1 AP Lecture Notes PDF

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ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-25

SYLLABUS COPY
REGULATION 2015
EC6602 ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION LTPC3003

OBJECTIVES:
 To give insight of the radiation phenomena.
 To give a thorough understanding of the radiation characteristics of
different types of antennas
 To create awareness about the different types of propagation of radio
waves at different frequencies
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION 9
Definition of antenna parameters – Gain, Directivity, Effective aperture, Radiation
Resistance, Bandwidth, Beam width, Input Impedance. Matching – Baluns,
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Polarization mismatch, Antenna noise temperature, Radiation from oscillating
dipole, Half wave dipole. Folded dipole, Yagi array.
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UNIT II APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS
Radiation from rectangular apertures, Uniform and Tapered aperture, Horn antenna
, Reflector antenna , Aperture blockage , Feeding structures , Slot antennas
9
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,Microstrip antennas – Radiation mechanism – Application ,Numerical tool for
antenna analysis
UNIT III ANTENNA ARRAYS
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N element linear array, Pattern multiplication, Broadside and End fire array –
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Concept of Phased arrays, Adaptive array, Basic principle of antenna Synthesis-
Binomial array
UNIT IV SPECIAL ANTENNAS
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Principle of frequency independent antennas –Spiral antenna, Helical antenna,
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Log periodic. Modern antennas- Reconfigurable antenna, Active antenna,
Dielectric antennas, Electronic band gap structure and applications, Antenna
Measurements-Test Ranges, Measurement of Gain, Radiation pattern,
Polarization, VSWR
UNIT V PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
.ne 9
Modes of propagation , Structure of atmosphere , Ground wave propagation ,
Tropospheric propagation , Duct propagation, Troposcatter propagation , Flat earth
and Curved earth concept Sky wave propagation – Virtual height, critical frequency
, Maximum usable frequency – Skip distance, Fading , Multi hop propagation
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:
 Explain the various types of antennas and wave propagation.
 Write about the radiation from a current element.
 Analyze the antenna arrays, aperture antennas and special antennas
such as frequency independent and broad band
TEXT BOOK:
1. John D Kraus,” Antennas for all Applications”, 3rd Edition, Mc Graw Hill, 2005.
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REFERENCES:
1. Edward C.Jordan and Keith G.Balmain” Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating
Systems”
Prentice Hall of India, 2006
2. R.E.Collin,”Antennas and Radiowave Propagation”, Mc Graw Hill 1985.
3. Constantine.A.Balanis “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, Wiley Student
Edition, 2006.
4. Rajeswari Chatterjee, “Antenna Theory and Practice” Revised Second Edition
New Age
International Publishers, 2006.
5. S. Drabowitch, “Modern Antennas” Second Edition, Springer Publications, 2007.
6. Robert S.Elliott “Antenna Theory and Design” Wiley Student Edition, 2006.
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7.H.Sizun “Radio Wave Propagation for Telecommunication Applications” First
Indian
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ReprintSpringer Publications 2007.
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COURSE PLAN
Hours Page Nos.

S. Required Cumulative Books
Topic / Portions to be Covered
No / Hrs Referred
Planned
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIATION
Definition of antenna parameters – 58-60,23-25,27-
1 1 1 R3,T1
Gain, Directivity, Effective aperture, 30
Radiation Resistance, Bandwidth
2 1 2 R2,R3
,Beam width, Input Impedance. 27,62-64
Matching – Baluns, Polarization
3 1 3 T1,R3
mismatch 803-806,73-77
4 Antenna noise temperature 1 4 R4 358-359
5 Radiation from oscillating dipole 2 6 T1 165-176
6
7
8
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Half wave dipole
Folded dipole
Yagi array.
1
1
1
7
8
9
T1
R3
R3
177-183
458-462
513-522
9
10
w.E UNIT II APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS
Radiation from rectangular apertures
Uniform and Tapered aperture
1
1
10
11
R2
R2
169-171
173-175
11
12
Horn antenna
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Reflectorantenna-Aperture blockage,
1
2
12
14
T1
R4
330-333
178-189
13
Feeding structures
Slot antennas
En 1 15 T1 304-319
14
15
Microstrip antennas
Radiation mechanism- Application
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1
16
17
T1
R3
322-329
7-17
16
17
Numerical tool for antenna analysis
N element linear array

1 18
UNIT III ANTENNA ARRAYS
2 20 eer R2
R3
250-253
257-261
18
19
Pattern multiplication
Broadside array
1
1
21
22
T1
R3 ing 98-100
262-264
20
21
22
23
End fire array
Concept of Phased Arrays
Adaptive array
Basic principle of antenna Synthesis
1
1
1
1
23
24
25
26
R3
T1
T1
R1
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572-582
582-584
431-438
24 Binomial array 1 27 R3 290-293
UNIT IV SPECIAL ANTENNAS
Principle of frequency independent 1 386-387
25 28 T1
antennas
26 Spiral antenna 1 29 T1 387-392
27 Helical antenna 1 30 R3 505-512
28 Log periodic antenna 1 31 T1 392-399
Modern antennas- Reconfigurable 2 396-398
29 33 R5
antenna , Active antenna
30 Dielectric antennas 1 34 R4 191-198
Electronic band gap structure and 1 web
31 35 R3
applications

Antenna Measurements -Test Ranges 839-871

,Measurement of Gain Antenna 1
32 36 R3
Measurements -Radiation pattern,
Polarization, VSWR
UNIT V PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
Modes of propagation , Structure of 1 37 R7 13-19
33
atmosphere
34 Ground wave propagation 1 38 R1 628-644
35 Tropospheric propagation 1 39 R1 657-665
Duct propagation , Troposcatter 1 40 R7,R2 128,419-426
36
propagation
37 Flat earth and Curved earth concept 1 41 R2 341-352
38 Sky wave propagation 2 43 R1 682-687
Virtual height ,critical frequency, 1 44 R1 674,676,667
39 Maximum usable frequency, Skip
distance ,
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40 Fading , Multi hop propagation 1 45 R1 664
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INDEX
UNIT Q.NO TITLE PAGE NO
1-20 PART A 7-10
PART B 11-55
1 Antenna parameters 11-12
2 Matching-Baluns& Polarization mismatch 13-16
3 Half wave dipole 17-21
I 4 Yagi-Uda Antenna 22-29
5 Hertzian dipole 30-47
6 Folded dipole and antenna temperature 48-55
1-17 PART A 56-59
PART B 59-103
1 Antenna apertures 59-70
2 Horn antenna 71-74
II 3 Reflector antenna 75-84
4 Slot antenna 85-98
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1-19
Rectangular Patch antenna, Radiation
Mechanism
PART A
99-103
104-107
w.E 1
2
PART B
N-Element antenna arrays
Broadside array of n-point source
108-145
108-116
117-119
III 3
4 asy
Endfire array
Phased array
119-123
124-129
5
6 En
Antenna synthesis and binomial array
Pattern multiplication
130-142
143-145
1-18
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PART B
146-148
149-203
IV
1
2
3
Helical antenna
LPDA
Lens and active antennas eer 149-160
161-171
172-176
4
5
Test range measurements
Gain and radiation pattern measurement ing 177-190
191-199
6
1-17
1
Polarization and VSWR measurement
PART A
PART B
Ground wave propagation
.ne 200-203
204-206
207-248
207-215
V 2 Structure of atmosphere 216-223
3 Duct propagation and troposcatter 224-233
4 Flat earth and curved path concept 233-235
5 Definition-Parameters 236-237
6 Ionosphere 238-242
7 Problem in ground range determination 243-244
University Question papers 245-248

PART A
1. If the radiation resistance of an antenna is 65 ohms and loss resistance
is 10 ohms, find its efficiency?
[Nov/Dec 2012]
Given:
Rrad = 65 ohms, Rloss = 10 ohms
Efficiency
=65/ (65+10)=0.86
% Efficiency=86.66%
2. Define half power beam width. [Nov/Dec 2012]

Antenna beam width is a measure of directivity of an antenna. Antenna
beam width is an angular width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern
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maximum value .This is called as “beam width” between halfpower points or half
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power beam width (HPBW).
dipole?
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3. What is an elementary dipole and how it differs from the infinitesimal
[May/June 2013]
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A short dipole (Hertzian dipole) that has a uniform current will also be
known as elementary dipole and elementary doublet. The main difference is that
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elementary dipole can be regarded as the element from which large antennas
are constructed but in case of infinitesimal dipole it is the element from which
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small antennas are constructed as the ideal current element is difficult to realize
in practice.
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4. What is the effective area of a half wave dipole operating at 1GHz?
[May/June 2013]
Given:
f = 1GHz
λ=c/f = 3x108/1X109=3cm=0.3m
Directivity for half wave dipole,
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D=1.64
Ae=.0118m2
5. What are θ and Φ patterns in antenna radiation? [Nov/Dec 2013]
 The θ component of the electric field as a function of the angles θ and Φ
or Eθ (θ, Φ) v/m
 The Φ component of the electric field as a function of the angles θ and
Φ or EΦ(θ, Φ) v/m
6. What are dBi and dBd? Write their significances. [Nov/Dec 2013]
 dBi means power gain of the antenna in dB is relative to isotropic antenna

 dBd means antenna gain in dB with respect to reference dipole antenna.
7. What is the significance of radiation resistance of an antenna?

8.
[Apr/May 2015][May/June 2011], [May/June
2014]
It is a good indicator of strength of the electromagnetic field radiated by a

transmitting antenna or being received by a receiving antenna, since its value is
directly
proportional to the power of the field. The radiation resistance represents the
amount of radiation by the antenna.
8.Draw E plane and H plane radiation pattern of a dipole. [May/June 2014]
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9. Distinguish between power gain and directive
gain. eer [Nov/Dec 2014]
Power Gain
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Directive Gain
i)It compares the radiated power

density
of the actual antenna and that of
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i)It compares the radiated power
of the actual antenna and that of

an an
isotropic antenna on the basis that isotropic antenna on the basis that
both both
are fed with the same input power. are radiating the same total power.
ii)Here Power fed to the antenna is
ii) Radiated power is considered taken
10. Define an isotropic radiator. [Nov/Dec 2014]

defined as a radiator
A isotropic radiator is a fictitious radiator and is which
radiates fields uniformly in all directions. It is also called as isotropic source or
omni directional radiator or simply unipole.

11. The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given
Wrad =arWr= arA0sin θ/r2 (W/m2), Where A0 is the peak value of power
density, θ is the usual spherical coordinate, and ar is the radial unit vector.
Determine the total radiated power.
[May/June 2016]
U= Wrad r2
= arA0sin θ
Prad=
=
=
=
12. Design a 3 element Yagi-Uda antenna to operate at a frequency of 200MHz.
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w.E Reflector length =500/f (MHz)

=500/200
=2.5 feet
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Driven element length =475/f (MHz)
=475/200
Director length En
=2.375 feet
=455/f (MHz)
=455/200
=2.275 feet gin
13. What is radiation resistance? eer
[May/June 08] [May/June 09]
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It is defined as the fictitious resistance which when inserted in series with the
antenna will consume the same amount of power as it is actually radiated. The
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appears to be the transmission line as a resistive component and this is
antenna
known as
radiation resistance.
14. Define Radiation intensity. [May/June 07]

The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called the
radiation
intensity U (watts per steradian or per square degree). The radiation intensity is
independent of distance.
15. Define Directivity. [Nov/Dec 09][May/June 11][May/June 12]

The directivity D of an antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum
radiation intensity
U(θ,Φ) to the average radiation intensity Uave

16.Define gain of an antenna. Bring out a relationship between gain and

aperture of an antenna. [May/June 11][May/June 2016]
Gain:
The ratio of maximum radiation intensity in given direction to the maximum radiation
intensity from a reference antenna produced in the same direction with same input
power.
Relationship between gain and aperture

G
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17.The radiation resistance of an antenna is 75Ω and loss resistance is 8Ω.
What is the directivity in dB if the power gain is 15? [May/June 2016]
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D
D
D=16.6 dB
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18.What is meant by retarded potential? [Nov/Dec-2016]
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The retarded potentials are the electromagnetic potentials for
the electromagnetic field generated by time-varying electric current or charge
distributions in the past.
[A]= gin
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19.The voltage induced by an application of an electric field of strength 2
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Volts/meter is 0.7. Calculate the effective length of the element?
[Nov/Dec-2016]
E=2 Volts/meter
V=0.7 Volts
Effective length he=
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he= =0.35 m
20.How can we eliminate minor lobes?
[Nov/Dec-2016]
Side lobes or minor lobes represent radiation in undesired direction. These
are the areas where the power is wasted. These minor lobes are eliminated by
diverting this energy into one direction. Then the directivity of the antenna gets
increased which leads to antenna’s better performance. To eliminate minor lobes it
requires careful design and construction.

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3. Derive the field quantities of a Half wavelength dipole.(16) NOV/DEC 2012, 13, APR/MAY 2015
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4. With necessary illustrations explain the radiation characteristics of Yagi

Uda array (16) MAY/JUNE 2014
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5.Derive the electric and magnetic field components of Hertzian dipole.(16)

NOV/DEC 2012, APR/MAY 2015, MAY/JUNE 2014, NOV/DEC 2014
Hertzian dipole:
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6.Explain about (i) Folded Dipole (8) REG-2013

(ii) Antenna NOV/DEC
Temperature (8) 2013
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(ii) Antenna Temperature:
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UNIT II
APERTURE AND SLOT ANTENNAS
PART A
1. State Huygen’s Principle. [Nov/Dec 2012],[Nov/Dec 2013]&[April/May

2015]
Huygen’s principle states that each point on a primary wave front can
be considered to be a new source of a secondary spherical wave that a
secondary wave front can be constructed as the envelope of these secondary
waves.
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2. What are the features of slot antenna? [Nov/Dec 2012]
w.E The slot antenna is an opening cut in a sheet of a conductor, which is

energized through a coaxial cable or wave guide.
 A horizontal slot produces vertical polarization in the direction normal
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to the slot and a vertical slot produces horizontal polarization.
 A single half wavelength slot resembles the half wave dipole
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 Radiation form the backside of the conducting plane of the slot
antenna has the opposite polarity from that of the dipole antenna.
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3. What is the basic concept of reflector antenna? [Nov/Dec 2014]
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It is used to modify the radiation pattern of a radiating element. For
example the
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backward radiation from an antenna may be eliminated with a plane sheet
reflector of
produced by
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large dimensions.In general, abeam of predetermined characteristics may be
means of a large, suitably shaped and illuminated reflector surface.

What are the applications of micro strip
4. antenna? [April/May 2015]
 It is used in spacecraft and aircraft systems
 It is used for beam scanning and beam steering purposes
5. What are the different types of horn antennas? [Nov/Dec 08]

i. Sectoral horn
ii. Pyramidal horn
iii. Conical horn
iv. Biconical Antenna
6. Mention the types of feeding used in slot antennas. [April/May 07]

(i) Waveguide fed slot
(ii) Boxed in slot

(iii) Coaxial transmission lines
7. What are the features of pyramidal horn antenna? [April/May 2011],

[April/May 2015]
1. They can operate over a wide range of frequency.

2. Wide bandwidth
3. Low VSWR
4. Radiate linearly polarized wave.
What is the significance of aperture of an

8. antenna? [April/May 2015]
Aperture antennas are most common at microwave frequencies. They
may take
ww the form of a waveguide or a horn whose aperture may be square, rectangular,

circular,
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elliptical, or any other configuration. Aperture antennas are very practical for
space
applications, because they can be flush mounted on the surface of the spacecraft
or
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aircraft. Their opening can be covered with a dielectric material to protect them
from
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environmental conditions. This type of mounting does not disturb the
aerodynamic
profile of the craft.
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9. Differentiate uniform and tapped aperture.
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 A uniform aperture with ground plane can absorb all the incident
energy and will consequently have no backscatter.
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 In contrast, a tapered aperture is capable of absorbing only part of
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incident energy. Thus some of the power not being absorbed by Z1 will
be either reradiated in the backscatter direction or absorbed by some
other absorbing mechanism.
10. State Babinet’s principle and how it gives rise to the concept of
complementary antenna. [April/May 08],[Nov/Dec 08],
[Nov/Dec 11],[May/June 2013]
Babinet’s principle states that when the field behind a screen with an
opening is added to the field of complementary structure, the sum equal to
the field when there is no screen.The electric screen with the opening and the
electric conductor are dual. They are usually referred to as complementary
structures, because when combined they form a single solid screen with no
overlaps.

11. What are the applications of horn antenna? [Nov/Dec 08]

 It is used in aircraft
 It is used in satellite
12. What are the applications of slot radiator? [Nov/Dec 07]
 Radar antennas
 Sector antennas used for cell phone base stations.
13. What is E-plane Sectoral horn antenna? [May/June 09]
If the flaring is done in the direction of E-plane then the E-plane sectoral horn
antenna is obtained.
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14. What is the H-plane metal plate lens? [May/June 08]
It is an antenna in which travelling wave front are retarded or delayed
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by lens media. It is also called as dielectric lens or delay lens antenna.
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15. The aperture dimensions of a pyramidal horn are 12 x 6 cm and
operating at a frequency of 10 GHz. Find the beam width and
directivity. [May/June 13]
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f = 10 GHz
h = 12 cm
w = 6 cm
Half Power Beam Width:

14
Power Gain:(in dB)
Directivity:

16.Name some numerical tools used to analyze an antenna. [Nov/Dec-

2016]
 PCAAD 3.0
 ENSEMBLE 2.0
17.Draw the different types of horn antennas. [Nov/Dec-
2016]
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1. (i) Discuss about Radiation from rectangular aperture (8) REG-2013

(ii) Write notes about Uniform and Tapered aperture (8) REG-2013
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2.Explain the principle of rectangular horn antenna with a neat sketch. Draw
various types of horn structure . (16) NOV/DEC 2012, 14, MAY/JUNE 2014,15
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3.With a neat diagram, explain the principle of reflector antenna and various
types of feed used. (16) [MAY/JUNE 2012,13,14,15, NOV/DEC 2012]
Antennas at Microwave frequencies:
Reflector antennas:
Reflector antennas are widely used to modify the radiating pattern of the
radiating element.
ww For example, the backward radiation from an antenna may be

plane sheet reflector of large dimensions. In general beam of
characteristics may be produced by means of a large suitably shaped
eliminated with
predetermined
and illuminated
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reflector surface.
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Spill over and back lobe: In addition to the desired radiation some of the desired rays
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are not captured by the reflector and these constitute spill over. While receiving spill
over increase noise pick up which is particularly troublesome in satellite ground stations.
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Feed systems:
The entire parabolic reflector antenna consists of two basic components,eg.,the
reflector and a source of primary radiation at the focus. The source is called the primary
radiation (or)feed radiator (or) simply feed, while the reflector is the secondary radiator.
An ideal feed would be that radiator which radiates towards reflector in such a
way that it illuminates the entire surface of reflector and no (or) zero energy is radiated
in any other directions. These kind of ideal source is not available in practice. Clearly an
isotropic antenna as feed would not be better choice.
Various feeds:
1) Dipole antenna
2) End fire antenna
3) Horn antenna
ww 4) Cassegrain feed
Dipole antenna:
 It is not very much suitable but occasionally used.
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 Simplest and generally used is a dipole with parasitic reflector (I,e Yagi
antenna)(or) simply reflector which is fed with a coaxial line.
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 Spacing between driven element is .125 λ and for a plane reflectorit may be
around 0.4 λ.
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 Besides end fire arrays of dipoles are also used infront of the reflector.
End fire antenna:
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 The double dipoles are so spaced and phased such that end fire pattern is
produced which illuminates the paraboloidal reflector.
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 Feeding with a dipole involves changing from unbalanced system to a balanced
system.
Horn antenna:
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The most common feed radiation for paraboloidal reflector antenna is waveguide
Horn. The Horn feed is a waveguide feed.
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4.Explain the construction and principle used in slot antenna. And discuss in
detail the methods of feeding slot antenna. (16) MAY/JUNE 2012,13,
NOV/DEC 2014
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If the dipole is inductive ,the slot antenna is capacitive and vice versa. However
lengthening of a
λ/2 antenna makes it more inductive and lengthening of a λ/2 slot makes it capacitive.

5. (i)Explain about the Rectangular Batch antenna with neat diagrams. (8)
NOV/DEC 2013
(ii) Discuss the radiation mechanism (8)
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(ii) Radiation mechanism.

There are three different types of radiation sources.
Single wire:It is a fundamental single wire antenna. Then by the principle of
radiation there must be a time
Varying current.
For a single wire antenna,

If charge is stationary, no current is developed
.So no radiation is observed.

If charge is moving with uniform
velocity, then (i)No radiation for
straight wire which is ∞ in extent.
(ii)Possible radiation if wire is curved; bent, discontinues,
terminated or truncated
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Two wires: eer
ing
Consider an antenna driven by transmission line with a voltage source
connected as shown in the Figure.
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When the source is applied, the electric field gets developed between
conductors. The electric lines of force are tangent to the electric field. The

strength of electric lines of force is proportional to the electric field intensity. As

free electrons have tendency to get separated from the atom, the electric lines
of force operate on free electrons of each conductor and force to displace. Due
to charge movement, current is produced and it produces magnetic field
intensity.
Diploe:
Consider a small dipole antenna where time of travel is negligible.Consider

that a small dipole is centre fed in the first quarter of the period T i.e t=T/4.This
is time atwhich the charge attains maximum value.At this instant ,the lines
travel radially outward a disdance λ/4.Assume that number of lines produced
are three.It is shown in figure.
Now next quarter period of time ,the three lines produced originally,now travel
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an additional start diminishing.This is because the opposite charges are
introduced.
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UNIT III
ANTENNA ARRAYS
PART A
1. Define pattern multiplication.[May 07, Dec 08, Dec 10, May 11, Dec
12,May 13& 15]
The total field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar sources is the
product of the individual source pattern and the array pattern of isotropic
point sources each located at the phase center of the individual source
ww having the same amplitude and phase. While the total phase pattern is the
sum of the phase patterns of the individual source pattern and array pattern.
w.E
2. What is the binomial array?
The need for a binomial array is
[Nov/Dec 2014)]
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 In uniform linear array as the array length is increased to increase the
directivity, the secondary lobes also occurs.
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 For certain applications, it is highly desirable that secondary lobes
should be eliminated completely or reduced to minimum desirable
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level compared to main lobes.
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3. A uniform linear array contains 50 isotropic radiation with an inter
element spacing
ing
of λ/2.Find the directivity of broadside forms of arrays. [May/June
2013]
D=2L/λ
L=nd
D=2(50)(λ/2)/λ=50
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What are the conditions to obtain end fire array
4. pattern? [Nov/Dec2012]
An array is said to be end fire if the direction of maximum radiation
coincides
with the array axis. Thus for an array to be end fire, ψ=0 and θ=00 or
θ=1800the
maximum direction.
5. What do you mean by phased arrays? (R-2013)

The phased array actually processes the signals better in some
directions than others. For instance, the antenna array is more receptive when
the angle of arrival is 90 degrees.

6.What is an adaptive array?

By processing the signals from the individual elements, an array can
become active and react intelligently to its environment, steering its beam
toward a desired signal while simultaneously steering a null toward a desired,
interfering signal and thereby maximizing the signal to noise ratio of the
desired signal. Such kind of array is called as an adaptive array.
7. Differentiate broadside array and end fire array. (R-2013)
S.N Broadside array End fire array

o
1 In this number of identical In this number of identical

antennas are spaced equally
ww antennas are set up along a line along a
drawn perpendicular to their

line parallel to their respective
axis.
w.E2
respective axis.
Individual elements are fed with Individual elements are fed with
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current of equal amplitude and
current of equal amplitude and
out
phase
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3 axis gin
Radiates perpendicular to the Radiates parallel or along the
axis.
4 Narrow beam width

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Wide Beam width
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9. What is meant by resonant and non resonant antennas [Nov/Dec2014]
or resonant length antennas.

 An antenna that has an approximately constant input
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 Any linear antenna of λ/2 long is called half wave dipole antenna
impedance over a wide range of frequencies is called non-

resonant antennas.
9. What are the advantages of antenna arrays? [May/June
2014]
 They can provide the capability of a steerable beam (radiation
direction change) as in smart antennas.
 They can provide a high gain (array gain) by using simple antenna
elements.
 They provide a diversity gain in multipath signal reception.
 The enable array signal processing.
10. Define array factor [Nov/Dec 07]
The factor by which the array increases the field strength over
that of a single element radiating the same total power.

The normalized value of the electric field is given by
The above expression is called as antenna

array factor.
11. What is broadside array? [May/June 08]
Broadside array is defined as an arrangement in which the principle
direction of radiation is perpendicular to the array axis and also to the
plane containing the array element. The phase difference between
adjacent elements is zero.
12. Calculate the directivity of a given Linear end fire uniform array
of 10 elements with a separation of λ/4 between the elements.
[May/June 09]
Given:
N =10, d = λ/4
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13. What is the use of antenna arrays? [Nov/Dec 09]
 Because of their physical size, their use is generally limited to
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HF bands and higher but they are used in LF bands for point
to point communications.
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 They are also used in overseas broadcasting stations in MF and
HF bands for repeated broadcasting to some distant area.
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14.Calculate the radiation resistance of λ/8 wire dipole in free space.
[May/June 12]
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Given:
L = λ/8
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Rr = 12.34 Ω
15. What is Hansen – Wood yard array?
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[May/June 12]
To enhance the directivity of an end-fire array without destroying any
of the other Characteristics, Hansen and Wood yard in 1938 proposed that the
required phase shift between closely spaced elements of a very long array
should be
These requirements are known as the Hansen-Wood yard

conditions for end-fire radiation.
16. A uniform linear array contains 50 isotropic radiation with an inter
element spacing of λ/2. Find the directivity of broadside form of
arrays. [May/June 13]
Directivity of broadside array

where
L = nd
Given: n = 50, d = λ/2
D = 50
17. Draw the pattern of 2 point sources separated by λ/2. [May/June 13]
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18.Draw the radiation pattern of an isotropic point sources of same
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amplitude and opposite phase that are λ/2 apart along X-axis symmetric
with respect to origin.
[May/June 2016]
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19.What is the basic principle of antenna synthesis?
[Nov/Dec-2016]
Antenna synthesis is the problem of determining the parameters
of an antenna system that will produce a radiation pattern which accurately
approximates some desired pattern.
Methods used:
 Fourier series method
 Dolph-Tchebyscheff

PART B
1. For a ‘n’ element linear antenna array, derive the field quantities and
draw its radiation pattern. (16) NOV/DEC 2012,14, MAY/JUNE 2013.
N element Linear array:
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2. Derive the expression for field pattern of broad side array of ‘n’ point
sources.(16)
MAY/JUNE 2013,14
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3. Derive the expression for field pattern of end fire array of ‘n’ point
sources.(16)
MAY/JUNE 2012,14

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4. Discuss about Phased array with adaptive array.(16) [REG-

2013]
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5. Explain about (i) Antenna synthesis. (8) REG2013

(ii) Binomial array (8) MAY/JUNE 2013
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(ii) Binomial array:
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UNIT IV
SPECIAL ANTENNAS
PART A
1. Mention the applications of helical antenna. [Nov/Dec 2012]

Axial mode helical antenna-used in satellite communication in the VHF
and UHF bands. Normal mode helical antenna-used in mobile and wireless
handset applications.
2. What are the features of Anechoic chamber? [Nov/Dec 2012]

 It is ideal for small antennas.
ww  It simulates reflection less free space and allows all-weather

antenna measurements in a controlled environment.
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outdoor ranges
3. Why frequency independent antennas are called so? [May/June 2010
&2014]
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The characteristics of antenna such as radiation pattern and impedance
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remains constant as a function of frequency. So they are called as frequency
independent antennas.
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4. Why log periodic antennas are called
. so?[Nov/Dec 2011]
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Impedance and radiation characteristics of log periodic antennas are
regularly
ing
repetitive as a logarithmic function of the excitation frequency. So they are called
as log
periodic antennas.
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5. Mention any two applications of turnstile antenna. [May/June 2014]
 FM Transmission
 Television broadcasting
6. Define pitch angle of a helical antenna. [Nov/Dec 2014]

Pitch angle is given by the equation
7. Differentiate ‘V’ antenna from rhombic antenna. [Nov/Dec 2014]

V antenna:
 V antenna may be either terminated (with standing wave) or

unterminated (without standing wave)
 Two long wire antennas arranged in a horizontal V form.

Rhombic antenna:
 The rhombic antennas are almost always terminated.
 It is the combination of Two V type antennas and also called ad
diamond shape antenna
8. What are the applications of micro strip antenna? [April/May 2015]

 It is used in spacecraft and aircraft systems.
 It is used in beam scanning and beam steering purposes.
9. Mention the relation between the length ‘l’ and spacing ‘s’ of adjacent
elements of log periodic dipole array [April/May 2008]
Sn+1/ Sn= Ln+1 /Ln = k = (1/ τ); k > 1
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10. What are parasitic elements? 11. [Nov/Dec 2008]
w.E
The passive elements which are not connected directly to the transmission
line but are electrically coupled are called as parasitic elements.
11. Differentiate near and far field. [April/May 2015]
S.No
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Near Field Far Field
1
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It is the distance at which the It is the distance at which the
amplitude of the plane wave
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amplitude of the wave is still becomes
increasing and is not constant and constant at the wave front typically
2
less than 2d2 /
In this region the wave operates in eer
2d2 /
In this region the wave operates in
free space if the field strength of
radiation from the antenna at a ing
free space if the field strength of
radiation from the antenna at a
distance does not exceeds 2d2 /
12. What you meant by dielectric antennas?

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distance exceeds 2d2 /
(R-2013)
Dielectric lens antennas are the antennas in which the travelling wave
fronts are delayed by lens media.
13. What are the three methods used for measuring polarization?(R-2013)
(i)Polarization pattern method
(ii)Linearity component method
(iii)Circular component method
14. What are the advantages of helical antenna?
 Very simple
 High directivity
 Wideband operation is possible
 Circular polarization is obtained

15. What are modes of operation of helical antenna and mention the
limitations of normal mode operation of a helical antenna?
Modes:
 Normal mode
 Axial mode
Limitations
 Bandwidth is very narrow
 Efficiency of radiation η is low
16. Compare and contrast wedges and pyramids. [Nov/Dec-
2016]
Wedges Pyramids
It is an absorbing material used in It is an absorbing material used in
antenna measurement that takes the antenna measurement that takes the
shape of wedges shape of wedges
It works well for large angle of It works well for normal incidence
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incidences
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17. State Rumsey principle on frequency dependence. [May/June 2016]
The impedance and pattern properties of a lossless antenna is independent
of frequency if the dimensions of the antenna are specified in terms of angles such
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that they remain constant in terms of wavelength.
18. Why antenna measurements are usually done in fraunhofer zone?
[May/June 2016]
of placing En
The far-field range was the original antenna measurement technique, and
consists the AUT a long distance away from
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the instrumentation antenna. Generally, the far-field distance or Fraunhofer
distance, d, is considered to be
d=2D2/
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where D is the maximum dimension of the antenna and is the wavelength of the
ing
radio wave. Separating the AUT and the instrumentation antenna by this distance
reduces the phase variation across the AUT enough to obtain a reasonably good
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antenna pattern.

PART B
1.With suitable diagram, explain the construction and principle of Helical

antenna in different mode of operation. (16) MAY/JUNE 2013, 14, 15,
NOV/DEC 2014.
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2.With necessary illustrations explain the radiation characteristics of multi

element log periodic antenna and mention its possible applications. (16)
NOV/DEC 2012, 13, MAY/JUNE 2012, 15.
Log periodic Antenna:

According to V.H. Rumsey an antenna which is defined only in terms of angles
should have characteristics of frequency independent.
Raymond Duttemed created a new type of frequency independent antenna with a
complemented toothed structure as shown.
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In order to be frequency independent the antenna should expand (or )contract in

proportion to the wavelength(or)if the antenna structure is not mechanically
adjustable,the size of the radiating region should be proportional to λ.

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Rn-Distance of dipole from origin.
The dipole length increases along the antenna so that the included
angle α is constant and the length L and spacing S of adjacent
elements are scaled so that

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(i)Discuss about E-plane metal plate lens antenna with neat

diagrams. (10)
[MAY/JUNE
2013]
(ii) Explain about Active antennas (6) R-2013

(i)E-Plane Metal Plate Lens Antenna
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(ii).Active Antenna:
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3. Explain in detail about Test Range measurement (16) REG-

2013
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4. Discuss in detail about (i) Gain measurement

(ii) Radiation pattern measurement
MAY/JUNE 2013, 14, NOV/DEC 2013
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5. Explain in detail about (i) polarization measurement REG-

2013
(ii) VSWR measurement REG-2013
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UNIT V
PROPAGATION OF RADIO WAVES
PART A
1. What is the critical frequency for reflection at vertical incidence if the

maximum value of electron density is 1.24 1× 10 6 cm-3? [May 2008 &
2012], [Nov/Dec 2012] [Nov/Dec-2016]
Fc =9 √Nm
Nm =1.24*106 ×10-6 m-3
=9√(1.24)
=10.026MHz
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2. What is meant by skip distance?
[May 07, Dec-07, Dec-09, May-10, May-12,Dec-12, Dec14]
w.E Skip distance is defined as the minimum distance from the transmitter at
which a sky wave of given frequency is returned to earth by the ionosphere.
3. Find the maximum distance that can be covered by a space wave, when
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the antenna heights are 60m and 120m. [May/June 2013]
D = 4.12[√ht+√hr] km
= 4.12[√60+√120]
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D =73.11 km
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4. Find the range of LOS system when the receive and transmit antenna
heights are 10m and 100m respectively.
D = 4.12[√ht+√hr] km eer [May/June 2016]
= 4.12[√10+√100] km
D =54.23 km
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5. What is fading? And how it is compensated?[Nov/Dec 2009] [May/June
2013]
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Variation of signal strength occurs on the line of sight paths as a result of
atmospheric conditions and it is called as fading. It cannot be predicted properly.
6. Define MUF. [Nov/Dec 08, May/June 11]
Maximum usable frequency MUF is defined as the frequency which can be reflected
back to earth for some specific angle of incidence.
fMUF = fC sec i
where, fC – critical frequency, i- angle of incidence
7. What is free space loss factor? [Nov/Dec 2013]

It is defined as the attenuation of the signal due to the spreading of the power as
a function of distance r. LS = (4πr / λ )2

8. Define Virtual height. [May/June 12& May/June 2014]

Virtual height is defined as the height to which a short pulse of energy sent
vertically upward and travelling with the speed of light would reach taking the
same two ways travel time as does the actual pulse reflected from the layer
9. What are the factors that affect radio wave propagation [Nov/Dec 2014]
i. Curvature of earth.
ii. Earth’s magnetic field.
iii. Frequency of the signal.
iv. Plane earth reflection
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10. Define optimum working frequency [April/May 2015]
Optimum frequency for transmission between any two points is therefore selected
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as some frequency lying between about 50 and 85 percent of the predicted
maximum usable `frequency between those points
.
asy
11.What is Gyro frequency? [Nov/Dec 2013]
En
The frequency whose period is equal to the period of revolution of an electron in its
circular orbit under the influence of the earth’s magnetic flux density B.
gin
Wg=B(e/m)
12. What is meant by Faraday rotation?

eer
[May/June 2011, Nov/Dec 2011, April/May 2015]
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Any linearly polarized wave may be considered as the vector sum of two
anti-rotating circularly polarized waves. If such a wave propagates in the direction
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of magnetic field, then the two circularly polarized components will travel at
different phase velocities and thus the plane of polarization will rotate with
distance. This phenomenon is known as faraday’s rotation.
13. Calculate the maximum usable frequency for a critical frequency 10 MHz
and an
angle of incidence 45o. [May/June 2010]
FMUF = FC sec θ
= 10 x 106 sec 45
= 10 √2MHz=14.14MHz
14. What does the collision frequency represent? [Nov/Dec 2010]
The collision frequency is denoted by Wo which represents the effect of the
collision of particles in the layer. The collision of molecules and ions are
dominant in the ionosphere. The collision frequency varies with the height from
the earth’s surface. In ionosphere, at 90 km the collision frequency is
approximately 106 / sec while at 300 km it is 103 /sec.

15. Define Critical frequency. [Nov/Dec 2011]

The critical frequency (fC) of an ionized layer is defined as the highest
frequency which can be reflected by a particular layer at vertical incidence. It is
different for different layer.
fC=9 MHz
Where, - maximum electron density in the layer.
16.What is duct propagation? [Nov/Dec-2016]

OR
What is super refraction? [May 07, Dec 07, May 09, Dec 08]
When the frequency is high, the region where the variation of dielectric
constant or refractive index is usually high, traps the energy and causes it to
travel along the earth’s surface as happens in a wave guide. This happens near
ww the ground often within the 50 m of the troposphere. The higher frequencies or
microwaves are thus continually refracted in the duct and reflected by the
w.E
ground so that they propagate around the curvature for beyond the line of sight,
even up to 1000Km.This special refraction of EM waves is called super
refraction and the process is known as duct propagation.
asy
17.What are the features of troposcatter propagation.
[May/June 2016]
En
 It is useful for the propagation in the range of 100MHz to 1oGHz.
 Undesirable noise and fading may be minimized to certain extent by diversity
reception.
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 The field strength received is usually on the order of d 1/7 or d1/8 where d is the
distance between transmitter and receiver.
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 Since the signal strength is very week, high gain antennas are required for
reception.
 The propagation exhibits seasonal variation. ing
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PART B
1. Explain the ground wave propagation of radio waves. (16) MAY/JUNE

2013, 14, NOV/DEC2014.
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2. Draw the structure of atmosphere and explain the mechanism of

propagation.(16) APR/MAY 2015
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216
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3. Discuss in detail about (i) Duct

Propagation (8) MAY/JUNE 2013
NOV/DEC 2012,
(ii) Troposcatter (8) 13,
MAY/JUNE 2014
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5. Define:
(a) Fading
(b) Maximum Usable Frequency
(c)Critical frequency
(d)Virtual Height
(e) Skip Distance
(f)Multi hop propagation
(a) Fading:
Variation of signal strength occur on line of sight paths as a result of the
atmospheric conditions
is called as fading .It cannot be predicted properly.
There are different types of fading.
(i)Selective fading:
Produces serious distortion of modulated signal.
ww
(ii)Interference fading:
Produced by interference between upper and lower rays of a sky wave.
Minimized by space diversity and frequency diversity reception
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(iii)Absorption fading:
It occurs due to variations of signal strength with different amount of
absorption of waves absorbed by the transmission medium.
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(iv)Polarization fading:
It occurs due to change of polarization of the down coming sky waves.
(v)Skip fading:
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It occurs at distances near the skip distance.
(vi)Whistlers:
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It occurs due to transient electromagnetic disturbances.
(b) Maximum Usable Frequency
eer
The maximum Frequency that can be reflected back to earth for specific
angle of incidence.It is the maximum frequency for which reflection takes pace
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for a given distance of propagation. If f >MUF,then wave penetrates the ionized
layer and will not be reflected back. fmuf = fc sec i
(c)Critical frequency
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The critical frequency of an ionized layer is defined as the highest
frequency which can be reflected by a particular layer at vertical incidence. It is
different for different layers.It is denoted by f0 of fc.The critical frequency is
otherwise called Plasma frequency.fc=9
(d)Virtual Height
Virtual height of the ionospheric layer is defined as the height to which a
short pulse of energy sent vertically upward and travelling with the speed of
light would reach taking the sametwo ways travel time as does the actual power
reflected from the layer.

Fig:Virtual and actual height of an ionized layer

(e) Skip Distance
The distance with in which a signal of given frequency fails to be reflected back
is the
skip distance for that frequency.The higher the frequency the greater the skip
ww
distance.
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Fig: Skip distance determination
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For a given frequency of propagation f=fmuf, the skip distance is given by
(f)Multi hop propagation:
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The coverage of transmission distance between transmitter and receiver in
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more than one hop is known as multihop propagation. The transmission path is
limited by the skip distance and the curvature of the earth.The longest single
hop is propagation is obtained when the transmitted ray is tangential at the
earth’s surface.
The maximum practical distance covered by a single hop is 2000 km for E layer
and
4000km for F2 layer. Under some conditions ,the earth’s surface may reflect
the incoming wave back towards the ionosphere again.

6. Derive the refractive index of ionosphere (or) Derive the electrical

properties of ionosphere. (8) NOV/DEC 2013, 14
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Question Paper Code:80347

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION , NOV/DEC 2016
Sixth Semester
Electronics and Communication Engineering
EC6602/ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION
(Regulation 2013)
Time:Three Hours Maximum: 100 Marks
Answer All Questions
PART A-(10 x 2= 20 marks)
1. What is meant by retarded potential [Unit I -18]
2. The voltage induced by an application of an electric field of strength 2
Volts/meter is 0.7. Calculate the effective length of the element? [Unit I -19]
3. Draw the different types of horn antennas. [Unit II -17]
4. Name some numerical tools used to analyze an antenna. [Unit II -16]
5. How can we eliminate minor lobes? [Unit I -20]
ww6. What is the basic principle of antenna synthesis? [Unit III -19]
7. State Rumsey principle . [Unit IV -17]
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8. Compare and contrast wedges and pyramids. [Unit IV -16]
9. What is the critical frequency for reflection at vertical incidence if the
maximum value of electron density is 1.24 1× 106 cm-3? [Unit V -1]
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10. What is duct propagation? [Unit I -16]
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PART B-(5 x 16= 80 marks)
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11. a)Explain the principle of radiation from an oscillating electric dipole.Derive
the near field and far field expressions.
(or)
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b)Derive the expression for the fields at a far point due to a half wave dipole
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12. a)Explain in detail the radiation from a slot antenna and their feed systems.
(or)
b)Explain the radiation mechanism of reflector antennas and their feed
systems.
13. a)Derive and plot the radiation from a broadside array of 4 point sources.
(or)
b)(i)Discuss in detail the concept , design principles and type of phased array.
(ii)What is the significance of binomial array.

14. a)(i)Explain the operation and design of helical antenna.
(ii)Explain the procedures involved in the measurement of gain in antennas.
(or)
245

b)Explain in detail about log periodic antenna. What is the need for feeding
from end with shorter dipoles and the need for transposing the lines? Also
discuss the effect of decreasing α.
15. a)Draw the electron density profile chart of an ionosphere and explain. Also
derive an expression for the effective relative dielectric constant of the
ionosphere. Explain about reflection and refraction of waves in ionosphere.
(or)
b)(i)Explain the attenuation characteristics for ground wave propagation.
(ii)Explain LOS propagation and troposcatter propagation.
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246

Question Paper Code:57298

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION , May/June 2016
Sixth Semester
Electronics and Communication Engineering
EC6602/ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION
(Regulation 2013)
Time:Three Hours Maximum: 100 Marks
Answer All Questions
PART A-(10 x 2= 20 marks)
1. What is radiation resistance? [Unit I -13]
The radial component of the radiated power density of an antenna is given
2. Wrad =arWr= arA0sin θ/r2 (W/m2), Where A0 is the peak value of power
density, θ is the usual spherical coordinate, and ar is the radial unit vector.
Determine the total radiated power. [Unit I -11]
3. Why antenna measurements are usually done in fraunhofer zone? [Unit IV -
ww 18]
4. The radiation resistance of an antenna is 75Ω and loss resistance is 8Ω. What
w.E is the directivity in dB if the power gain is 15? [Unit I -17]

5. Define gain of an antenna. Bring out a relationship between gain and aperture
of an antenna. [Unit I -16]
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6. Draw the radiation pattern of an isotropic point sources of same amplitude
and opposite phase that are λ/2 apart along X-axis symmetric with respect to
origin.
[Unit III -18] En
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7. On what principle slot antenna works? Explain the principle. [Unit II -2]
8. State Rumsey principle on frequency dependence. [Unit IV -17]
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9. Find the range of LOS system when the receive and transmit antenna heights
are 10m and 100m respectively. [Unit V-4]
10. What are the features of troposcatter propagation.
PART B-(5 x 16= 80 marks) ing
[Unit V -17]
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11. a)Derive the expression for the field quantities radiated from a λ/2 dipole
and prove theat the radiation resistance to be73 Ω.
(or)
b)Derive the expression for the field quantities for a small current element.
12. a)Discuss the geometry of a parabolic reflector and the significance of f/D
ratio. Explain its feed configurations.
(or)
b)Discuss the construction and design of a yagi uda array. Show that the
impedance of a folded dipole is 300 Ω.
247

13. a)Obtain the expression for the field and the radiation pattern produced by a N
element array of infinitesimal with distance of separation λ/2 and currents of
unequal magnitude and phase shift 180 degree.
(or)
b)(i)Using pattern multiplication determine the radiation pattern produced by 8

element array with distance of separation λ/2.
(ii) Discuss in detail the concept , of tapered array phased array.
14. a)(i)Explain the design procedure of log periodic antenna.
(ii)Discuss the construction design of helical antenna.
(or)
b)Explain the procedures involved in the measurement of VSWR and
radiation pattern.
15. a)(i)In the ionospheric propagation , consider that the reflection takes place at
ww a height of 400km and that the maximum density corresponds to a refractive

index of 10MHz.Determine the ground range for which frequency is the
MUF.Take earth curvature into consideration. [Page No:256-257]
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(ii)Describe the structure of the atmosphere and explain each layer in detail.
asy(or)
b)(i)Explain the the effect of eath magnetic field on ionospheric radio wave
propagation.
En
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(ii)Describe the troposphere and explain how ducts can be used for
microwave propagation.
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248

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EC6602 ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION LTPC3003

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N element linear array

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Antenna Measurements -Test Ranges 839-871

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2. Define half power beam width. [Nov/Dec 2012]

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 dBd means antenna gain in dB with respect to reference dipole antenna.

7. What is the significance of radiation resistance of an antenna?

It is a good indicator of strength of the electromagnetic field radiated by a

i)It compares the radiated power

of the actual antenna and that of

10. Define an isotropic radiator. [Nov/Dec 2014]

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12. Design a 3 element Yagi-Uda antenna to operate at a frequency of 200MHz.

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15. Define Directivity. [Nov/Dec 09][May/June 11][May/June 12]

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Relationship between gain and aperture

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