sutinjo
Curtin University, 2017
Rev. 5, 13 Feb. 2017
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA
WARNING
This material has been copied and communicated to you by or on
behalf of Curtin University of Technology pursuant to Part VB of
the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act)
Base station
Mobile
• Are there “wires” involved?
• Can this communication mechanism be
explained by circuit theory alone?
5
Freq. (MHz) Wavelength
[c/f] (cm)
GSM 900/1800 33.3/16.67
• In your Electric Circuits unit, did you
worry about the size of your circuit?
• Did you worry about the size of your
components and length of wires?
• Does circuit theory apply when size of
the circuit is large relative to the
wavelength?
6
The concept of “electrically long” circuits
Freq. (MHz) Wavelength [λ=c/f] λ/10
(cm) (cm)
GSM 900/1800 33.3/16.67 3.33/1.67
• When signal travels a distance ~ /10, we consider this
electrically long.
• Look at the size of your phone. Is it electrically short or long for
GSM/WiFi?
• Now look at your CPU clock speed, for instance, Intel i7 @2.7GHz.
Is your computer electrically short or long for the CPU clock?
Paul, C. R. (2011) Transmission Lines: Physical Dimensions vs. Electric Dimensions, in Transmission
Lines in Digital Systems for EMC Practitioners, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA. doi:
10.1002/9781118145579.ch1 7
Analysis of “electrically long” circuits
• Electrically long circuits cannot be analyzed by circuit theory alone.
The result would be in error.
• We need Electromagnetics and Transmission Line theory to
correctly describe electrically large circuits.
• The problem is more acute for digital waveforms. The frequency of
interest is really not the clock frequency, but the rise time of the
digital edge.
1/
* Paul, C. R. (2011) Transmission Lines: Physical Dimensions vs. Electric Dimensions, in Transmission
Lines in Digital Systems for EMC Practitioners, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA. doi:
10.1002/9781118145579.ch1
* H. W. Johnson and M. Graham (1993) High Speed Digital Design: a Handbook of Black Magic,
Prentice Hall, ch. 1. 8
A “Screen Room” at Curtin Institute of Radio
Astronomy (CIRA) in Tech Park
• What’s this room for?
• What is it made of?
• What is that around the edges of
the door?
• How to keep “energy” from leaking
from a microwave oven?
9
Antennas for Low‐Frequency (80‐300 MHz)
Radio Astronomy
AAVS0.5 MWA
• Murchison Widefield Array (MWA: www.mwatelescope.org) in the Murchison Radio‐
astronomy Observatory (MRO, ~800 km north of Perth). A CIRA commissioned
telescope.
• Next‐generation array prototypes at the MRO (AAVS0.5). A CIRA engineering initiative.
A. T. Sutinjo, T. M. Colegate, et. al. “Characterization of a Low‐Frequency Radio Astronomy Prototype Array in Western Australia,” IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propagat., in‐press, 10.1109/TAP.2015.2487504
11
MWA
“Beamformer”
• These are electrically long delay lines
• The line dimensions are carefully
controlled.
“Microstrip” transmission line
S. J. Tingay, et. al. (2013). The Murchison Widefield Array: The Square Kilometre Array Precursor at Low Radio Frequencies. Publications of the
Astronomical Society of Australia, 30, e007 doi:10.1017/pasa.2012.007. 12
Electromagnetic Compatibility/Intereference
Electronic designs, no matter how
clever, cannot be sold if they radiate
or inject too much
noise/interference!
Radio‐over‐Fibre module under radiated emissions test
This is a concern in the commercial
sector and definitely a concern in
radio astronomy! Photovoltaic power module under radiated emissions test
RFoF Module connected to AAVS0.5 signal path
13
13
Parts 1 & 2 References:
1. F. T. Ulaby, Electromagnetics for Engineers, Pearson, 2005, Chaps. 2 & 3
2. D. K. Cheng, Field and Waves Electromagnetics, 2nd Ed, Addison‐Wesley,
1992, Chap. 2
3. E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 10th Ed., Wiley, 2011,
Chaps 9 & 10
4. M. N. O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, 6th Ed., Oxford University
Press, 2015, Chaps. 1‐3
14
Part 1A. Vector Algebra [1:Ch.2]
Why study vectors?
1. A scalar is defined by its magnitude. It is a positive
or negative number.
– Examples: speed, temperature, mass, length
2. A vector has both magnitude and direction.
– Examples: velocity, electric and magnetic fields, force,
displacement
15
What evidence do we have that electromagnetic
fields/waves are indeed vector quantities?
• Take a pair of “polarized”
sunglasses. Hold it against an
LCD screen. Rotate the lenses.
What do you see? What does it
suggest?
• Is the orientation of antennas
important?
16
Electric and Magnetic Fields in a Transmission
Line
To load
Electric field
Magnetic field
From
source
Electric field
Magnetic field
From
source
• Magnetic field lines around current follow the right‐hand rule
• Direction of power flow follows the right‐hand rule
18
Basic Laws of Vector Algebra [1:2‐1]
• Vector A (in handwriting )
Unit vector: 1
Magnitude
• Specifies the direction
of the vector
• 1, the
magnitude of a unit
vector is 1
̅
• ̅
19
Cartesian coordinate system
• , , ̂ are mutually perpendicular
base vectors
• Any vector ̅ may be written as
̂
̅ ̂
• Magnitude of
̅
̅
• Unit vector
̅
̅
• Shorthand ̅ , ,
20
Equality of Two Vectors [1:2‐1.1]
• Two vectors are equal if they have the
same magnitude and direction
̅ ̅ ̂ ̅
• ̅ if and only if = and ̅= ,
requiring
, ,
• Vectors can be equal without being identical.
Identical vectors have the same initial and
terminal points (on top of each other).
21
Vector Addition and Subtraction[1:2‐1.2]
̅ ̅
̅
̅
̂
̅ ̅
̅ ̅
̂
22
Position and Distance Vectors [1:2‐1.3]
Position vector for point , ,
Position vector for point
̂
, ,
23
Distance vector for point to , ,
, ,
Distance between P and P :
24
Vector Multiplication [1:2‐1.4]
• Simple product: a vector multiplied by a
scalar.
1
in this example
• Scalar (Dot) product
For 0° 90°
̅· ̅ ̅· 0
cos
̅· is a scalar ̅ cos
25
For 90° 180°
̅· ̅ cos ̅· 0
̅ cos
Question 1A.1: ̅· 0
For what value of is ̅ · 0 ?
These two vectors are orthogonal ?
̅· ̂ ̂
⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 ̂⋅ ̂ 1
⋅ 0 ⋅ ̂ 0 ⋅ ̂ 0
26
Dot product property
̅⋅ ⋅ ̅ Commutative
̅⋅ ̅ ̅⋅ ̅ ̅⋅ Distributive
Question 1A.2: prove this
Question 1A.3: What is ̅ ⋅ ̅ ?
̂ ?
27
• Vector (Cross) product
̅ sin
3‐D View
̅ ̅ sin
B
̅ is a vector
̅ Top View: looking down on the plane
formed by ̅ and vectors
Area= ̅ sin
B
sin B
points
“Right‐hand” rule: ̅ to is in the direction out of the
of the index finger rotation. ̅ is in the paper
direction of the thumb 28
Cross product property
̅ ̅ Anticommutative
Q.1.A‐5: Why the “‐” sign?
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ Distributive
Q.1.A‐5: What is ̅ ̅ ?
0 ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂ ̂
Watch “right‐hand”
rule at work
29
0 ̂ ̂
̂ ̂ ̂
̅ ̂ ̂
̂
̅ | | is the determinant of the matrix
30
? ̅
Revisiting : ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̂
̅ ̅
̂ ̂
̅ ̅ ̅
̂ ⋯
… ̂
31
Scalar and Vector Triple Products [1:2‐1.5]
• Not all combinations of vector products involving 3 vectors are
valid:
“Scalar Triple
Product”
̅ ̅ Y “Vector Triple
Product”
32
Scalar Triple Product:
̅ ̂
̂
̅ ̂
̅· ̅
̅· ̅
33
̅ Parallelepiped's volume
= ̅ ̅ sin cos
̅· ̅ : graphical interpretation
A
C
B
Area= ̅ sin
̅· ̅ · ̅ ̅ ̅· ̅
Note the cyclic rotation of rows
34
Vector Triple Product:
Vector identity:
̅ ̅ ̅· ̅ ̅ ̅· “BAC‐CAB” rule
It is not associative:
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
̅ ̅ ̅
• Perpendicular to ̅
• On the plane formed A ̅
A by , ̅
C C
• Perpendicular to ̅ B
̅ ̅ B • On the plane formed
by ̅, 35
Review Questions:
• Q. 1A‐6: Explain the difference between identical
vectors and equal vectors
• Q. 1A‐7: if then ; true or false?
36
Part 1B. Orthogonal Coordinate Systems [1:2‐2]
• Laws of Electromagnetism is invariant of coordinate
systems.
• But, to solve problems, coordinate systems are often
needed.
• Pick a coordinate system that is most appropriate for the
problem.
• Three important orthogonal coordinate systems:
1. Cartesian
2. Cylindrical
3. Spherical
37
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• Base vectors are mutually orthogonal
• Right‐handed coordinate system:
• Also:
· 0 · 0 · 0
· 1 · 1 · 1
38
Cartesian Coordinates [1:2‐2.1]
• , , , ,
Differential surface area
̅ ̂
̅ ̂
̅
̅
Differential volume
Differential length
̅ ̂
39
Cylindrical Coordinates [1:2‐2.2]
• , , , ,
cylindrical
surface
, ,
plane
plane
40
̅ ̂ ̂
̅
̂
̂ ̅·
̂ ̂
Unit vectors ̅
̂ ̂
̂ ̂
̂ ̂
41
Differential surface area
̅
̅ ̂
̅ ̂
Differential volume
Differential length
̅ ̂ ̂
42
Position vector in Cylindrical Coordinates Example 2‐3 in [1]
0,0,
, ,
, ,0
Find an expression for the unit vector
of vector that goes from point to
̂ ̂
Note
• factor is not in
̂ ̂
• only tells us that the terminal point can
be anywhere on the dashed blue circle ̅ ̂ ̂
• To remove ambiguity, we must state the ̅
value 43
Spherical Coordinates [1:2‐2.3]
• , , , ,
spherical surface
conical surface
plane
44
̅
̅·
Unit vectors ̅
45
Differential surface area
sin ̅ sin
sin ̅
sin
̅ sin
Differential length
̅ sin
Differential volume
sin
46
Position vector in Spherical Coordinates
, ,
Note
• and factors are not in
• only tells us that the terminal
point can be anywhere on the surface
of the sphere with radius
• To remove ambiguity, we must state
the and values
47
Conversion from Cylindrical to Cartesian
Coordinates [2:2‐4.2]
How to express
̅ ̂· ·
̂ ̂
̂· ·
In Cartesian coordinates
̅ ̂
Note that is unchanged
̂
To find
̅· ̂· cos · sin
̅·
̂· sin · cos
48
̂· cos · sin
̂· sin · cos
̅ ̂
tan
In matrix form
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
Expressing trig functions in Cartesian coordinates:
cos sin
49
Conversion from Spherical to Cartesian
Coordinates [2:2‐4.2]
How to express
̅
In Cartesian coordinates
̅ ̂
To find
̅·
̅·
· · ·
̅· ̂
· · ·
· ̂ · ̂ · ̂
50
· ·
· sin
sin cos cos cos
· ·
sin sin · cos
cos sin
· ̂ cos · ̂ sin · ̂ 0
See Cylindrical‐Cartesian
51
In matrix form
sin cos
sin sin
cos
tan
tan
52
Part 1 Summary:
• Study Tables 2‐1 and 2‐2 in [1]
• Q. 1B‐1: find the Cartesian to Cylindrical transform in
matrix form
0
0
0 0 1
̂
· ̂ · ̂
· ·
53
• Q. 1B‐2: Are the base vectors , , ̂ independent of the
location of a point in space? How about ̂ , ?
54
Part 2. Vector Calculus [1:Chap. 3]
[1: 3.1, 2:2‐6] Gradient of a Scalar Field
Suppose we have a metal plate heated by
a candle
• The contours are lines of equal
temperatures and
• The rate of increase of T over space is ̅
greatest along because that is the
direction of shortest distance between
the two lines
Abstract this to 3‐D: we have metallic
block heated by a candle. and
are surfaces of equal temperatures
55
[1: 3‐1, 2:2‐6] Gradient of a Scalar Field
Gradient is the vector that represents
the magnitude and direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of a
scalar [D. K. Cheng in 2:2‐6] ̅
grad ≜
Gradient in 3‐D Cartesian Coordinates:
≜ ̂
Gradient operator or del:
≜ ̂
56
Differential temperature
Recall:
̅ ̂
̅· ̅· ̅· ̂
We can write:
̂ · ̅
· ̅
The directional derivative of T
·
See example 3‐1 in [1] 57
• [1: 3‐1.1] Gradient Operator in
Cylindrical Coordinates , ,
· ̅
̂ ̂ · ̂ ̂
̂ ̂
58
Spherical Coordinates , ,
sin
sin
· ̅
· sin
sin
sin
59
[1: 3‐1.2] Properties of the Gradient Operator
60
Example 2‐16 in [2]
The electrostatic field intensity is derivable as the negative gradient
of a scalar electric potential ; i.e.,
Determine at 1, 1, 0 if
a. sin
b. cos
a.
̂ sin cos
4 4 4
1,1,0
2 4
61
b.
sin
cos sin
̂
For 1, 1, 0 ,R 2,
̂
Repeat this in Cartesian coord., recognizing cos
62
[1: 3‐2, 2:2‐8] Divergence of a Vector Field
• Coulomb’s Law
Force acting on charge due to the
presence of charge at a distance
The two charges repel each other with
no physical contact. We can write
Define Electric Field Intensity
4 1
∝
63
At a surface boundary, flux density is the amount
of outward flux crossing a unit surface
· ̅ ·
Flux density of ̅
Field lines / Flux lines
is the outward normal of
Total flux crossing a closed surface S is · ̅
64
Divergence of a vector field is the net outward flux per unit
volume as the volume about that point tends to zero [2:2‐7]
∆
∮ · ̅
div lim
∆ → ∆
Let ̂
· ̅ is the total outward flux through Face 4
the six faces of the cube
∆
·
∆
∆
̂ · Face 3
1 ∆ ∆
65
Face 4
Face 2
2 ∆ ∆
Face 1 Face 2
Relating 1 to 2 1 ∆ 2
∆
∆
2 1 ∆ Face 3
Ignoring higher order terms
We can write
1 ∆ ∆ ∆
1 ∆ ∆
∆ ∆ ∆
66
Face 4
∆ ∆ ∆
Face 1 Face 2
1 ∆ 2
∆ ∆ ∆
∆
∆
Face 3
∆ ∆ ∆
· ̅ ∆
∮ · ̅
div lim
∆ → ∆
· ≜ In Cartesian Coordinates
67
Field has
• Positive divergence if the net flux out of
the closed surface is positive. There is a
source of flux in volume ∆ .
• Negative divergence if the net flux out of
the closed surface is negative. There is a
flux sink in volume ∆
Divergence operates on vectors and gives a
scalar result
68
Divergence in Cylindrical Coordinates
1 1
·
Divergence in Spherical Coordinates
1 1 sin 1
·
sin sin
1 sin sin
sin
Divergence operator is distributive
· · ·
69
Divergence Theorem [1:3‐2.1, 2: 2‐8]
The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field equals the total
outward flux of the vector through the surface that bounds the volume
[D. K. Cheng in 2:2‐8]
· · ̅
70
Example 3‐3b in [1]
1 1 sin 1
·
sin sin
1 cos 1 sin /
sin
2 cos
At , 0,
· 16
71
Exercise 3.5 in [1]
Let
Calculate the flux of E through a spherical surface
of radius a, centered at origin.
̅ sin
,
· ̅ sin
,
2 sin
4
For
· ̅ 4
72
[1: 3‐3, 2:2‐9] Curl of a Vector Field
Field has positive divergence if the net flux out of the
closed surface is positive. There is a source of flux in
volume ∆ . Let’s call this a flow source.
Consider another kind of source: a vortex source.
It causes circulation of vector field around it
Circulation of around contour C ≜ ∮ · ̅
Circulation may exist even when there is no flow source
73
C
Circulation of around contour C ≜ ∮ · ̅ ̅
• Its value depends on the orientation of C with
respect to
∆
We want to measure the strength of a vortex source at a point: ̅
• Make C very small C
• Orient C such that the circulation is maximum ∆
̅
curl ≜ lim ∮ · ̅
∆ → ∆
• Magnitude is the maximum net circulation of per unit area as the
area tends to zero
• Direction is normal to the area that is oriented such that the net
circulation is maximum
74
̂
In Cartesian Coordinates
̂ ̂
In Cylindrical Coordinates
1
In Spherical Coordinates
sin
1
sin
sin
75
Vector identities involving the curl
̅ ̅
· ̅ 0 for any vector ̅
0 for any scalar function
76
Case Studies [2:2‐12]
Case 1. and
Examples:
a. Uniform field:
∆ ∆
At , what is the net outward
flow as ∆ → 0?
At , what is the net circulation
∆ → 0?
77
b. Static electric field in a charge‐free region (where q
is absent)
, 0
4 ∆
At , what is the net outward
flow as ∆ → 0?
∆
At , what is the net circulation
∆ → 0?
Q. 1‐B.3: Show that, for 0
1 1 sin 1
· 0
sin sin
sin
1
0
sin
sin
78
c. Steady magnetic field away from a current‐carrying
conductor
, 0
2 ∆
At , what is the net outward
flow as ∆ → 0?
∆
at 0
At , what is the net circulation
∆ → 0?
Q. 1‐B.4: Show that, for 0
1
· 0
̂ ̂
0
79
Case 2. and
Static electric field in a charged region (more on this in the near future)
· 0 ∆
Case 3. and
Steady magnetic field in a current‐carrying conductor
(more on this in the near future)
· 0 ̅
∆
at 0
80
Case 4. and
Electric field in a charged region with time‐varying magnetic field.
81
Remarks
• It matters at which point we calculate divergence and curl
• Remember: divergence and curl are calculated for Δ → 0
and Δ → 0, respectively. The volume and surface shrink
down to a point.
∆
∆
∆
82
Stokes’ Theorem [1:3‐3.2, 2:2‐10]
The surface integral of the curl of a vector field over an open surface is equal to the
closed line integral of the vector along the contour bounding the surface [D. K.
Cheng, 2:2‐10]
· ̅ · ̅ ̅
Note:
If the surface integral is performed over a closed surface, there is no contour bounding
the surface
· ̅ 0
83
Example 2‐22 in [2]
Given 2 verify Stokes’s
theorem over a quarter circular disc with
radius 3 in the first quadrant
3
· ̅
̂
̂ 2 ̅ ̂
2 0
84
,
· ̅
2
,
1
2 9 9
2
3
9
9 9 sin
3 2 6
0
9 1 2
sin
2 2
Use trig. substitution:
85
· ̅
, 0
· ̅ 2 · 0 3
, 0
· ̅ 2 · 2 0
· ̅ 2 · sin 2 cos
/ /
· ̅ 9 sin sin cos |
9 1 2
Same as before, Stokes’s theorem is verified
86