Experiment – 1(b)

Aim : Introduction and use Real-life resistors, capacitors and inductors.

1. To study about different types of Real Life Resistors and its colour coding.
1.1. Apparatus: - Different types of resistors.
1.2. Theory:
This is the most common component in electronics. It is used mainly to control current and
voltage within the circuit. Its function is to reduce the flow of electric current. Its value is
designated in units called the “Ohm.” A 1000 Ohm resistor is typically shown as 1K-Ohm. It
is an electrical component with known specified value of resistance. The opposition to the
flow of electric current is known as resistance. The resistance of resistor is given by
R=V/I;
Where R=resistance, V=voltage, I=current.
1.2.1 Types of resistors:
There are two types of resistors; 1) fixed resistor and 2) variable resistor Fixed resistor is one
whose value remains stable within the limits of its specification. Variable resistors are the
resistor whose resistance can be changed from zero to a certain maximum value. There are
two types of fixed resistors; 1) Linear and 2) Non-linear. In linear resistor, there is linear
relationship between resistance and temperature while in nonlinear resistor; there is non-
linear relationship between resistance and temperature.

Figure.1. Symbol of Resistor

There are five types of linear resistors as under:

(1) Carbon composition
(2) Metal film
(3) Carbon film
(4) Wire wound
(5) Carnet

1.2.2Specification of resistor:
The electrical specifications of resistor are its resistance value, tolerance, wattage, voltage
and temperature coefficient. The value of the resistor can be verified by the colour coding
scheme. The tolerance is the deviation from the real or actual value of resistance. For eg: if
the resistance value of a resistor indicates 10 k ohm +/-10 % then the tolerance will indicate
that the resistance value of the resistor lies between 9k ohm to 11 k-ohm.
Based on the tolerance value the resistors can be classified as general purpose resistors (+/-
5%,+/-10%or +/-20%), semi-precision resistor (+/-5%to +/-10%), or precision resistors (+/-
0.01to 10%)
Wattage rating is the maximum power in watts that the resistor can safely dissipate at
ambient temperature (i.e. without excessive heat). Since it is the current which produces heat
power ratings indicate the maximum current rating a resistor can safely carry. If the current
exceeds this value more heat will be produced than that can be carried safely and the resistor
will eventually burn out. For a given value of resistance greater the physical size higher is the
power rating.
Voltage rating is given by sqrt(WR) where w is the wattage rating (in watts). Temperature co-
efficient of resistance indicates the rate of change of nominal resistance value with function
of temperature.

1.2.3. Colour coding scheme of resistor:

There is two methods of find value of resistance.

(a)Using colour code
There are two common ways to know the value of a resistor, by measuring it using an
Ohmmeter, or by reading the colour code printed on it, which is much faster, when you get
used to do it. The colour coding method is explained as below.
 First colour band tells the first significant figure of the resistors value.
 Second colour band indicates the second significant figure in the resistors value.
 Third colour band indicates the no. of zeros to add to the first two significant numbers
often called as multiplier.
 Fourth colour band indicates the tolerance

Figure.2. The colour coding of resistor is standardized by Electronic Industries Association (EIA).

Three band resistor:- They represent the value as per the colour code. Absence of forth band
means a resistance tolerance +/- 20%

Four band resistor:- Four band identification is the most commonly used colour coding
scheme on resistors. It consists of four colour bands that are painted around the body of the
resistor. The first two bands encode the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the
third is a power-of-ten multiplier or number of zeros, and he fourth is the tolerance accuracy,
or acceptable error, of the value. The first three bands are equally spaced along the resistor;
the spacing to the fourth band is wider.
For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56X10000 = 560K Ohm +/- 2%.
Five band resistor:- It is used for higher precision (lower tolerance) resistors (1%, 0.5%) to
specify a third significant digit. The first three bands represent the significant digits, the
fourth is multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. Five-band resistor with a gold or silver 4th
band is sometimes encountered, generally on older or specialized resistors. The fourth band is
tolerance and the 5th the temperature coefficient.

Figure.3. Colour Coding Table

Example: Estimation of resistance value using colour code for a resistor has a colour band of
Brown, Green, and Orange with a tolerance band Gold.
Then
Br 1
G 5
O 3
First two colours is the value 15
Third colour is multiplier, therefore x 103
i.e., 15 x 103 = 15000 15 k
Fourth band Gold implies Tolerance of 5%
Therefore 15 k(5% of 15k)
Note:
By tolerance we mean that acceptable deviation or the actual value of the resistor may be 5%
more or less then the coded value. If the resistor contains 5 colour bands , then the first three
colour bands indicates the first second and third significant figure in the resistors value , the
fourth color band is the multiplier and the fifth color band indicates tolerance.

(b) Using Character

Here, character (E, K, M) are used for indication. When character comes between two
decimal numbers, it acts as a decimal point.
E means – Ohm
K means – kilo ohm
M means – mega ohm
For example, 2E5 – 2.5 Ohm
3K9 – 3.9 kilo ohm
2M7 – 2.7 mega ohm

1.3. Applications: It is widely used in electronic circuits to limit the current.

2. To study about different types of Capacitor and its colour coding.
1.1. Apparatus: - Different types of capacitor.
1.2. Theory
The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor also
functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct current (DC).. The
capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but separated by an
insulator. When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each
electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing
when the capacitor has fully charged. The capacitor has an insulator (the dielectric) between
2 sheets of electrodes.
Following are the characteristics of the capacitor:
Capacitor is the device:
 Which has the ability to store the charge which is neither a resistor nor an inductor
can do.
 Oppose any change in voltage in the circuits in which it is connected

Figure.4. Symbol of capacitor

1.2.1. The different types of capacitors are given below:

(a) Electrolytic Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors):

Aluminium is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane. Large values of
capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor, because the dielectric
used is very thin. The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that,they have
polarity. They have a positive and a negative electrode [Polarized]. This means that it is very
important which way round they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage exceeding its
working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It is extremely dangerous,
because it can quite literally explode. Make absolutely no mistakes Generally, in the circuit
diagram, the positive side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol. Electrolytic capacitors range in
value from about 1μF to thousands of μF. Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in
a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals, etc. Because this type of
capacitor is comparatively similar to the nature of a coil in construction, it isn't possible to use
for high-frequency circuits.
 Figure.5. Electrolytic Capacitors

The figure on the left is an example of the different values of electrolytic capacitors in which
the capacitance and voltage differ. From the left to right:
1μF (50V) [diameter 5 mm, high 12 mm]
47μF (16V) [diameter 6 mm, high 5 mm]
100μF (25V) [diameter 5 mm, high 11 mm]
220μF (25V) [diameter 8 mm, high 12 mm]
1000μF (50V) [diameter 18 mm, high 40 mm]

(b)Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum Capacitors are electrolytic capacitors that use a material called tantalum for the
electrodes. Large values of capacitance similar to aluminium electrolytic capacitors can be obtained.
Also, tantalum capacitors are superior to aluminium electrolytic capacitors in temperature and
frequency characteristics. When tantalum powder is baked in order to solidify it, A crack forms
inside. An electric charge can be stored on this crack. These capacitors have polarity as well. Usually,
the "+" symbol is used to show the positive component lead. Do not make a mistake with the
polarity on these types. Tantalum capacitors are a little bit more expensive than aluminium
electrolytic capacitors. Capacitance can change with temperature as well as frequency, and these
types are very stable. Therefore, tantalum capacitors are used for circuits which demand high
stability in the capacitance value.

Figure.6. Tantalum Capacitors

The Figure on the left illustrates the tantalum capacitor. The capacitance values are as
follows, from the left:
0.33 μF (35V)
0.47 μF (35V)
10 μF (35V)
(C ) Ceramic Capacitors

Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials such as titanium acid barium used as the
dielectric. Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a coil, so they can be used in
high frequency applications. Typically, they are used in circuits which bypass high frequency
signals to ground. These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their capacitance is
comparatively small. The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a diameter of about 3
mm. The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x 103pF becomes 0.01 μF. The
diameter of the disk is about 6 mm. Ceramic capacitors have no polarity. Ceramic capacitors
should not be used for analog circuits, because they can distort the signal.

Figure.7. Ceramic Capacitor

(D)Variable Capacitors

Variable capacitors are used for adjustment etc. of frequency mainly. On the left in the
photograph is a "trimmer," which uses ceramic as the dielectric. Next to it on the right is one
that uses polyester film for the dielectric. The pictured components are meant to be mounted
on a printed circuit board. When adjusting the value of a variable capacitor, it is advisable to
be careful. One of the component's leads is connected to the adjustment screw of the
capacitor. This means that the value of the capacitor can be affected by the capacitance of the
screwdriver in your hand. It is better to use a special screwdriver to adjust these components

Figure.8. Variable Capacitor

1.2.2. Capacitor Codings:

The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in units called the Farad (F). The
capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units such as the microfarad (10-6F),
nanofarad (10-9F), and picofarad (10-12F) are used. The method used differs depending on
the capacitor supplier. Also for different types of capacitors the coding is different. For
example, on electrolytic capacitors the value is directly printed on the capacitor. For ceramic
capacitor there are four types of codings:(i) Using numbers, (ii) Using letters and numbers
both, (iii) directly printed for μF.

(i). Coding using numbers:

A three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. In the case that the value is
displayed with the three-digit code, the 1st and 2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure
and the 2nd figure, and the 3rd digit is a multiplier which determines how many zeros are to
be added to the capacitance. Picofarad (pF) units are written this way.
For example,
[103] indicates 10 x 103, or 10,000pF = 10 nanofarad (nF) =0.01microfarad (μF).
[224] indicates 22 x 104 or 220,000pF=220nF=0.22μF.
Values under 100pF are displayed with 2 digits only. For example, 47 would be 47pF.

(ii). Coding using letters and numbers both:

When letter K comes in between two digits, it acts as a decimal point. Picofarad (pF) units
are also written this way.
For example,
[3K3] indicates 3.3k=3300 pF=3.3nF.
[1k] indicates 1k=1000pF=1nF,
[33k] indicates 33k=33000pF=33nF.

(iii). Directly printed for microfarad:

If decimal dot is given in the code, directly consider the value in microfarad.
For example,
[0.1] indicates 0.1 μF,
[0.22] indicates 0.22 μF
[0.47] indicates 0.47 μF
3. Applications:
 Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and discharging.
 Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
 Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to connect a
loudspeaker.
 Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
 Tuning - for example in a radio system.
 Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.
3. To study about different types of inductor
3.1. Apparatus: - Different types of resistors.
3.2.Theory
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component
which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a conductor such as
a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy is stored in a
magnetic field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor changes, the time-
varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to Faraday‟s law of
electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it.
Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are color
coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can measure
inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.
Types of inductors are
1. Air core
2. Ferromagnetic core
3. Irom core inductors

Figure.9.Symbol of Inductor

Figure.10. Different type of Inductor

Applications:

 Filter chokes for smoothing and pulsating currents produced by rectifiers.

 Audio frequency chokes, to provide high impedance at audio frequencies.