Examples of Bacteria

1. Lactobacillus acidophilus - Found in dairy products, it is an anaerobic bacteria that converts

sugars and lactose into lactic acid. This beneficial bacterium is added in food supplements for
use in therapeutic intervention.

2. Helicobacter pylori - It is a type of bacteria that affects the digestive tract and causes medical
symptoms. This helix-shaped bacterial strain may cause inflammation of stomach lining
(stomach ulcer) and other digestive problems.
 Bifidobacterium bifidum

3. Bifidobacterium - This gram-positive, anaerobic bacterium makes up most of the gut flora. In
most cases, they are harmless and live in harmonious relationship with other probiotic
organisms. A few of them may cause allergic condition.
4. Staphylococcus aureus - Classified under Staphylococcus bacteria, it is mostly
present in the nose, buttocks, and other skin areas. Excess multiplication of this
bacterium causes staph infection in human.

5. Bacillus anthrax: As this bacterial strain survives in presence of oxygen, it is a type of

aerobic bacteria. While a few other bacillus species live in the soil without causing diseases,
anthrax infection in humans leads to anthrax disease.
 Examples of Fungi

1. Rigidoporus ulmarius

Rigidoporus ulmarius is a plant pathogen found mainly on broad-leaved trees. It used

to be very common on elm.
The fruiting bodies are white, knobbly and relatively hard, requiring a fair amount of
force to break. Older bodies may be covered with green algae, or partially covered with
vegetation and leaves making them difficult to spot. They often encapsulate grass, twigs
and other debris.
Tubes are 1–5 mm long in each layer, pinkish to orange when young, browning with
age, each layer separated by a thin contrasting band of white flesh. Pores 5–8 per
millimeter, red-orange fading to clay-pink or buff with age. Spores pale yellow, globose,
6–7.5 µm in diameter. Hyphal structure monomitic; generative hyphae lacking clamps.
Habitat at the base of trunks of deciduous trees, usually elm. Season all year, perennial.
Common. Not edible. Found in Europe.
A fruit body of R. ulmarius discovered in Kew Gardens of London in 2003 was, for a
time, the largest known fungal fruit body ever discovered, measuring 150 by 133
centimetres (59 by 52 in) in diameter, and had a circumference of 425 centimetres
(167 in). However, in 2011, a specimen of Phellinus ellipsoideus (formerly Fomitiporia
ellipsoidea) significantly larger was discovered in China.
2. Sarcoscypha coccinea

Sarcoscypha coccinea, commonly known as the scarlet elf cup, scarlet elf cap, or
the scarlet cup, is a species of fungus in the family Sarcoscyphaceae of the
order Pezizales. The fungus, widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, has been
found in Africa, Asia, Europe, North and South America, and Australia. The type
species of the genus Sarcoscypha, S. coccinea has been known by many names since
its first appearance in the scientific literature in 1772. Phylogenetic analysis shows the
species to be most closely related to other Sarcoscypha species that contain numerous
small oil droplets in their spores, such as the North Atlantic island
species S. macaronesica. Due to similar physical appearances and sometimes
overlapping distributions, S. coccinea has often been confused
with S. occidentalis, S. austriaca, and S. dudleyi.
The saprobic fungus grows on decaying sticks and branches in damp spots on forest
floors, generally buried under leaf litter or in the soil. The cup-shaped fruit bodies are
usually produced during the cooler months of winter and early spring. The brilliant red
interior of the cups—from which both the common and scientific names are derived—
contrasts with the lighter-colored exterior. The edibility of the fruit bodies is not clearly
established, but its small size, tough texture and insubstantial fruitings would dissuade
most people from collecting for the table. The fungus has been used medicinally by
the Oneida Indians, and also as a colorful component of table decorations in
England. Molliardiomyces eucoccinea is the name given to the imperfect form of the
fungus that lacks a sexually reproductive stage in its life cycle.
3. Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a species of yeast. It has been instrumental

to winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times. It is believed to have been
originally isolated from the skin of grapes (one can see the yeast as a component of the
thin white film on the skins of some dark-colored fruits such as plums; it exists among
the waxes of the cuticle). It is one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model
organisms in molecular and cell biology, much like Escherichia coli as the
model bacterium. It is the microorganism behind the most common type
of fermentation. S. cerevisiae cells are round to ovoid, 5–10 μm in diameter. It
reproduces by a division process known as budding.[1]
Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying
their homologs in yeast; these proteins include cell cycleproteins, signaling proteins,
and protein-processing enzymes. S. cerevisiae is currently the only yeast cell known to
have Berkeley bodies present, which are involved in particular secretory
pathways. Antibodies against S. cerevisiae are found in 60–70% of patients
with Crohn's disease and 10–15% of patients with ulcerative colitis (and 8% of
healthy controls).[2]
4. Rhizopus stolonifer

Black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a widely distributed thread-

like mucoralean mold. Commonly found on bread surfaces, it takes food and nutrients
from the bread and causes damage to the surface where it lives.
Asexual spores are formed within pinhead-like sporangia, which break to release the
spores when mature. Germination of these spores forms the haploid hyphae of a new
mycelium. R. stolonifer grows rapidly at temperatures between 15 and 30°C.[1]
R. stolonifer is a heterothallic species,[2] in that sexual reproduction happens only when
opposite mating types (designated + and -) come in contact. Successful mating results
in the formation of durable zygospores at the point of contact. Subsequently, the
zygospore germinates and forms a sporangiophore whose sporangium contains both +
and - haploid spores. The two varieties are: R. stolonifer var. stolonifer,which produces
straight, erect sporangiophores, and those of R. stolonifer var. lyococcos are
curved.[1] A closely related species, Rhizopus sexualis, differs primarily in
being homothallic (self-compatible).
5. Amanita rubescens

The blusher is the common name for several closely related species of the
genus Amanita. A. rubescens, found in Europe and eastern North America, and A.
novinupta in western North America. Both their scientific and common names are
derived from the propensity of their flesh to turn pink on bruising, or cutting.
The mushroom is edible. Readily recognizable by its pinkish color on the bottom of the
stem, it is avoided by novice mushroomers as it can be confused with deadly poisonous
species.
 Examples of Algae

1. The Phaeophyceae or brown algae (singular: alga), are a large group of

mostly marine multicellular algae, including many seaweeds of colder Northern
Hemisphere waters. They play an important role in marine environments, both as food
and for the habitats they form. For instance, Macrocystis, a kelp of the
order Laminariales, may reach 60 m in length and forms prominent underwater forests.
Another example is Sargassum, which creates unique habitats in the tropical waters of
the Sargasso Sea. Many brown algae, such as members of the order Fucales,
commonly grow along rocky seashores. Some members of the class, such as kelp, are
used as food for humans.
Worldwide, about 1500–2000 species of brown algae are known.[4] Some species, such
as Ascophyllum nodosum, are of sufficient commercial importance that they have
become subjects of extensive research in their own right.[5]
Brown algae belong to a very large group, the Heterokontophyta, a group
of eukaryotic organisms distinguished most prominently by
having chloroplasts surrounded by four membranes, suggesting an origin from a
symbiotic relationship between a basal eukaryote and another eukaryotic organism.
Most brown algae contain the pigment fucoxanthin, which is responsible for the
distinctive greenish-brown color that gives them their name. Brown algae are unique
among heterokonts in developing into multicellular forms with differentiatedtissues, but
they reproduce by means of flagellated spores and gametes that closely resemble cells
of other heterokonts. Genetic studies show their closest relatives to be the yellow-green
algae.

2. The green algae (singular: green alga) are a large, informal grouping
of algae consisting of the Chlorophyte and Charophyte algae, which are now placed in
separate divisions.
The land plants, or Embryophytes, are thought to have emerged from
the Charophytes.[1] Therefore, cladistically, Embryophytes belong to green algae as
well. However, as the Embryophytes are traditionally classified as neither algae nor
green algae, green algae are a paraphyletic group. The clade that includes both green
algae and embryophytes is monophyletic and is referred to as the
clade Viridiplantae and as the kingdom Plantae. The green algae include unicellular and
colonial flagellates, most with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid
and filamentous forms, and macroscopic, multicellular seaweeds. In the Charales, the
closest relatives of higher plants, full cellular differentiation of tissues occurs. There are
about 8,000 species of green algae.[2] Many species live most of their lives as single
cells, while other species form coenobia (colonies), long filaments, or highly
differentiated macroscopic seaweeds.
A few other organisms rely on green algae to conduct photosynthesis for them.
The chloroplasts in euglenids and chlorarachniophyteswere acquired from ingested
green algae,[1] and in the latter retain a nucleomorph (vestigial nucleus). Green algae
are also found symbiotically in the ciliate Paramecium, and in Hydra viridissima and
in flatworms. Some species of green algae, particularly of genera Trebouxia of the
class Trebouxiophyceae and Trentepohlia (class Ulvophyceae), can be found in
symbiotic associations with fungi to form lichens. In general the fungal species that
partner in lichens cannot live on their own, while the algal species is often found living in
nature without the fungus. Trentepohlia is a filamentous green alga that can live
independently on humid soil, rocks or tree bark or form the photosymbiont in lichens of
the family Graphidaceae.

3. The red algae, or Rhodophyta (/roʊˈdɒfᵻtə/ roh-DOF-fit-tə or /ˌroʊdəˈfaɪtə/ ROH-

də-FY-tə; from Ancient Greek: ῥόδον rhodon, "rose" and φυτόν phyton, "plant"), are one
of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae.[2] The Rhodophyta also contains one of the
largest phyla of algae, containing over 7,000 currently recognized species with
taxonomic revisions ongoing.[3] The majority of species (6,793) are found in
the Florideophyceae (class), and consist of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including
many notable seaweeds.[3][4]Although most species are marine, approximately 5% of the
red algae occur in freshwater environments.[5]
The red algae form a distinct group characterized by having eukaryotic cells
without flagella and centrioles, chloroplasts that lack external endoplasmic
reticulum and contain unstacked (stoma) thylakoids, and
use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments, which give them their red color.[6] Red
algae store sugars as floridean starch, which is a type of starch that consists of highly
branched amylopectin without amylose,[7] as food reserves outside their plastids. Most
red algae are also multicellular, macroscopic, marine, and reproduce sexually. The red
algal life history is typically an alternation of generations that may have three
generations rather than two.[8]
Chloroplasts evolved following an endosymbiotic event between an ancestral,
photosynthetic cyanobacterium and an early eukarytoic Phagotroph.[9] This event
(termed Primary endosymbiosis) resulted in the origin of the red and Green algae, and
the Glaucophytes, which make up the oldest evolutionary lineages of photosynthetic
eukaryotes.[10] In the red algae, a secondary endosymbiosis event involving an
ancestral red alga and a heterotrophic eukaryote resulted in the evolution and
diversification of several other photosynthetic lineages.[10]
The coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a major role in
building coral reefs, belong here. Red algae such as dulse (Palmaria
palmata) and laver (nori/gim) are a traditional part of European and Asian cuisines and
are used to make other products such as agar, carrageenans and other food
additives.[11]

4. Laminaria is a genus of 31 species of brown algae commonly called "kelp". Some species
are also referred to as tangle. This economically important genus is characterized by long,
leathery laminae and relatively large size. Some species are referred to by the common name
Devil's apron, due to their shape,[1] or sea colander, due to the perforations present on
the lamina.[2] It is found in the north Atlantic Ocean and the northern Pacific Ocean at depths
from 8 to 30 m (26 to 98 ft) (exceptionally to 120 m (390 ft) in the warmer waters of
the Mediterranean Sea and off Brazil).[3]
According to C.Michael Hogan the life cycle of the genus involves a diploid generational
system.[4]
Laminaria japonica (J. E. Areschoug – Japón) [5] is now regarded as a synonym of Saccharina
japonica[6] and Laminaria saccharina is now classified as Saccharina latissima.[7]
5. Cephaleuros is a genus of parasitic thalloid green algae comprising approximately
14 species. Its common name is red rust. Specimens can reach around 10 mm in size.
Dichotomous branches are formed. The alga is parasitic on some important economic
plants of the tropics and subtropics such as tea, coffee, mango and guava causing
damage limited to the area of algal growth on leaves (algal leaf spot), or killing new
shoots, or disfiguring fruit.[3] Members of the genera may also grow with a fungus to
form a lichen that does not damage the plants.[3]