S.Y. B.Sc. (IT) : Sem.

IV
Computer Graphics and Animation
Prelim Question Paper Solution

Q.1 Attempt any THREE of the following : [15]

Q.1(a) Explain CRT? [5]
Ans.: Typically, the primary output device in a graphics system is a video monitor. The operation
of most video monitors is based on the standard Cathode-ray tube (CRT).
Magnetic
Deflection Coils
Focusing
Cathode System

Heating
Filament Control
Electron Beam
Grid
Phosphor Coated
Screen
Fig. (a) : Basic design of a magnetic-deflection CRT

Electron
Connector beam
Pins Electron Horizontal
gun deflection plate

Base Vertical
deflection plate
Focusing Phosphor Coated
System Screen
Fig. (b) : Electrostatic deflection of the electron beam in CRT.

Working :
A beam of electrons (cathode-ray) emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and
deflection systems that direct the beam toward specified position on the phosphor-coated
screen. When the electron in the beam collide with the phosphor coating, they are stopped
and their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor. The phosphor then emits a small spot
of light at each position contacted by the electron beam. Because the light emitted by the
phosphor fades very rapidly, some method is needed for maintaining the screen picture. One
way to keep the phosphor glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly redirecting
the electron beam back over the same point. This type of display is called ‘Refresh CRT’.

Q.1(b) Explain Raster scan and difference between random and Raster scan? [5]
Ans.: The most common type of graphics monitors employing a CRT is the raster-scan display,
based on television technology. In a raster-scan system, the electron beam is swept across
the screen, one row at a time from top to bottom. As the electron beam moves across each
row, the beam intensity is turned ON and OFF to create a pattern of illuminated spots.

Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the refresh buffer frame buffer. This
memory area holds the set of intensity values for all the screen points. Stored intensity
va1ues are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and “painted’ on, the screen one row
(scan line) at a time. Each screen point is referred to as a pixel or pet.

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

Random Scan Display /

Raster Scan Display
Vector Scan Display
1) Raster scan draws the images by scanning Random scan draws the image by directing
one row at a time. the electron beam directly to the part of
the screen where the image is to be drawn.
2) They generally have resolution limited to They have higher resolution than Raster
the pixel size. scan system.
3) Lines are jaggered and curves are less Line, plots are straight and curves are
smoothing using Raster Scan system. smoother in Random Scan display.
4) Raster Scan displays are more suited to Random Scan display’s are more suited to
geometric area drawing applications e.g., line drawing applications e.g., CRO’s, pen
monitors, television. plotter.
5) Cost is less Cost is more

Q.1(c) Explain DDA algorithm? [5]

Ans.: The DDA is a scan conversion line drawing algorithm. Line is sampled at unit interval in one
co-ordinate and the corresponding integer value nearest to the line path for other co-
ordinate is calculated.
DDA algorithm takes unit step, with one co-ordinate and calculates the corresponding
integer value for the other co-ordinate.

DDA Algorithm :
Step 1: Accept the end point co-ordinates of the line segment AB
i.e. A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2)
Step 2: Calculate : dx = x2 – x1 dy = y2 – y1
Step 3: If abs (dx) ≥ abs (dy) then
steps = abs (dx)
Else
steps = abs (dy)
dx
Step 4: Let x increment =
step
dy
y increment =
step
Step 5: Display the pixel at starting position
putpixel (x1, y1, WHITE)

Step 6: Compute the next co-ordinate position along the line path.
xk + 1 = xk + x increment
yk + 1 = yk + y increment
putpixel (xk + 1, yk + 1, WHITE)

Step 7: If xk + 1 = x2 OR/AND
yk + 1 = y2

Then Stop
Else go to step 4.

Limitations of DDA Algorithm :

1) In DDA algorithm, each time the calculated pixel co-ordinates are rounded to nearest
integer values. There is possibility that the points may drift away from the true line
path due to rounding of pixels position.
2) Rounding off is time consuming. As floating point operations are involved in the
operation the DDA is not faster algorithm.

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

Q.1(d) Explain Mid-point circle drawing algorithm? [5]

Ans.: Mid-Point Circle Algorithm:
Step 1: Accept the radius r and center (xc, yc) of a circle. The first point of the
circumference of a circle with center as origine is (x0 , y0) = (0, r)
Step 2: Calculate the initial decision parameter as
5
P0 = r ≈ 1 – r ( radius is integer value)
4
Step 3: At each xk position starting at k = 0 perform the following test.
If Pk < 0
Then xk + 1 = xk + 1
yk + 1 = yk
Pk + 1 = Pk + 2xk + 3
Otherwise
xk + 1 = xk + 1
yk + 1 = yk – 1
Pk + 1 = Pk + 2 (xk – yk) + 5

Step 4: Determine the symmetry points in other seven octants.

Step 5: Translate each calculated pixel position by T(xk, yk) and display the pixel.
x = x k + 1 + xc
y = yk + 1 + yc
putpixel (x, y, WHITE)

Step 6: Repeat step 3 through 5 until x  y.

Step 7: STOP.

Q.1 (e) Explain Cohen-Sutherland line Clipping? [5]

Ans.: Cohen-Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm :
Step 1: Accept the end points coordinates of line segment AB and window boundaries.
i.e. A (x1, y1) B (x2, y2)
xw min, xw max, yw min, yw max
Step 2: Assign a four bit binary code to each end point of line segments i.e. B4, B3, B2, B1.
Example: for any point P (x, y)
Code for P = B4 B4 B3 B2 B1
T B R L
where T = Top boundary of window
B = Bottom boundary of window
R = Right boundary of window and
L = Left boundary of window
If the point lies on left of the left boundary
i.e. x < xw min then B1 = 1 otherwise B1 = 0
If the point lies on right of right boundary
i.e. x > xw max then B2 = 1 otherwise B2 = 0
If the point lies on bottom of bottom boundary
i.e. y < yw min then B3 = 1 otherwise B3 = 0
If the point lies on top of top boundary
i.e. y > yw max then B4 = 1 otherwise B4 = 0

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

B4 B3 B2 B1 B4 B3 B2 B1 B4 B3 B2 B1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0

yw T
max

B4 B3 B2 B1 B4 B3 B2 B1 B4 B3 B2 B1
L R
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

yw
min
B

B4 B3 B2 B1 B4 B3 B2 B1 B4 B3 B2 B1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

xw xw
min max

Step 3:
(a) Completely Inside: If both end point codes are 0000 then line segment is completely
INSIDE
DISPLAY LINE
STOP
(b) If logical AND operation of both the end point code is NOT 0000. Then the line
segment is completely OUTSIDE.
DISCARD IT
STOP
(c) If upper case (a) and (b) false then the line segment is a clipping candidate.

Step 4: Determine the intersecting boundary for any outside point P. (x, y).
Let code P = B4 B3 B2 B1
T B R L

If bit B1 = 1 then line intersect with left intersection boundary and x = xw min
If bit B2 = 1 line intersect with right intersection boundary and x = xw max
If bit B3 = 1 line intersect with bottom intersection boundary and y = yw min
If bit B4 = 1 line intersect with TOP intersection boundary and y = yw max

Step 5: Determine the intersecting point coordinates (x1, y1)

Case 1: Intersecting with either left or right intersection boundary
x = xw min for line AB
Or x = xw max for line CD
 x = xw min OR xw max

yw
max
C (X1, Y1)

I (X , Y)
I (X , Y)
B (X2, Y2) D (X2, Y2)

A (X1, Y1)

yw
min

xw xw
min max

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

find y

y   y1 x  x1
For line AB, =
y 2  y1 x 2  x1
y 2  y1
 y  y1 = (x – x1)
x 2  x1
y 2  y1 dy
where = = m slope
x 2  x1 dx
 y = y1 + m (x  x1)

Case 2: Intersecting with bottom or top intersection boundary

y1 = yw min for line AB
OR y = yw max for line CD
 y = yw max OR yw min

B (X2, Y2)

I (X , Y)
yw
min

A (X1, Y1)

D (X2, Y2)

I (X , Y)
yw
max

C (X1, Y1)

xw xw
min max

find x
x  x1 y   y1
For line AB, =
x 2  x1 y 2  y1
x 2  x1
 x – x1 = (y  y1)
y 2  y1
1
 x = x1 + (y  y1)
m

Step 6: GoTo Step 2

Q.1 (f) Explain Sutherland Hodgman Polygon dipping? [5]

Ans.: Sutherland-Hodgman Polygon Clipping Algorithm :
A Polygon is clipped by processing the entire figure against each window boundary.

The clipping sequence is as follows:

(a) The initial set of polygon vertices is clipped against the left window boundary. This
produces a new sequence of vertices.
(b) The set of vertices are passed to a right boundary clipper, a bottom boundary clipper
and a top boundary clipper. At each step a new sequence of output vertices is generated
and passed to the next window boundary clipper as shown in below figure.

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

Clipped Polygon
Vertices
Output

I3

I4

I5
I8

I1
I4
I5
I6
I2

I7
I8
I6
I7

I1

I2
CLIPPER
TOP

I3

I4

I5

B
I1
I3
I4

I6
I2
I5
B

I6
Out

I1

I2
CLIPPER
BOTTOM

In
I3

I4

D
B
I3
I4

I2
I1
B

Out
I1

I2
CLIPPER
RIGHT

In
C
Out
In

C
D
B
I1

I2
D
B
CLIPPER

I1

I2
LEFT

C
vertices of a polygon

D
B
Initial set of

C
D
In

B
A
Window
A
Out

Algorithm to generate net set of output vertices at each boundary clipping.

Each pair of adjacent polygon vertices is passed to a window boundary clipper.

1) If the first vertex is outside the window boundary, and Left window
boundary
second vertex is inside the window boundary both the
intersecting point of the polygon edge and the second vertex
1
A
2
are stored. e.g.
I1
B

OUT
IN
where I1 is the intersection of edge AB with left window OUT (A)  IN
boundary and B is second vertex. (B)
2) If both input vertices are inside the window boundary only the second vertex is stored.
e.g.
1
B

C
2

IN (B)  IN (C)
Save C. i.e. second vertex

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

3) If the first vertex is inside the window boundary and the second vertex is outside only
the edge intersecting is stored, e.g.

1
C
2 I2
C
C  D
IN  OUT
Save I2 i.e. interesection point

4) If both input vertices are outside the window boundary nothing is stored, e.g.
2
A

1
D
D  A
OUT  OUT
Save nothing

Q.2 Attempt any THREE of the following: [15]

Q.2 (a) Explain Scaling transformation with help of a diagram? [5]
Ans.: Scaling is an affine, linear transformation that can enlarge or diminish an object by certain
factors. Scaling is changing the size of an image without changing its shape.

Let us consider another case where matrix elements a or d or both are not zero and c=b=0.
The transformation operator T operates on the point P(x, y) to produce scaling operation in
xdirection, ydirection or in both the directions, depending on the case as it may be. We
discuss the individual cases as given in the Figure 1.
y y y y
S

S
S S

0 x x 0 x x
(a) 0 0
(b) (c (d
Fig. 1 : Scaling transformations: (a) Original image; (b) scaling
in xdirection; (c) scaling in ydirection; (d) scaling xydirection.

Let the matrix element a = sx  0 and d = 1 with b = c = 0. The transformation matrix

reduces to matrix of transformation representing scaling in xdirection by magnitudes sx.
Therefore,
1 0 
P(x, y) =[x y] = [P].[Ty] = [x y]     xs y y 
0 s y 
s 0 
That is, x = sxx and y = y and Tx =  x 
 0 1
is the scaling transformation matrix in xdirection. The operational significance of this
operation implies that the points of the image are scaled in xdirection by magnitude sx and
y remains same (see Figure 1b).

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

Now let the matrix element a = 1 and d = sy  0 with b = c = 0. The transformation matrix
reduces to matrix of transformation representing scaling in ydirection by magnitude sy
(see Figure 1c). Therefore,
1 0 
P(x, y) = [x y] = [P].[Ty] = [x y]     xs y y 
0 s y 
1 0 
That is, x  = x and y = syy and Ty =  
0 s y 
is the scaling transformation matrix in y direction. The operational significance of this
operation implies that the points of the image are scaled in ydirection by magnitude sy and
x remains same.
In general, if one wishes to produces scaling in both x and y simultaneously by magnitude sx
in xdirection and sy in ydirection then the condition for such operation is a  1 = sx, d  1 = sy
and b = c = 0 (see Figure 1d). Therefore, the matrix of transformation for scaling in xy is
s x 0 
Txy =  
 0 sy 
where a = sx and d = sy, sx, and sy are the scaling factors chosen in x and y directions
respectively.

Q.2 (b) Explain 2D Rotation about an Arbitrary point with a diagram? [5]
Ans.: Rotation about an Arbitrary Point
Consider a point p (x, y) in 2 cooprdinate system.
Rotation about Pc (xc, yc) by an angle  in anticlockwise direction will move
p (x, y) to p (x, y) as shown in figure.
P
The required transformation is accomplished by performing p (x, y)
the following sequence of operation. 

pc
1. Translate the point PC (xc, yc) to the origin.
Correspondingly find the new position of P. Let the new
position of point P be P1. The required translation matrix
is,
 1 0 x c 
P1 (x1, y1)
T1 =  0 1  y c 
 
 0 0 1 
Pc = T1 . Pc moves point Pc to origin. Then P1 = T1 . P.
This equation moves point P to P1 such that Pc moves to Pc
origin.
P1(x1 ,y1 )
2. Rotate P1 to P1 by an angle  in anticlockwise direction.
P1 (x1,y1)
The required rotation matrix is,
 cos   sin  0 
R =  sin  cos  0  x
 
 0 0 1
 P1 = R . P1
 x1   cos   sin  0   x 
 y1 =  sin  cos  0   y
  
     
 1   0 0 1   1 

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

3. Translate the point Pc to its origin position (xc, yc) P P

Correspondingly find the new position of P1 .
Let the new position be P.
The required transformation matrix is, Pc (xc, yc)
 1 0 xc 
T2 =  0 1 y c 
 
 0 0 1 
 x   1 0 x c   x1 
 y  =  0 1 y c   y1 
     
 1   0 0 1   1 
Then, P = T2 . P1 . This equation moves point P1 to P such that point Pc is moved to (xc,
yc).
The overall expression can be written as
P = T2 RT1P = ((T2 . R) T1) . P
= R () P
where R() = T2 . R . T1 = ((T2 . R) . T1)

Q.2 (c) Explain homogeneous coordinates? [5]

Ans.: Homogeneous Co-ordinates :
(i) To expresses any two dimensional transformation as a matrix multiplication each
Cartesian co-ordinates position (x, y) is represented with the homogeneous co-ordinate
triple (xh, yh, h)
x y
Where, x = h ,y= h
h h
(ii) Thus a general homogeneous co-ordinate representation can be written as (x.h, y.h) for
dimensional geometric transformations, we can choose the homogeneous parameter, h,
to the any non zero value. Thus, there is an infinite number of equivalent homogeneous
representations for each co-ordinate point (x, y).
(iii) A better choice for h is 1. Each two dimensional co-ordinate position is then
represented with homogeneous co-ordinates (x, y, 1).
(iv) Expressing positions in homogeneous co-ordinate values allows us to represent all the
geometric trans formations equations as matrix multiplications.
 For translation,
P = T.P
 
x  1 0 tx   x 
 y =  0 1 ty  y 
    
1   0 0 1  1 
 For Rotation,
P = R.P
 x  cos sin 0   x 
 y =  sin cos 0  y 
    
1   0 0 1 1 
 For Scaling,
P = S.P
 x Sx 0 0   x 
 y =  0 Sy 0  y 
    
1   0 0 1 1 

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

Q.2 (d) Explain window to Newport transformation? [5]

Ans.: Window to Viewport Transformation :
(i) The mapping of a world coordinates to device co-ordinates is referred to as viewing
transformation. This is the transformation from window to viewport.
(ii) The viewing transformation is formed by the following transformations.
(a) The normalization transformation N, that maps world co-ordinates to Normalized
device co-ordinates.
(b) The workstation transformation W, that maps normalized device co-ordinates to
device co-ordinates.
(c) The viewing transformation is given as,
V =W.N
yw

ywmax y vmax
1
P (xv, yv)
P (xw, yw) P W
N y vmin
ywmin
0 1
xw xvmin xvmax
xwmin xwmax

(d) Consider a point p (xw, yw) in wcs mapped to p (xv, yv) in the device co-ordinate
system.
xv  xv min xw  xwmin
Then = ...(1)
xv max  xwmin xwmax  xwmin
yv  yv min yw  ywmin
= ...(2)
yv max  yv min ywmax  ywmin
from equation (1) and (2),
xv = xvmin + (xw  xwmin) sx ...(3)
yv = yvmin + (yw  ywmin) sy ...(4)
xv max  xv min Viewport x extent
where sx = =
xwmax  xwmin window x extent
yv max  yv min Viewport y extent
sy = =
ywmax  ywmin window y extent

(e) This conversion is performed with the following sequence of transformation.

 Translate the object so that the lower left corner of window is moved to origin.
 Scale the object so that the window has the dimensions of the viewport.
 Translate the object so that the scaled window area is positioned to viewport.
Relative proportions are maintained if the scaling factors are the same.

(iii) The steps in the sequence of transformation is as follows

Initial position of window yw
D
ywmax C

P (x, y)

ywmin B
A
xwmin xwmax

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

Step 1 :
Translate (xwmin, ywmin) to origin C1
D1
the required translation matrix is
 1 0  xwmin  P1
T1 = 0 1  ywmin 
 
0 0 1 
A1 B1

Step 2 :
Scale wrt origin. The required scaling matrix is C2
D2
sx 0 0 
 
S =  0 sy 0 P2
 0 0 1
 

A2 B2

Step 3 :
Translate to (xvmin, yvmin) yv
The required translation matrix is, D3 C3
yvmin
 1 0 xv min 
P3
T2 = 0 1 yv min  A3 B3
  yvmin
0 0 1 

xv
The composite transformation matrix is xvmin xvmax
V = ((T2 . s) . T1)

Any point p (x, y, 1) on the object will be transformed to p (x, y 1) such that
P = V . P

Q.2 (e) Consider a point P(2, 3) in a coordinate plane. Perform reflection of the point P [5]
through xaxis and draw the same.
Ans.: To perform reflection through xaxis, we have the matrix of reflection as
1 0 
0 1
 
Applying the reflection matrix to the point P(2, 3), we obtain [2 3] as given below
1 0  y
P (x, y) =[2 3]   = [2 3]
0 1
The point P with coordinates (2, 3) is reflected about P(2, 3)
yaxis and new coordinates of the transformed
(reflected) points becomes (2, 3), as shown in Figure.

x x
0

P(2, 3)

y
Fig. : Figure for Example 3.

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

Q.2(f) Explain different types of parallel projections? [5]

Ans.: There are two main types of parallel projection.
1) Orthographic projection
 If the direction of projection is perpendicular to the projection plane, then it is
called as an orthographic projection.
 It is categorized as
(a) Multi view projection
Front, side and top view
DOP perpendicular to view plane
(b) Axonometric projections
Axonometric projections allow the user to place the
view-plane normal in any direction such that 3 adjacent
faces of a cube like object are visible.
These are divided as :
i) isometric projections
ii) Dimetric projections
ii) Trimetric projections

2) Oblique Projection
If the direction of projection is not perpendicular to the projection plane is called as
oblique projection.
A multi-view projection displays a single face of a 3D object.
They are classified as : (a) cavalier projection
(b) cabinet projection.

DOP not perpendicular to view plane

Cavalier Cabinet
(DOP  = 45o) (DOP  = 63.4o)
tan(a) = 1 tan(a) = 2

Q.3 Attempt any THREE of the following: [15]

Q.3(a) Explain three dimensional viewing? [5]
Ans.: Threedimensional viewing of objects requires the specification of a projection plane (called
the view plane), a center of projection, and a view volume in world coordinates.

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

Specifying the View Plane

We specify the view plane by prescribing (1) a
reference point R0 (x0, y0, z0) in world coordinates
and (2) a unit normal vector N = n1l + n2J + n3K,
| N | = 1, to the view plane. From this information we
can construct the projections used in presenting the
required view with respect to the given viewpoint or
direction of projection.

Q.3(b) Explain view plane coordinates? [5]

Ans.: The view plane coordinates system or viewing coordinate system can be specified as follows;
(1) let the reference point R0 (x0, y0, z0) be the origin of the coordinates system and (2)
determine the coordinate axes To do this we first choose a reference vector U called the
up vector. A unit vector Jq define the direction of the positive q axis for the view plane
coordinate system. To calculate Jq we proceed as follows : with N being the view plane unit
normal vector,
let Uq = U  ( N  U) N.
Uq
Then, Jq 
 q|
|U
Is the unit vector that defines the direction of the positive q axis (refer fig.)

Finally, the direction vector IP of the positive p axis is chosen so that it is perpendicular to
Jq and by convention, so that the triad IP, JQ, and N form a left - handed coordinate
system. That is :
N  Jn
IP 
| N  JP |
This coordinate system is called the view plane coordinate system or viewing coordinate
system.

Q.3 (c) Explain Specifying an Arbitrary View. [5]

Ans.: In general, projections transform points in a coordinate system of dimension n into points in
a coordinate system of dimension less than n. In fact, computer graphics has long been used
for studying n-dimensional objects by projecting them into 2D for viewing. The projection
of a 3D object is defined by straight projection rays, emanating from a center of
projection, passing through each point of the object, and intersecting a projection plane to
form the projection. The class of projections with which we deal with is known as planar
geometric projections. Planar geometric projections can be divided into two basic classes:
perspective and parallel. The distinction lies in the relation of the center of projection to

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the projection plane. If the distance from the one to the other is finite, then the
projection is perspective, and if infinite the projection is parallel. When we define a
perspective projection, we explicitly specify its center of projection; for a parallel
projection, we give its direction of projection. The visual effect of a perspective projection
is similar to that of photographic systems and of the human visual system, and is known as
perspective foreshortening. The size of the perspective shortening of an object varies
inversely with the distance of that object from the center of projection. Thus, although the
perspective projection of objects tends to look realistic, it is not particularly useful for
recording the exact shape and measurements of the objects; distances cannot be taken
from the projection, angles are preserved on only those faces of the object parallel to the
projection plane, and parallel lines do not in general project as parallel lines. The parallel
projection is a less realistic view because perspective foreshortening is lacking, although
there can be different constant foreshortenings along each axis. The projection can be
used for exact measurements, and parallel lines do remain parallel. As in the perspective
projection, angles are preserved only on faces of the object parallel to the projection plane.

In order to specify an orthographic projection system :

 A reference point on the plane is defined (view reference point VRP) (Fig. 1),
a normal to the plane is defined (view plane normal VPN ) (Fig. 2),

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

an up vector is defined (view-up vector VUP) (Fig. 2),

using VRP and VPN, the view plane is calculated,
the v-axis of the plane is calculated,
the u-axis of the plane is calculated, (Fig. 3) and,
a window on the plane is defined whose contents are mapped to the viewport for
visualization. (Fig. 4)

Q.3 (d) Explain photometry? [5]

Ans.: Photometry is the science of measuring visible light in units that are weighted according to
the sensitivity of the human eye. It is a quantitative science based on a statistical model of
the human visual response to light -- that is, our perception of light -- under carefully
controlled conditions.

The human visual system is a marvelously complex and highly nonlinear detector of
electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from 380 to 770 nanometers (nm). We
see light of different wavelengths as a continuum of colors ranging through the visible
spectrum: 650 nm is red, 540 nm is green, 450 nm is blue, and so on.

The sensitivity of the human eye to light varies with wavelength. A light source with a
radiance of one watt/m2-steradian of green light, for example, appears much brighter than
the same source with a radiance of one watt/m2 -steradian of red or blue light. In
photometry, we do not measure watts of radiant energy. Rather, we attempt to measure the
subjective impression produced by stimulating the human eye-brain visual system with
radiant energy.

This task is complicated immensely by the eye's nonlinear response to light. It varies not
only with wavelength but also with the amount of radiant flux, whether the light is constant
or flickering, the spatial complexity of the scene being perceived, the adaptation of the iris
and retina, the psychological and physiological state of the observer, and a host of other
variables. Nevertheless, the subjective impression of seeing can be quantified for "normal"
viewing conditions. In 1924, the Commission Internationaled' Eclairage (International
Commission on Illumination, or CIE) asked over one hundred observers to visually match the
"brightness" of monochromatic light sources with different wavelengths under controlled
conditions. The statistical result — the so-called CIE photometric curve shown in Figure
shows the photopic luminous efficiency of the human visual system as a function of
wavelength. It provides a weighting function that can be used to convert radiometric into
photometric measurements.

Q.3 (e) Explain Colorimetry? [5]

Ans.: Chromatic adaptation transforms are used in imaging systems to map image appearance to
colorimetry under different illumination sources.
Adaptation can be considered as a dynamic mechanism of the human visual system to
optimize the visual response to a particular viewing condition. Dark and light adaptation are
the changes in visual sensitivity when the level of illumination is decreased or increased,
respectively. Chromatic adaptation is the ability of the human visual system to discount the
color of the illumination and to approximately preserve the appearance of an object. It can

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be explained as independent sensitivity regulation of the three cone responses. Chromatic

adaptation can be observed by examining a white object under different types of
illumination, such as daylight and incandescent. Daylight is "bluer": it contains far more
short-wavelength energy than incandescent. However, the white object retains its white
appearance under both light sources, as long as the viewer is adapted to the light source.
Image capturing systems, such as scanners and digital cameras, do not have the ability to
adapt to an illumination source. Scanners usually have fluorescent light sources with
correlated color temperatures around 4200 to 4800 Kelvin. Illumination sources captured
by digital cameras vary according to the scene, and often within the scene. Additionally,
images captured with these devices are viewed using a wide variety of light sources.
Common white-point chromaticities for monitor viewing are D50, D65, and D93. Hardcopy
output is usually evaluated using standard illuminant D50 simulators. To faithfully reproduce
the appearance of image colors, it follows that all image processing systems need to apply a
transform that converts the input colors captured under the input illuminant to the
corresponding output colors under the output illuminant. This can be achieved by using a
chromatic adaptation transform. Basically, applying a chromatic adaptation transform to the
tristimulus values (X', Y', Z') of a color under one adapting light source predicts the
corresponding color's tristimulus values (X", Y", Z") under another adapting light source.

Q.3 (f) Explain camera model and viewing pyramid? [5]

Ans.: To understanding the rendering process, you must master the procedure that specifies a
camera and then constructs a transformation that projects a three-dimensional scene onto
a two-dimensional screen. This procedure has two several components: First, the
specification of a camera model; second, the conversion of the scene's coordinates from
Cartesian space to the space of the camera; and finally the specification of a viewing
transformation that projects that scene into image space.

The Camera Model

We specify our initial camera model by identifying the following parameters :
1. A scene, consisting of polygonal elements each represented by their vertices,
2. A point that represents the camera position   C = (xc, yc, zc),
3. A point that represents the "center-of-attention" of the camera (i.e. where the camera
is looking)  A = (xa, ya, za)
4. A field-of-view angle, a, representing the angle subtended at the apex of the viewing
pyramid.
5. The specification of "near" and "far" bounding planes. These planes considered
perpendicular to the direction-of-view vector at a distance of n and f firom the camera,
respectively.
The specification of C, A and a forms a viewing volume in the shape of a pyramid with the
camera position C at the apex of the pyramid and the vector A-C forming the axis of the
pyramid. This pyramid is commonly referred to as the viewing pyramid. The specification of
the near and far planes forms a truncated viewing pyramid which gives the region of space
which contains the primary portion of the scene to be viewed (We note that objects may
extend outside the truncated pyramid. In many situations polygons will lie between the near
plane and the camera, or, in distance, beyond the far plane.). The viewing transform,
transforms this truncated pyramid onto the image space volume 1  x, y, z  1.

Q.4 Attempt any THREE of the following: [15]

Q.4 (a) Explain Classification of Visible-Surface Detection Algorithms [5]
Ans.: 1. Object-space Methods
Compare objects and parts of objects to each other within the scene definition to
determine which surfaces, as a whole, we should label as visible:
For each object in the scene do Begin

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

2. Determine those part of the object whose view is unobstructed by other parts of it or
any other object with respect to the viewing specification.
3. Draw those parts in the object color.
End
 Compare each object with all other objects to determine the visibility of the
object parts.
 If there are n objects in the scene, complexity =0(n2)
 Calculations are performed at the resolution in which the objects are defined (only
limited by the computation hardware).
 Process is unrelated to display resolution or the individual pixel in the image and the
result of the process is applicable to different display resolutions.
 Display is more accurate but computationally more expensive as compared to image
space methods because step 1 is typically more complex, eg. Due to the possibility
of intersection between surfaces.
 Suitable for scene with small number of objects and objects with simple relationship
with each other.

Q.4 (b) Explain Back face dotation [5]

Ans.: In a solid object, there are surfaces which are facing the viewer (front faces) and there
are surfaces which are opposite to the viewer (back faces).
These back faces contribute to approximately half of the total number of surfaces. Since
we cannot see these surfaces anyway, to save processing time, we can remove them before
the clipping process with a simple test.
Each surface has a normal vector. If this vector is pointing in the direction of the center of
projection, it is a front face and can be seen by the viewer. If it is pointing away from the
center of projection, it is a back face and cannot be seen by the viewer.

The test is very simple, if the z component of the normal vector is positive, then, it is a
back face. If the z component of the vector is negative, it is a front face.
Note that this technique only caters well for non-overlapping convex polyhedra.
For other cases where there are concave polyhedra or overlapping
objects, we still need to apply other methods to further determine
where the obscured faces are partially or completely hidden by other
objects (e.g. Using Depth-Buffer Method or Depth-sort Method).

Q.4 (c) Explain Binary space partitioning [5]

Ans.:  suitable for a static group of 3D polygon to be viewed
from a number of view points.
 based on the observation that hidden surface elimination of
a polygon is guaranteed if all polygons on the other side of it
as the viewer is painted first, then itself, then all polygons
on the same side of it as the viewer.

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

1. The algorithm first build the BSP tree :

• a root polygon is chosen (arbitrarily) which divides the region into 2 half-spaces (2
nodes => front and back).
• a polygon in the front half-space is chosen which divides the half-space into another
2 half- spaces.
• the subdivision is repeated until the half-space contains a single polygon (leaf node
of the tree).
• the same is done for the back space of the polygon.

2. To display a BSP tree:

• see whether the viewer is in the front or the back half-space of the rootpolygon.
• if front half-space then first display back child (subtree) then itself, followed by
its front child / subtree.
• the algorithm is applied recursively to the BSP tree.

Discussion
• Back face removal is achieved by not displaying a polygon if the viewer is located in its
back half-space.
• It is an object space algorithm (sorting and intersection calculations are done in object
space precision).
• If the view point changes, the BSP needs only minorre-arrangement.
• A new BSP tree is built if the scene changes.
• The algorithm displays polygon back to front (cf.Depth-sort).

BSP Algorithm
Procedure DisplayBSP(tree: BSP_tree) Begin
If tree is not empty then
If viewer is in front of the root then Begin
DisplayBSP(tree.back_child) displayPolygon(tree.root) DisplayBSP (tree. front_ child)
End Else
Begin
DisplayBSP(tree.front_child)displayPolygon(tree.root) DisplayBSP(tree.back_child)
End
End

Q.4 (d) Explain parametric equatious of parabola [5]

Ans.: Since every parabola is congruent to x2 = 4ay for some choice of a > 0, we can study the
geometry of every parabola by confining ourselves to this one. This shows the power of both
coordinate geometry and transformations.

Imagine a particle moving in the plane along a curve C as shown.

The x and y coordinates of the particle can be thought of as functions of a new variable t,
and so we can write, x = f(t), y = g(t), where f, g are functions of t. In some physical
problems t is thought of as time.

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

The equations,
x = f(t)
y = g(t)

called the parametric equations of the point P(x, y) and the variable t is called a
parameter.

It is often very useful to take a cartesian equation y = F(x) and introduce a parameter t so
that the x and y coordinates of any point on the curve can be expressed in terms of this
parameter.

Here is a very simple example of a parametrisation. Suppose we begin with the line whose
equation is
Y = 3x  4.
We can introduce a new variable tand write x=t. Then we have y = 3t  4.
Thus we can rewrite the equation y = 3x  4 in parametric form as :
x=t
y = 3t  4.

Q.4 (e) Explain Bezier curves [5]

Ans.: Bezier curves are used in computer graphics to produce curves which appear reasonably
smooth at all scales. This spline approximation method was developed by French engineer
Pierre Bezier for automobile body design. Bezier spline was designed in such a manner that
they are very useful and convenient for curve and surface design, and are easy to implement
Curves are trajectories of moving points. We will specify them as functions assigning a
location of that moving point (in 2D or 3D) to a parameter t, i.e., parametric curves.

Curves are useful in geometric modeling and they should have a shape which has a clear and
intuitive relation to the path of the sequence of control points. One family of curves
satisfying this requirement are Bezier curve.

The Bezier curve require only two end points and other points that control the endpoint
tangent vector.
Bezier curve is defined by a sequence of N + 1 control points, P0 , P1, ... , Pn . We
defined the Bezier curve using the algorithm (invented by DeCasteljeau), based on recursive
splitting of the intervals joining the consecutive control points.

A purely geometric construction for Bezier splines which does not rely on any polynomial
formulation, and is extremely easy to understand. The DeCasteljeau method is an algorithm
which performs repeated bi-linear interpolation to compute splines of any order.

Q.4 (f) Explain B-spline curves [5]

Ans.: We have seen how Bezier curves offer well-behaved control within a convex hull for any
degree (number of control points) we choose. And from a computational point of view, it is a
relatively simple matter to extend a Bezier curve by adding more control points because the
computation of the new blending functions is straightforward.

However, we cannot easily control the curve locally. That is, any change to an individual
control point will cause changes in the curve along its full length. In addition, we cannot
create a local cusp in the curve, that is, we cannot create a sharp corner unless we create it
at the beginning or end of a curve where it joins another curve. Finally, it is not possible to
keep the degree of the Bezier curve fixed while adding additional points; any additional
points will automatically increase the degree of the curve. The so-called b-spline curve
addresses each of these problems with the Bezier curve. It provides the most powerful and
useful approach to curve design available today. However, the down side is that the bspline

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

curve is somewhat more complicated to compute compared to the Bezier curve, but as we
shall see the two kinds of curves are closely related. In fact a b-spline curve degenerates
into a Bezier curve when the order of the b-spline curve is exactly equal to the number of
control points.

Q.5 Attempt any THREE of the following: [15]

Q.5 (a) Explain animations and explain squash and stretch animation? [5]
Ans.: In their 1981 book, The Illusion of Life, Disney animators Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas
introduced the twelve principles of animation. The pair were part of Disney's "Nine Old
Men," the core group of animators who were instrumental in creating Disney's animation
style. The twelve principles have now become widely recognized as a theoretical bedrock for
all artists working on animated video production.
With the growing ubiquity of digital devices, moving interfaces and adapting technology,
motion design has become an important part of a designers creative options. When a
designer thinks of moving a graphic, various programs such as After Effects, Edge Animate
or coding languages such as HTML5, CSS3 and jQuery come to mind. Mastery of tools does
not always guarantee mastery of the craft. Understanding the grammar of what molds the
craft and the reason why things are happening is key to creating a meaningful design. The
grammar of motion has been around since long before designers had advanced tools, and it
will continue to guide designers after the tools have evolved.
An influential work on the grammar of motion is the 12 Basic Principles of Animation, first
introduced in the book The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation. The Illusion of Life was
written by Disney animators Ollie Johnston and Frank Thomas, two of the master animators
referred to by Walt Disney as the "Nine Old Men." No matter the style of animation—be it
hand drawn, 3D or experimental animation—the 12 principles can be seen in almost any
motion-based design.
While there is a clear difference between human character animation and motion design (or
motion graphics), the 12 principles are still applicable across these processes. Designer and
animator Cento Lodigiani describes the 12 Basic Principles of Animation in a series of short
animations using a simple cube. This graphical examination is a perfect analogy
demonstrating how the principles can be applied to motion design.
The following is an examination of the 12 principles as they relate to motion design. While
some principles relate closer than others, there are parallels in each one that can be related
to the design realm. I will describe each principle as it relates to traditional animation and
then (below the video), I will demonstrate a motion design parallel.

Squash and Stretch : Adding exaggeration to an object in

motion gives it a greater sense of weight and volume. This
principle is often demonstrated with a bouncing ball: the
ball appears stretched when it is falling and squashed when
it hits the ground. By squashing and stretching the ball, an
animat gives a more realistic feel.

Q.5 (b) Explain deformation? [5]

Ans.: Harmony Stage provides you with the deformation technology to deform bitmap and vector
drawings over a period of time. These deformers can be linked to create a hierarchy of
deformation. This technology allows you to deform a character made out of one, or many,
drawing or image layers and make it move as if it were a cut-out puppet. It also allows you to
take an area in a single bitmap image and create animation by distortion.

About the Deformation Effect

The Deformation Effect can be used to animate either bitmap or vector based graphics, it
even works on gradients and textures. The Deformation Effect acts as a skeleton in which

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

you can manoeuver different articulations or bend it into a fluid curve. It can prove useful
in many situations including cut-out animation. When paired with your creativity, the
Deformation Effect can produce some stunning results.
There are 2 main types of deformer :
• Bone Deformer
• Curve Deformer
All the Deformation Effect modules are available in the Module
Library, under the Deformation tab.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2
The Bone Deformer allows you to create a basic or advanced skeleton structure in which the
parent deformer will move the child deformers. The Bone Deformer is mostly used when
animating the extremities of a character such as arms or legs and will add fluidity and a
natural feel to the animation. The Bone effect can be manipulated to rotate a limb at an
articulation joint and to also shorten or elongate the extremities of a limb. Every Bone
module within a skeleton chain is linked together by an Articulation module.

Fig. 3
The Curve Deformer has a hierarchy similar to that of the Bones Deformer and provides
you with complete flexibility. For example, when editing curves, you can deform a straight
line into an arc or a zig-zag with only a few clicks. Curve Deformers are mostly used to
animate elements that do not have joints, for example hair or facial features. However, in
some cases they can be used to animate limbs to create a specific animation genre, similar
to the early rubber hose style of animation with typically simple, flowing curves, without
articulation (no hinged wrists or elbows).

Q.5(c) Explain character animation? [5]

Ans.: It is a specialized area of the animation process, which involves bringing animated
characters to life. The role of a Character Animator is analogous to that of a film or stage
actor, and character animators are often said to be "actors with a pencil" (or a mouse).
Character animators breathe life in their characters, creating the illusion of thought,
emotion and personality. Character animation is often distinguished from creature
animation, which involves bringing photo-realistic animals and creatures to life.

Character animation is generally defined as the art of making a particular character move in
a two- or three-dimensional context. It is a process central to the concept of animation.
Many associate early character animation with Walt Disney Studios, where cartoon artists
created particular characters and presented them with particular traits and characteristics
on screen. This requires combining a lot of technical drawing or animation with some top-

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Vidyalankar : S.Y. B.Sc. (IT)  CG

level ideas about how the character moves, "thinks," behaves and otherwise appears
consistently on screen.

As primitive cartoon animation gave way to modern three-dimensional animation, character

animation has evolved along with it. Today's character animation involves elements like
character rigging and the creation of object-oriented frameworks for creating character
sequences. At the same time, processes like voice dubbing by celebrities and advanced
character profiles are doing the conceptual work of building that character's persona and
background. One example is the early CGI Toy Story movies, where the careful creation of
specialized on-screen characters has sold lots of merchandise and drivert the films to
legacy blockbuster status.

Q.5 (d) Explain Physics based animation [5]

Ans.: Physically based animation is an area of interest within computer graphics concerned with
the simulation of physically plausible behaviors at interactive rates. Advances in physically
based animation are often motivated by the need to include complex, physically inspired
behaviors in video games, interactive simulations, and movies. Although off-line simulation
methods exist to solve most all of the problems studied in physically-based animation, these
methods are intended for applications that necessitate physical accuracy and slow, detailed
computations. In contrast to methods common in offline simulation, techniques in physically
based animation are concerned with physical plausibility, numerical stability, and visual
appeal over physical accuracy. Physically based animation is often limited to loose
approximations of physical behaviors because of the strict time constraints imposed by
interactive applications.

The target frame rate for interactive applications such as games and simulations is often
25-60 hertz, with only a small fraction of the time allotted to an individual frame remaining
for physical simulation. Simplified models of physical behaviors are generally preferred if
they are more efficient, easier to accelerate (through pre-computation, clever data
structures, or SIMD / GPGPU), or satisfy desirable mathematical properties (such as
unconditional stability or volume conservation when a soft body undergoes deformation).
Fine details are not important when the overriding goal of a visualization is aesthetic appeal
or the maintenance of player immersion since these details are often difficult for humans
to notice or are otherwise impossible to distinguish at human scales.

Q.5 (e) Explain procedural based animation [5]

Ans.: A procedural animation is a type of computer animation, used to automatically generate
animation in real-time to allow for a more diverse series of actions than could otherwise be
created using predefined animations.

Procedural is used to simulate particle systems (smoke, fire, water), cloth and clothing, rigid
body dynamics, and hair and fur dynamics, as well as character animation.

In video games, it is often used for simple things like turning a character's head when a
player looks around (as in Quake III Arena) and more complex things, like ragdoll physics,
which is usually used for the death of a character in which the ragdoll will realistically fall
to the floor. A ragdoll usually consists of a series of connected rigid bodies that are
programmed to have Newtonian physics acting upon them; therefore, very realistic effects
can be generated that would very hardly be possible with traditional animation. For example,
a character can die slumped over a cliff and the weight of its upper-body can drag the rest
of it over the edge.

Even more complex examples of procedural animation can be found in the game Spore
wherein User-created creatures will automatically be animated to all actions needed in the

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 Prelim Question Paper Solution

game from walking, to driving, to picking things up. In the game Unreal Tournament 3, bodies
who have gone into ragdoll mode to fake death can arise from any position into which they
have fallen and get back on their feet. The canceled Indiana Jones game from Lucas Arts
shown at E3 2006 featured character motions that were animated entirely in real-time,
with characters dodging, punching, and reacting to the environment based on an engine
called Euphoria by NaturalMotion which has since been used in games such as Grand Theft
Auto IV and Backbreaker.

In a procedural animation objects are animated by a procedure ~ a set of rules ~ not by

keyframing. The animator specifies rules and initial conditions and runs simulation. Rules are
often based on physical rules of the real world expressed by mathematical equations?)

Q.5(f) Explain keytrames? [5]

Ans.: Animation means giving life to any object in computer graphics. It has the power of
infecting energy and emotions into the most seemingly inanimate objects. Computer-assisted
animation and computer-generated animation are two categories of computer animation. It
can be presented via film or video.

The basic idea behind animation is to play back the recorded images at the rates fast
enough to fool the human eye into interpreting them as continuous motion. Animation can
make a series of dead images come alive. Animation can be used in many areas like
entertainment, computer aided-design, scientific visualization, training, education, e-
commerce, and computer art.

In this technique, a storyboard is laid out and then the artists draw the major frames of the
animation. Major frames are the ones in which prominent changes take place. They are the key
points of animation. Keyframing requires that the animator specifies critical or key positions for
the objects. The computer then automatically fills in the missing frames by smoothly
interpolating between those positions.

Procedural
In a procedural animation, the objects are animated by a procedure - a set of rules -not by
keyframing. The animator specifies rules and initial conditions and runs simulation. Rules are
often based on physical rules of the real world expressed by mathematical equations.

Behavioral
In behavioral animation, an autonomous character determines its own actions, at least to a
certain extent. This gives the character some ability to improvise, and frees the animator from
the need to specify each detail of every character's motion.

Performance Based (Motion Capture)

Another technique is Motion Capture, in which magnetic or vision-based sensors record the
actions of a human or animal object in three dimensions. A computer then uses these data to
animate the object.

This technology has enabled a number of famous athletes to supply the actions for
characters in sports video games. Motion capture is pretty popular with the animators
mainly because some of the commonplace human actions can be captured with relative ease.
However, there can be serious discrepancies between the shapes or dimension^ of the
subject and the graphical character and this may lead to problems of exact execution.

Physically Based (Dynamics)

Unlike key framing and motion picture, simulation uses the laws of physics to generate
motion of pictures and other objects. Simulations can be easily used to produce slightly

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different sequences while maintaining physical realism. Secondly, real-time simulations allow
a higher degree of interactivity where the real person can maneuver the actions of the
simulated character.

In contrast the applications based on key-framing and motion select and modify motions
form a pre-computed library of motions. One drawback that simulation suffers from is the
expertise and time required to handcraft the appropriate controls systems.

A keyframe is a frame where we define changes in animation. Every frame is a keyframe

when we create frame by frame animation. When someone creates a 3D animation on a
computer, they usually don't specify the exact position of any given object on every single
frame. They create keyframes.

Keyframes are important frames during which an object changes its size direction, shape or
other properties. The computer then figures out all the in- between frames and saves an
extreme amount of time for the animator. The following illustrations depict the frames
drawn by user and the frames generated by computer.



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