Hellenic J Cardiol 46: 9-15, 2005

Special Article
Vascular Wall Shear Stress: Basic Principles and
Methods
THEODOROS G. PAPAIOANNOU, CHRISTODOULOS STEFANADIS
1st Department of Cardiology, Unit of Biomedical Engineering, Hippokration General Hospital, Athens Medical
School, Greece

T
Key words: he investigation of various me- where n is the order of the tensor. Thus
Shear stress, shear
chanical forces and the tissue de- stress, which is a 2nd. order tensor, consists
rate, endothelium,
viscosity. formations they induce have been of 32 = 9 components (terms); six tangential
extensively studied for over three centu- (parallel) and three normal ones. As an ex-
ries. The basic principles concerning the ample, pressure or temperature is a gradient
relationship between mechanical stress quantity with zero order and one compo-
and strain of various materials were demon- nent, while force or velocity is a vector quan-
strated by Robert Hooke (1635-1703) and tity of one order and three components.
proved to be essential for the improvement Strain is defined as the mechanical de-
of bio-materials and the understanding of formation of a physical body under the
pathophysiological mechanisms in the vas- action of applied forces. Depending on
cular bed. Subsequently, the ground-break- the direction of the applied force there is
Manuscript received: ing studies of Jean Poiseuille (1799-1869) a different kind of deformation. Shear
July 14, 2004; led to the development of mercury mano- strain is defined as the deformation of an
Accepted:
November 2, 2004. meters for blood pressure measurement object in which parallel planes remain par-
and resulted in theories describing the flow allel but are shifted in a direction parallel
inside a cylindrical conduit, widely known to themselves, as opposed to normal stress
as Poiseuille’s law. or force, which when applied to an object
Address:
The present work aims to describe induces normal (direct) deformation (Fig-
Theodoros G.
Papaioannou and provide an interpretation of basic me- ure 1). For a one-dimensional object, de-
chanical and haemodynamic phenomena formation is either lengthening or short-
13 Iak. Patatsou St., related to forces applied to arterial walls ening. For a two-dimensional object, there
N. Kipseli, 113 63
Athens, Greece and especially shear stresses. are a total of four strain components: nor-
e-mail: mal strain along the x or y axis, and shear
[email protected] strain causing distortion of the shape along
Basic principles and definitions
the x or y axis.
In physics, stress is the internal distribu- The haemodynamic conditions inside
tion of forces within a body that balance blood vessels lead to the development of
and react to the external loads applied to superficial stresses near the vessel walls,
it. Stress is a 2nd. order tensor. A tensor is which can be divided into two categories:
a mathematical quantity that is defined by a) circumferential stress due to pulse pres-
the order and the number of its compo- sure variation inside the vessel; b) shear
nents. In Euclidian space (three dimen- stress due to blood flow. It should be noted
sions) the components of a tensor are 3n, that intravascular hydrostatic pressure

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T.G. Papaioannou, C. Stefanadis

Shear rate
The notions of shear rate and fluid viscosity should be
first clearly apprehended, since they are crucial for
the assessment and development of shear stress.
Shear rate is defined as the rate at which adjacent lay-
ers of fluid move with respect to each other, usually
expressed as reciprocal seconds. The size of the shear
rate gives an indication of the shape of the velocity
profile for a given situation.
The determination of shear stresses on a surface
is based on the fundamental assumption of fluid me-
Figure 1. Deformations induced by normal and shear forces.
chanics, according to which the velocity of fluid upon
the surface is zero (no-slip condition).1 This leads to
the establishment of velocity gradient. Thus, as the
produces not only circumferential but also normal
fluid particles “travel” parallel to the wall, their veloc-
tensions. The direction of the shear stress vector is
ity increases from zero at the wall to a maximum val-
determined by the direction of the blood flow velocity
ue at some distance from the wall (Figure 2).
vector very close to the vessel wall. Shear stress is ap-
If we consider a blood vessel as a straight, cylin-
plied by the blood against the vessel wall. On the oth-
drical tube with rigid walls then the velocity gradient
er hand, the force applied to the blood by the wall is
ÁØ (shear rate) will be given by the relation:
considered as friction and has a direction opposite to
the blood flow. The tensions acting against the vessel du
ÁØ = –– (1)
wall are likely to be determined by blood flow condi- dr
tions. Shear stresses during turbulent flow, regions of
where u is the fluid velocity and r the radius of the
flow recirculation or flow separation, develop more
tube. Figure 2 illustrates two cases with different ve-
complicated local characteristics.
locity profiles corresponding to flows with different
Normal stresses due to blood pressure are trans-
velocity gradients. Assuming that the blood is an ideal
ferred to all vessel wall layers (intima, media and ad-
Newtonian fluid with constant viscosity, the flow is
ventitia). On the other hand, shear stress is applied
steady and laminar and the vessel is straight, cylindri-
mainly to the inner layer of the arterial wall in con-
cal and inelastic, Poiseuille’s law could be applied to
tact with the blood, the vascular endothelium. The
determine shear rate as follows:
normal stresses applied (directly), as well as shear
stresses (indirectly), regulate blood vessel diameter
8Øu
depending on vascular wall elasticity (distensibility) ÁØ = ––––– (2a)
d
and endothelial function (endothelial induced va- or
Q
sodilatation), respectively. Arterial distensibility is ÁØ =32 ––––– (2b)
Ø d3
one of the most important mechanical properties of
the arterial walls, and deserves a more extensive where u is the average velocity, Q the mean volumet-
analysis, which, however, is beyond the scope of the ric flow and d the vessel diameter. Under these condi-
present review. tions a parabolic velocity profile could be assumed.

Figure 2. Velocity profiles in cylindrical

tubes with different shear rates.

10 ñ HJC (Hellenic Journal of Cardiology)

 Shear Stress, Basic Principles and Methods

where Q is the mean volumetric flow rate, u the mean

velocity, and d the vessel diameter.
It should be emphasised that the Haagen-Pois-
seuille equation is applied in vivo only after the fol-
lowing assumptions have been made:
ñ The blood is considered as a Newtonian fluid.
ñ The vessel cross sectional area is cylindrical.
ñ The vessel is straight with inelastic walls.
ñ The blood flow is steady and laminar.
The Haagen-Poisseuille equation indicates that
shear stress is directly proportional to blood flow rate
and inversely proportional to vessel diameter.
Figure 3. Shear stress-rate relationship for Newtonian (n=1) and
non-Newtonian (n >1 or n <1) fluids. Blood viscosity
Viscosity is an internal property of a fluid that offers resis-
tance to flow. It is measured in centipoise (cP). Viscosity
Determination of shear stress
is a characteristic property of fluids and is a measure of
Shear rate and viscosity are directly related to the the combined effects of adhesion and cohesion. Viscosity
properties of the fluid. Non-Newtonian fluids are of fluids increases as temperature decreases. Blood vis-
governed by a non-linear relationship between shear cosity (non-Newtonian fluid) depends on shear rate,
stress and shear rate (Figure 3). In this case (non- which is determined by blood platelets, red cells, etc.
Newtonian fluid), the slope of the shear stress-rate Lipowsky et al investigated the changes of blood
curve, which is equal to fluid viscosity, depends on viscosity in relation to changes in: a) shear rate for dif-
pressure, temperature and shear rate. In contrast, the ferent levels of haematocrit and b) haematocrit for dif-
viscosity of Newtonian fluids is independent from ferent shear rates.2,3 It was shown that blood viscosity is
shear rate, as indicated by the linear relation between slightly affected by shear rate changes at low levels of
shear stress and shear rate (Figure 3). haematocrit. In contrast, as haematocrit increases, the
For non-Newtonian fluids shear stress (Ù) is de- effect of shear rate changes on blood viscosity becomes
fined by the Ostwald de Waele equation: greater. Additionally, at low shear rates (~54 sec-1)
haematocrit variations induce greater changes in blood
Ù=ÎØ ÁØ n (3)
viscosity. Consequently, in arteries where high shear
where ÁØ is the shear rate (sec-1), n and k are indices of rates (~300 sec-1) are present (e.g. the aorta) blood vis-
fluid internal properties, i.e. adhesion, cohesion.1 cosity is approximately 3.5 cP (for 45% haematocrit),
For Newtonian fluids flowing upon a planar sur- while in vessels with lower shear rates (~5 sec-1) such as
face, shear stress is determined according to New- the veins, blood viscosity is markedly higher (~10 cP).
ton’s law by the equation: Therefore, for large arteries the assumption of 3.5 cP
blood viscosity is commonly made. Blood viscosity mea-
du
Ù= Ì Ø ––– (4) surement is required for the accurate calculation of
dy
shear stress in veins or microcirculation. Viscosity is
where Ì is the kinetic viscosity, u the fluid velocity, y measured with various types of viscometer at a specified
the distance from the surface and du/dy the velocity constant temperature, typically 25ÆC.
gradient, namely the shear rate ÁØ (sec-1).
For blood flow within a vessel (inelastic, cylindri- Relation of vessel diameter with haematocrit
cal and straight), shear stress is defined by the Haa-
gen-Poisseuille equation: It has to be emphasised that the dependence of blood
Q viscosity on haematocrit is more pronounced in the
Ù =32 Ø ÌØ ––––– (5a) microcirculation than in larger vessels, due to haema-
Ø d3
or tocrit variations observed in small vessels (lumen di-
u ameter <100 Ìm). The significant change of haemat-
Ù =8 Ø ÌØ –––– (5b)
d ocrit in relation to vessel diameter is known as the

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T.G. Papaioannou, C. Stefanadis

Fahraeus-Lindquist phenomenon.4 This phenomenon used instead. This value is based upon the assumption
is associated with the tendency of red blood cells to that blood acts like a Newtonian fluid in large vessels.
travel closer to the centre of the vessels. Thus, the Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), by applying
greater the decrease in vessel lumen, the smaller the various flow quantification methods (phase contrast,
number of red blood cells that pass through, resulting phase velocity mapping, Fourier velocity mapping,
in a decrease in blood viscosity. etc.), has been used for shear rate evaluation, with
rather direct estimation of the flow velocity distribution
in the cross-section of a vessel.12
Methods of shear stress measurement at vascular walls Phase contrast MRI is somewhat superior to other
Shear stress on arterial walls has been estimated in nu- imaging techniques, providing better image resolution
merical models, in vitro, in animals and in humans. In and contrast, while it allows measurement of blood ve-
many cases approximations and assumptions are neces- locity at various points within a given cross-sectional
sary in order to calculate shear stress; they may thus vessel area. Every pixel of the recorded image corre-
sometimes diverge from the real flow phenomenon. sponds to a specific value of velocity. The determina-
Mathematical models often require a specific de- tion of velocity gradient is made using various methods.
scription of geometrical characteristics and the flow A simple method is to consider a linear velocity change
conditions of the vessel studied. The distribution of between two adjacent points on the vessel’s diameter.
shear stresses in a vessel area can be calculated by re- In this case shear rate is determined as follows:
solving the mathematical equations describing the
flow velocity in the vessel.5,6 ¢u
ÁØ = –– (6)
In vitro models have been used previously to in- ¢r
vestigate shear stresses applied to endothelial cells
under various flow conditions: It has been found that shear rates calculated by eq.
ñ Steady, laminar flow using parallel planar or coni- 6 are overestimated by approximately 10-45%.13 Non-
cal moving surfaces.7 linear models describing the velocity profile more real-
ñ Unsteady, pulsatile, laminar flow by using peri- istically have also been used,14 without, however, in-
staltic pumps which allow the study of time varying creasing the accuracy of shear rate measurement, espe-
shear stresses.8 cially in regions very close to the arterial wall. More so-
ñ Oscillatory, turbulent flow.9 phisticated models have also been proposed for the es-
In vitro estimation of shear stresses is achieved by timation of shear rate regardless of a vessel’s geometric
determination of flow velocity profiles (e.g. by flow vi- details or diameter velocity distribution.15
sualisation techniques). Advanced experimental tech- One of the major shortcomings of imaging tech-
niques also exist that allow the 3-D analysis of shear niques for the accurate estimation of wall shear stresses
stresses and deformation of endothelial cells.10,11 is the inability of accurate arterial wall tracking. This,
In vivo estimation of shear stress often requires however, is expected to be overcome by imaging sys-
fewer assumptions and approximations than do the tems with more advanced spatial and temporal resolu-
numerical or in vitro models. Detailed geometric tion.
characteristics and specific flow conditions are partic- To date, in clinical practice there is no single com-
ularly variable under in vivo conditions. Shear stress monly used technique of shear stress determination,
measurement requires only the estimation of shear something that is also evident with respect to the mea-
rate values and blood viscosity for a specific area of a surement of other physical variables such as the arterial
vessel (considering the blood as a Newtonian fluid). mechanical properties. This renders it difficult to per-
Estimation of local velocity gradient along a cross form a comparison and interpretation of data between
sectional area of a vessel can be realised by various various clinical studies.
techniques.
Assessment of shear stress with Doppler echocar-
Shear stress and vascular endothelium
diography can be performed using equation 5, by calcu-
lating the mean or maximum blood flow velocity within Endothelium responds to shear stress through various
a vessel of known diameter, considering blood as a pathophysiological mechanisms depending on the kind
Newtonian fluid. In most cases where measurement of and the magnitude of shear stresses. More specifically,
blood viscosity is not feasible, the value 3.5 cP can be the exposure of vascular endothelium to shear forces in

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 Shear Stress, Basic Principles and Methods

Figure 4. Shear stress values in various

vessels according to data reported by
Lipowsky et al.2,3

the normal value range stimulates endothelial cells to sion of leukocytes, smooth muscle proliferation and
release agents with direct or indirect antithrombotic endothelial apoptosis.
properties, such as prostacyclin,16 nitric oxide (NO)17, The arterial and venous vascular tree is exposed to
calcium18, thrombomodulin19, etc. Further insights con- different levels of shear stress, a fact that is determined
cerning the interaction of shear stress and endothelium by flow velocity characteristics. Shear stress at arterial
can be found elsewhere8,20,21. walls ranges between approximately 10 and 70
How the mechanical forces are detected and are dynes/cm2, whereas the corresponding normal values
transformed into biological signals that stimulate in- for veins are considerably lower, from 1 to 6 dynes/cm2.
travascular processes remains unresolved. The possi- Higher shear stress values have been observed in the
ble existence of so-called “mechanoreceptors” has vasculature, especially in regions with an anatomy/
provoked a number of research groups to localise those geometry promoting turbulent flow or increased flow
receptors which “translate” mechanical forces into bi- velocity (e.g. arteries with strong curvature such as the
ological signals. Two models of mechanotransduction aortic arch, bifurcations, anastomoses, etc). In those
have been demonstrated so far: cases, shear stress shows increased values, while the di-
a) The localised model, where the mechano-re- rection may also change due to retrograde flow, which
ceptor, like other receptors, is considered to be lo- depends on the haemodynamic conditions.
cated in cellular membrane. Possible channels also Indicative values of shear stress and shear rate for
located in membrane, such as those of potassium, several vessels are outlined in figure 4, based on pre-
sodium and calcium, respond to shear stress alter- viously published data.22,23 The estimation of these
ation.9 values requires the mean volumetric flow and velocity
b) The decentralised model, where shear stress of blood in the specific vessel, the vessel diameter and
forces acting on a cell’s surface are transmitted through the blood viscosity, which in this case was considered
a cytoskeleton, allowing the activation of several to be equal to 3.5 cP.
mechano-receptors within the cell. Integrines connect- Under normal shear conditions, endothelial as
ed with cytoskeleton have been related to the afore- well as smooth muscle cells have a rather low rate of
mentioned mechanism of mechanoreception. proliferation. Changes in shear stress magnitude acti-
vate cellular proliferation mechanisms as well as vas-
cular remodelling processes. More specifically, a high
Shear stress in clinical practice
grade of shear stress increases wall thickness and ex-
Under normal conditions, shear stresses maintain pands the vessel’s diameter,24 so that shear stress val-
their direction and their magnitude within a range of ues return to their normal values. In contrast, low shear
values that impedes atherogenesis, thrombosis, adhe- stress induces a reduction in vessel diameter and leads

(Hellenic Journal of Cardiology) HJC ñ 13

T.G. Papaioannou, C. Stefanadis

to intima-media hyperplasia. Consequently, shear References

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