Earth Science Reviewer: reactions that an organic compound undergoes in order

to learn about its structure.

What is Science?
The knowledge that is built by science is always open to
(Latin: “Scientia – Which is to know”) question and revision. No scientific idea is ever once-
An organized body of knowledge about the natural and-for-all “proved”. Why not? Well, science is
universe and the processes by which that constantly seeking new evidence, which could reveal
knowledge is acquired and tested problems with our current understandings

The Scientific method is a method of testing and Ideas that we fully accept today may be rejected or
evaluation by which hypotheses becomes Theory, and modified in light of new evidence discovered tomorrow.
then Scientific Law. Despite the fact that they are subject to change,
scientific ideas are reliable. The ideas that have gained
Observations and Measurements (Qualitative data) scientific acceptance have done so because they are
supported by many lines of evidence.
Hypothesis (a possible explanation)
These scientific explanations continually generate
Experiments (Testing a hypothesis) expectations that hold true, allowing us to figure out
how entities in the natural world are likely to behave
Theory (a well-tested explanation)
(e.g. how likely it is that a child will inhrit a particular
genetic disease) and how we can harness that
Law (describes a fundamental relationship of nature)
understandin to solve problems (e.g. how electricity,
wire, glass, and various compounds can be foashined
into a working light bulb).
Hypothesis – And Educated guess
References:
Theory – A Hypothesis that has withstood initial testing
and evaluation. It is intended to be further investigated 1. Shipmen, James T. et. al. “An Introduction to Physical
by experiment. If the theory does not withstand further Science”
experimentation, it must be modified, replaced, or
rejected Scientists use models as tools to advance their 2. Glencoc Science: National Geographic. “An
theories. Introduction to Physical Science”

Model – It is a miniature representation of a real thing. 3. Young and Freedman “ University Physics with
Modern Physics”
Branches of Science
4. Brown et. al. “Chemistry: The Central Science”
Biological Sciences Physical Sciences
(Observational
Sciences)
(Measuremental
Sciences)
5. Silverio, Angelina, Exploring Life through Science;
Physics: Phoenix Publishing
Biology Chemistry
6. Hewitt, Paul G. Conceptual Physics, 11th Edition, San
Francisco: Pearson, 2010.
Zoology Physics
Lesson 1: IN THE BEGINNING (Big Bang Theory)
Microbology
Astronomy Cosmology –this is a branch of astronomy that involves
and etc...
the origin and evolution of the universe, from the Big
Bang to today and on into the future.
Meteorology
3 Cosmic Stages
(through which specific groups of elements were
Geology
formed)

Aims and nature of Science: 1. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

Science aims to explain and understand •Formed the light elements (H,, He, and Li)

Science, as a collective institution, aims to produce Stellar formation and evolution

2.
more and more accurate natural explanations of how
•formed the elements heavier the Be to Fe
the natural world, what its components are, and how
the world got to be the way is is now.
3. Stellar Explosion, or supernova
Classically, science’s main goal has been building •elements heavier than Fe
knowledge and understanding, regardless of its
potential applications – e.g. investigating the chemical
Big Bang Theory – This explains how the elements were
initially formed the formation of different elements Nucleosynthesis – this is the process that created new
involved many nuclear reactions, including fusion, atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, primarily
fission, and radioactive decay. protons and neutrons.

Part of its proof is the amount of Hydrogen and Helium - As the Universe coold, protons and neutrons can fuse
we have in the universe today. to form heavier atomic nuclei. E.g., Picture 1.6

History of the Universe

Chief nuclear
reactions responsible
for the relative
Stages of the Big Bang Theory: abundances of light atomic nuclei observed throughtout
the universe.
Singularity – This is a point in space and/or a moment in
time where they universe was infinitely hot and dense. Recombination – This refers to the epoch at which
charged electrons and protons first became bound to
form electrically neutral hydrogen atoms.

Annihilation – In physics, reaction in which a particle

and its antiparticle collides and disappear, releasing
energy.

Inflation – this is a theory of exponential expansion of

space in the early universe. The inflationary epoch
lasted from 10-36 seconds.
Redshift – This is the displacement of spectral lines Picture of protostar
toward longer
The Sun
wavelengths (the
red end of the After sufficient mass and density was achieved in the
spectrum) in Sun, the temperature rose to one million °C, resulting in
radiation from distant galaxies and celestial objects. thermonuclear fusion. H atom + H atom = He atom +
energy
*If the starlight is blue, the star does not move.
Protoplanets
*If the Starlight is red, then the star moves away from
us. Gravitational forces allow the inner planets to accrue
and compact solid matter (including light and heavy
atoms) Solar radiation blew gases (primarily hydrogen,
helium) away from inner planets These gases were
collected and condensed into the gas giants (Jupiter,
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune) Beyond Neptune, ice and
- is electromagnetic radiation left over from an early frozen gases form Pluto, Sedna and the Kuiper Belt
stage of the universe from the big bang cosmology. Objects Left-over debris form comets and asteroids

Birth of the Solar System (Picture)

Size of the pLanets picture

Earth is 4,570,000,000 years old.

Geologic Time (A Timeline)

(MA)Millions of years ago

4570 MA – Sun and Accretionary disk formed

4560 MA – Planetisimals accreted; accretion of earth
has begun.
4510 MA– Moon has been formed
4470 MA – Earth Accretion core formation,
Lesson 2: The History of the Earth
differentiation completed
Origin of the Universe: 4400 MA = Oldest mineral Grain
4000 MA – End of heavy bombardment, oldest
The Universe began about 14.4 Billion years ago.
continental rocks.
The Big Bang Theory states that in the beginning, the 3800 MA – Earliest evidence of surface liquid water
universe was all in one place. All of its matter and 3500 MA – Earliest evidence of Life
energy was squished into an infinitely small point called 2500 MA – Major Phase of continent formation
a Singularity. Then, It exploded. completed
2450 – 2200 MA – Buildup of oxygen in atmosphere
After about 10 Billion years after that, our solar system
2200 MA – Nucleus-bearing cells developed
began to form.
700 MA – Ice covered Earth? (Dirty Ice Balls or asteroids
Birth of the Solar System: and comets)
565 MA – Worldwide distribution of multicellular
The Nebular Hypothesis is the currently accepted organisms
argument about how a solar system can form. We have 545 – 530 MA – Evolutionary “Big Bang”
discovered over two hundred planets orbiting other 439 MA – Mass Extinction
stars. 420 MA – Earliest land animals
A large gas cloud(nebula) begins to condense. Most of 364, 250, & 208 MA – Mass Extinction
the mass is in the center, there is turbulence in the 125 MA – Earliest flowering plants
outer parts. 65 MA – Mass Extinction
5 MA – First Hominids
Pictures from the Hubble Space Telescope show 0.12 MA – First Appearance of our species, Homo
newborn stars emerging from dense, compact pockets sapiens sapiens.
of interstellar gas called evaporating gaseous globules
Formation of the Moon (Picture)
Picture
The Giant Impact Hypothesis predicts that around 50
Gravitational attraction causes the mass of gas and dust million years after the initial creation of Earth, a planet
to slowly contract and it begins to rotate The dust and about the size of Mars collided with Earth. A
matter slowly falls towards the center considerable amount of material was blown off into
space, but most fell back onto the Earth
Part of the material from the collision remained in orbit Note that oxygen (O2) gas is not created by volcanic
around the Earth By the process collision and accretion, eruptions
this orbiting material coalesced into the Moon The early
Creating the ocean
Moon orbited very close to the Earth
It is hypothesized that water vapor escaping from the
Three Major factors that cause the heating and
interior of the Earth via countless volcanic eruptions
melting of the Earth’s Interior:
created the oceans (this took hundreds of millions of
1. Collisions – Transfer of kinetic energy into heat years)
2. Compression
Astronomers also hypothesize that comets impacting
3. Radioactivity or elements
the Earth were a major source of water that contributed
Global chemical differential, the heavier elements, to creation of the oceans Remember, that comets are
including the melted iron, began to sink down into the best described as “dirty ice balls”
core of the Earth, while the lighter elements such as
oxygen and silica floated up towards the surface. The earliest evidence of surface water on Earth dates
back about 3.8 billion years
This global chemical differential was completed by
about 4.3 billion years ago, and the Earth had Geologic time
developed a inner and outer core, a mantle and crust
4570 million of years ago(ma)- sun and accretionary
Chemical composition of the earth disk formed
4560(ma)- planetesimals accreted; earth acceretion
Whole Earth: Crust:
begun
Fe+O+Si+Mg = 93% Si+O+Al = 82% 4510 (ma)- moon formed
Lithosphere: strong, rocky outer shell of the solid Earth 4470 (ma)- earth accretion core formation and
including all the crust and the upper part of the mantle differentiation completed
to a depth of ~100 km (forms the plates) 4400 (ma)- oldest general grain
4000 ma- end of heavy bombardment: oldest
Asthenosphere: weak,ductile layer of the mantle continental rocks
beneath the lithosphere; deforms to accommodate the 3800 (ma)- earliest evidence for liquid water
motions of the overlying plates
3500(ma)- earliest evidence for life
Deep Mantle: mantle beneath the asthenosphere (~400 2500 (ma)- major phase of continental formation
to 2900 km in depth) completed
2450-2200 (ma)- buildup of oxygen in atmosphere
Outer core: liquid shell composed of mostly iron
2200 (ma)-nucleus-bearing cells developed
Inner core: innermost sphere composed primarily of 700 (ma)- ice covered earth?
solid iron 565 (ma)- worldwide distribution of multicellular
Continents: Formed from solidified magma that floated organisms
up from the Mantle 545-530 (ma)-evolutionary ”big bang”
439 (ma)- mass extinction
Oceans and Atmosphere: Fluid and gaseous outer 420 (ma)- earliest land animals
layers believed to have been created by out-gassing of 364 (ma)-mass extinction
gases and fluids from volcanic eruptions (in a process 250 (ma)- mass extinction
called volatile transfer) 208 (ma)- mass extinction
The evolving atmosphere 125 (ma)- earliest flowering plants
65 (ma)- mass extinction
the Earth is thought to have had a thin atmosphere 5 (ma)- first hominids
composed primarily of helium (He) and hydrogen (H) 0.12 (ma)- first appearance of our species(homo
gases sapiens)
These would include: A billion Year Old Earth
 Water vapor (H2O) By 3.5 billion years ago, when the Earth was abillion
 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) years old, it had a thick atmosphere composed of CO2,
 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) methane, water vapor and other volcanic gases
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
By human standards this early atmosphere was very
 Carbon Monoxide (CO)
poisonous
 Ammonia (NH3)
 Methane (CH4) It contained almost no oxygen

Remember, today our atmosphere is 21% oxygen

By 3.5 billion years ago, the Earth also had extensive Habitable Zone
oceans and seas of salt water, which contained many  Theoretical shell around a star where any planet
dissolved elements, such as iron present would have liquid water on its surface
 HZ range should not vary over time
But most important, by 3.5 billion years ago, there was
-Stars increase luminosity as they age
life on Earth
- If this happens too quickly (super-massive
The Continents star), planets are only in window for life for
short amount of time
By 2.5 billion years ago, the continents had been
-Lowers time to develop life
formed The density of the continental crust (2.8
gr/cm3) is lighter that the crust found on ocean Is Earth Located in Habitable Zone?
bottoms (3.2 gr/cm3), so the continents rise above the
 Yes!
ocean floor A question that remains unanswered is,
 Earth is located within the expected shell of
when did plate tectonics start?
distance in which liquid water can be on the
LESSON 3: Discovery of a new Planet surface of the planet
 Pictures of the planet show liquid water
Galactic Neighborhood
covering a large portion of the Earth’s surface
 Galactic environment impacts habitability
Planet Characteristics that Support Life
 milky Way galaxy’s edge is a life-favorable spot
-Not near active gamma ray source  Terrestrial
-Not near galactic center with high star density -Silicate rocks
and ionizing radiation -Rocks not accreted to gaseous outer layers
-Loneliness in galaxy is helpful for life  Gas Giants = no life
- No surface
Spectral Class of Star Needed for Life:
-Enormous Gravity
 Spectral class indicates photospheric -Satellites are good candidates, however
temperature
Composition of Earth?
 “HabStars” spectral range
 Earth is a terrestrial planet, not a gas giant
-Early F
-G Mass of Planets need to be Just Right for Life
- Mid-K
- 7000K to 4000K  Low Mass
 Bad news for life
 Emit high-frequency UV radiation to trigger  Lesser gravity – difficult for atmosphere
atmospheric ozone formation retention
 Emits not so much that ionization destroys life  Smaller planets lose energy from formation
quickly
Spectral Class of “Sun”
 geologically dead
 Earth rotates around the star, the “Sun”  Approximately 0.3 Earth masses needed to
 Sun sustain life
-G2 star
Mass of Earth
-~6,000K
 Sun is in “Habstar” range!  High Mass
 Ozone can form in atmosphere -Earth is largest by mass and density of
 Ionization is not deadly for life terrestrial bodies in the Solar System
-Large enough for molten core (heat engine)
Low Stellar Variation?
-Large enough for atmosphere through gravity
 All stars change luminosity -Large enough for liquid outer core and metal
 Stars vary in stability... stars that fluctuate inner core (magnetic field)
luminosity violently are poor candidates for
Magnetic Fields and Life
hosting life
 The Sun is relatively stable!  Planets need protection from solar wind
- Solar variation is ~.1% over 11- year cycle  Solar wind- stream of charged particles from
-Slight variations dramatically impact Earth stars consisting of electrons and protons
-Little Ice Age – decline in Sun’s luminosity  Planet must have molten metal interior
Does Earth have a Magnetic Field? Is Earth’s Orbit Suitable?
 Yes!
 Yes!
 Earth’s Orbit
 Earth has solid metal core with liquid outer
 Almost circular
core, causing magnetic field
 E < .02
 Protects the Earth from solar wind
Life-Supporting Rotation
Atmosphere and Life
 Rotation around axis at tilt
 Atmosphere – layer of gases that surround a
-Planet should have moderate seasons or
material body of sufficient mass
biospheric dynamism will disappear
 Held by gravity
-Without tilt, planet would be colder (warm
 Helps regulate temperature
weather could not move pole ward)
 Protects planet from meteors and radiation -Should not be radically tilted because seasons
 Composition favors life (oxygen and carbon would be extreme
dioxide) -Speed of Rotation
Does Earth have an Atmosphere? -Should be relatively quick so day-night cycle is
not too long (temperature differences if long
 Yes! days/nights)
 Earth’s atmosphere is made up of
-Nitrogen (78%) Earth’s Rotation?
-Oxygen (20.9%)  Earth’s tilt varies between 21.5 and 24.5
-Argon (.93%) degrees every 41,000 years
-Carbon Dioxide (.0390%)  Day is only 24 hours
 This composition could support life  Moon plays crucial role
 Atmosphere absorbs/reflects harmful radiation -Moderates Earth’s climate by stabilizing axial
-Visible and Radio reach surface tilt
Composition of Planets LESSON 4:
 Four elements vital for life Earth’s atmosphere
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen  Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gases
3. Oxygen surrounding the planet.
4. Nitrogen  The Earth is surrounded by a blanket of air,
which we call the atmosphere. It reaches over
Earth’s Composition? 560 kilometers from the surface of the Earth.
 Element oxygen alone found in Earth’s crust... Atmosphere:
 However, other life elements are found in
atmosphere and water  Absorbs the energy from the Sun,
 Make amino acids (building blocks of protein)  Recycles water and other chemicals,
 Comets and out gassing from volcanoes brought  protects us from high-energy radiation and the
these elements frigid vacuum of space.
 The atmosphere protects and supports life.
Tectonic Activity of Planet

 Supply surface with life-sustaining material

 Supply atmosphere with temperature
moderators(CO2)
 Recycles important chemicals/materials
 Helps increase environmental complexity
 Earth is tectonically active

Life-Supporting Orbits

 Stability is critical
 Eccentricity
-Greater e, greater temperature fluctuation
-Living organisms can only withstand certain
fluctuations
-Complex organisms have greater temperature
sensitivity
Earth Has 4 main systems that interact: itself has been around pretty much as long as
the earth has!
 The Atmosphere
 When the first fish swam in the ocean, your
 The Hydrosphere
glass of water was part of that ocean. When the
-All of Earth’s water, whether in the
Brontosaurus walked through lakes feeding on
atmosphere, glaciers, oceans, lakes or rivers.
plants, your glass of water was part of those
 The Biosphere lakes
 The Geosphere  When kings and princesses, knights and squires
took a drink from their wells, your glass of
water was part of those wells. And you thought
your parents were OLD

Evaporation:

 Evaporation is when the sun heats up water

in rivers or lakes or the ocean and turns it into
vapor or steam. The water vapor or steam
leaves the river, lake or ocean and goes into the
air.

Do plants Well, sort of.... sweat?

Hydrosphere  people perspire (sweat) and plants transpire.
 Water on Earth is a unique feature that clearly Transpiration is the process by which plants lose
distinguishes our "Blue Planet" from others in water out of their leaves. Transpiration gives
the solar system. evaporation a bit of a hand in getting the water
vapor back up into the air.
 Not a drop of liquid water can be found
anywhere else in the solar system. Earth has Condensation:
just the right mass, the right chemical
composition, the right atmosphere, and is the  Water vapor in the air gets cold and changes
right distance from the Sun that permits water back into liquid, forming clouds. This is called
to exist mainly as a liquid. condensation.
 Water is the universal solvent and the basis of  You can see the same sort of thing at home...
all life on our Planet. pour a glass of cold water on a hot day and
watch what happens. Water forms on the
The water Cycle outside of the glass. That water didn't somehow
leak through the glass! It actually came from
 Water, which covers the majority of the Earth’s
the air. Water vapor in the warm air, turns back
surface (the hydrosphere), circulates through
into liquid when it touches the cold glass.
the crust, oceans, and atmosphere in what is
known as the water cycle. Precipitation:
Water Cycle—water is in constant motion  Precipitation occurs when so much water
has condensed that the air cannot hold it
 The Sun provides water cycle’s energy
anymore. The clouds get heavy and water
 Water on the surface absorbs heat and
falls back to the earth in the form of rain,
evaporates, entering the atmosphere
hail, sleet or snow.
 Condensation—water vapor changes back into
liquid. Collection:
 Clouds of water become heavy and water falls
When water falls back to earth as
to Earth as precipitation.
precipitation, it may fall back in the oceans,
 The cycle repeats itself continuously.
lakes or rivers or it may end up on land.
The Water Cycle When it ends up on land, it will either soak
into the earth and become part of the
 Run and get a glass of water and put it on the
“ground water” that plants and animals use
table next to you. Take a good long look at the
to drink or it may run over the soil and
water.
collect in the oceans, lakes or river where
Now -- can you guess how old it is? the cycle starts

 The water in your glass may have fallen from

the sky as rain just last week, but the water
Earth’s atmosphere Layers of Atmosphere

 Earth’s atmosphere is made of a mixture of The atmosphere has four layers

gases called air.
 Thermosphere
-Nitrogen gas makes up about 78% of
 Mesosphere
Earth’s atmosphere.
-The second most abundant gas is  Stratosphere
oxygen, which makes up 21% of  Troposphere
Earth’s atmosphere. Troposphere
- The third Argon (Ar, 0.9%).
- Carbon Dioxide (CO2, 0.03%).  Lowest and thinnest layer
 16 km at equator, 8 km at poles
Composition of the Atmosphere  90% of the atmosphere’s mass
The atmosphere is comprised of a variety of gases:  Temperature decreases with altitude
 6°C per kilometer
 Major Constituents (99%):  Top of troposphere averages –50°C
-Nitrogen (N): 78% -Where weather occurs
-Oxygen (O2): 21% -Boundary between the troposphere, and the
 Trace Constituents: stratosphere is called the tropopause.
-Argon (Ar), about 0.9%
-Water vapor (H2O), up to 10000 ppmv Stratosphere
-Carbon dioxide (CO2), 350 ppmv
 Extends from 10 km to 50 km above the ground
-Ozone (O3), near zero at the surface, up to
 Less dense (less water vapor)
10 ppmv in the stratosphere
 Temperature increases with altitude
-Methane (CH4), 1.7 ppmv and others.....
 Almost no weather occurrence
ppmv = “parts per million by volume”  Contains high level of ozone
 Ozone layer
Nitrogen cycle
 Upper boundary is called stratopause.
 Nitrogen is important to protein which is
found in the body tissues of all living things.
Mesosphere
 Nitrogen is cycled through the soil and into
plants and finally when living things die and  Extends to almost 80 km high
decay.  Gases are less dense.
 Temperature decreases as altitude increases.
Pressure in the atmosphere
 Gases in this layer absorb very little UV
 Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit are radiation.
exerted into a surface by the weight of air
Thermosphere
above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth.
 The gas molecules closest to Earth’s surface are  Above the mesosphere and extends to almost
packed together very closely. 600 km high
 This means pressure is lower the higher up you  Temperature increases with altitude
go into the atmosphere.  Readily absorbs solar radiation
Pressure in the atmosphere  Temperature can go as high as 1,500°C
 Reflects radio waves
 At sea level, the weight of the column of air
above a person is about 9,800 Newtons (2,200 The four layers of theatmosphere include:
pounds) 1. the troposphere, where we live;
 This is equal to the weight of a small car.
2. the stratosphere, which contains the ozone layer;
Measuring Pressure
3. the mesosphere, where meteors burn; and
 A barometer is an instrument that measures
atmospheric pressure. 4. the thermosphere, where satellites orbit Earth.
 Long ago, mercury barometers were used  The exosphere begins at about 500 kilometers
 Since mercury is a poisonous liquid, aneroid above Earth and does not have a specific outer
barometers are used today. limit.
 Satellites orbit Earth in the exosphere.
The exosphere and ionosphere  The heated surface emits infrared light.
 The majority of Earth’s atmosphere (N2 and O2)
 Communication on Earth depends on satellites.
are not good greenhouse gas.
 Satellites transmit information used for
 The small amount of greenhouse gases (H2O,
television shows, radio broadcasts, data and
CO2) traps (absorb and re-emit) the infrared
photos used in weather reports, and long
radiation, increasing the temperature of the
distance telephone calls.
atmosphere...
Ozone layer

 In the 1970s, scientists noticed that the ozone

layer in the stratosphere above Antarctica was
thinning.

Chlorofluorocarbons & the ozone layer

 A group of chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons

(or CFCs) were once commonly used in air
conditioners, in aerosol spray cans, and for
cleaning machine parts.
 In the London Agreement of 1991, more than
90 countries banned the production and
use of CFCs except for limited medical uses.
Layers of the earth
 The ozone layer absorbs the Sun’s high-energy
ultraviolet (UV) radiation and protects the  If we could take a chunk out of the Earth, we
Earth. would see that it is made up of different layers.
 In the stratosphere, the CFCs break down and  Earth is made up of 3 main layers
release chlorine. – Crust
 The chlorine reacts with ozone molecules, – Mantle
which normally block incoming ultraviolet – Core
radiation. Physical Properties and
Acid rain occurs when oxides of sulfur and oxides of
nitrogen are emitted into the atmosphere, undergo Composition
chemical transformations and are absorbed by water
droplets in clouds. • Composition= what it’s made of

Effects of Acid Rain • Physical properties= characteristic that is

unique and helps to identify the substance
 Acidification of bodies of water
(temp, size, shape, color)
 Damage of vegetation
 Damage to building materials, statues, etc.
• Example: Chocolate Chip Cookies
-Composition- flour, eggs, sugar, chocolate
chips, baking powder, butter
-Properties- round, rough, sweet, tan and black,
hot, lumpy,

CRUST

– Physical Properties:
• outermost layer
• thinnest layer (5-70km thick)
• Surface temperature
• 1% of Earth’s mass
The Greenhouse Effect on Earth • where we live
• touches the atmosphere
Earth’s atmosphere is slightly warmer than what it
– Composition:
should be due to direct solar heating because of a mild
• consists of loose rocks
case of greenhouse effect...
& soil
 The ground is heated by visible and (some)
infrared light from the Sun.
2 Types of Crust: Mesosphere Bottom Mantle

• Continental Crust:dry land, granite ess dense  strong, lower part of the mantle
 layer between asthenosphere and core
 Oceanic Crust: ocean floor,Basalt, thinner
than cont. crust The Core Outer and Inner

• The core is divided into two parts

MANTLE
– Outer Core:
–Physical Properties:
• Liquid iron and nickel that’s spinning
• thickest layer (2900km thick)
• 1600-4000 F – Inner Core:
• 66% of earth’s mass
• flowing • Solid iron and nickel
– Composition: • Solid because of all the pressure of the rest of the
• Molten rock Earth surrounding it.
–Magma

CORE How do we know?

– Physical properties: • Seismic waves produced by earthquakes travel at

• HOT! 4000-8000 F different speeds through solid rock and liquids
• Very dense
• High pressure
• 4000 miles from surface
• 33% of Earth’s mass
• About the same size as
Mars
– Composition:
• Iron and Nickel (metals)

What have you noticed about temperature and

pressure?

• As you get deeper inside the Earth,

temperature Increases
• As you get deeper inside the Earth, pressure
Increases

The 3 main layers of the Earth can be divided further by

the way they “act” within the Earth and by their
different physical properties.

Lithosphere

Crust and upper Mantle

• outermost layer – includes crust and upper mantle

• rigid

• divided into pieces or tectonic plates

• Rocks and soil

Asthenosphere Middle Mantle

• composed of solid flowing rock

• layer on which pieces of lithosphere move on top

(solid rock that flows)

– Think of it like caramel