ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Superficial – close to surface (external)

Deep – toward interior body (internal)

INTRODUCTION Medial – close to midline
Anatomy: study of structure and parts of the body Lateral – away from midline
Physiology: study of function of each body parts Proximal – close to point of attachment
Types of Anatomy: Distal – far from point of attachment
1. Systemic – body systems Body Planes:
2. Regional – body regions Sagittal – vertical (left and right)
3. Surface – external projections Midsagittal – middle
4. Anatomical Imaging – xray, ultrasound, MRI Transverse – horizontal (top and bottom)
Structural Levels of the Body: Frontal – vertical (anterior and posterior)
1. Chemical - atoms Body Cavities:
2. Cellular - molecules Thoracic – heart, lungs, thymus gland, esophagus,
trachea
3. Tissue – similar types of cells
Mediastanium – thoracic, left and right
4. Organ – different types of tissues
Abdominal – stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas,
5. Organ System – different organs that work together kidneys
6. Organism – many organ systems Pelvic – urinary bladder, reproductive organs, parts of
Characteristics of Life: large intestine

1. Organization Pericardial – around heart

2. Metabolism Pleural – around lungs

3. Responsiveness Peritoneal – around abdominopelvic

4. Growth
5. Development
6. Reproduction
Anatomical Position: body is erect with the feet parallel
and the arms hanging at the sides with the palms facing
forward
Supine: lying face up
Prone: lying face down
Directional Terms: where one body structure is in
relation to another
Superior – above
Inferior – below
Anterior – front
Posterior – back
Body Regions: Intracellular - inside
Epigastric – superior to umbilical region Fluid Mosaic Model – 2 phospholipid layers:
Umbilical – centermost region Hydrophilic – polar heads, water loving
Hypogastric – inferior to the umbilical region Hydrophobic – nonpolar tails, water fearing
Right Hypochondriac & Left Hypochondriac – flank the Rough ER  Proteins  Ribosomes
epigastric region
(Rough ER – ribosomes attached)
Right Lumbar & Left Lumbar – lateral from the umbilical
region Smooth ER  Lipids  Lysosomes

Right Iliac & Left Iliac – lateral to the hypogastric region Perixosomes – detoxify harmful substances

Homeostasis: body’s ability to maintain relatively stable Golgi Apparatus – modifies protein structure, packaging
internal conditions Secretory Vesicle – exocytosis
Receptor – monitors and responds to changes Mitochondria – major site of ATP synthesis (ATP: source
Control Center – analyzes information of energy)

Effector – do the response Cytoskeleton – cell framework, made of proteins

Afferent Pathway – receptor to control center Centrioles – rod shaped, generates microtubules

Efferent Pathway – control center to the effector Microtubule – supports cytoplasm, gives shape

Feedback Mechanisms: Microfilament – involved in muscle contraction and

other types of intracellular movement
Negative – reducing the amount of change
Cilia – move substances
– shut off stimulus or reduce intensity
Flagella – propel sperm cells
Positive – increasing the amount of change
Microvilli – increase surface area
– push variable farther to its original value
Enzymes, Glycogen, Potassium – higher conc. inside
Cells: structural units of all living things
Sodium, Calcium, Chloride – higher conc. outside
Organelle: specialized structures that performs specific
functions Ways molecules pass through Cell Membrane:

Cytoplasm: jelly like, holds organelles, site where most 1. Diffusion - 𝑂2 & 𝐶𝑂2
cell activities happen 2. Membrane Channels – size, shape, charge: what can
Cytosol: fluid part of the cytoplasm go through

Nucleus: ‘control center’, it contains DNA 3. Carrier Molecule – bind, transport and drop

Nuclear Envelope – double-membrane boundary 4. Vesicle – transport variety, fuse with cell membrane

Nucleolus – ribosomes are assembled Diffusion: movement of molecules from high to low
concentration
Chromatin – ‘beads on a string’, contains DNA and
histone proteins (cell is not dividing: chromatin, cell is Solution – 1 or more solute
dividing: chromosomes) Solute – substance added to solvent that dissolves
Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane or Cell Envelope): Solvent – water that solute is being added to
separates interior of the cell to its surrounding
environment Concentration Gradient: difference at 2 points; greater
the distance, faster the solute
Extracellular – outside
Filtration: partition Stages of Mitosis:
Mediated Transport Mechanisms: Interphase – the cell grows, carries its activities
Facilitated Diffusion – carrier molecule, no ATP Prophase – chromatin threads coil and shorten
Active Transport – low to high conc., with ATP Metaphase – chromosomes line up along the central
plane
Osmosis: diffusion with water
Anaphase – centromeres split
Osmotic Pressure: prevent water movement across cell
membrane Telophase – prophase reversed
Types of Osmotic Solution: Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm
Hypotonic – lower conc. of solute outside Meiosis:
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– higher conc. of 𝐻2 𝑂 outside
– 𝐻2 𝑂 moves inside, lysis (burst)
23 23 23 23
Hypertonic – higher conc. of solute outside
– higher conc. of 𝐻2 𝑂 inside Tissues: group of cells with similar structure and function
and extracellular substance (matrix)
– 𝐻2 𝑂 moves outside, crenation (shrink)
Histology: study of tissues
Isotonic – in between, equal conc.
Types of Tissues:
Endocytosis: into cells
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, Nervous
Phagocytosis: cell eating
Epithelial Tissues: cover body (internal and external);
Pinocytosis: cell drinking cells are close together
Exocytosis: out of the cells Functions – protect, act as a barrier, diffusion and
Whole Cell Activity: Cell characteristics, Proteins filtration, secretion, absorption
function, Information in DNA Classification (according to cell layers and cell shape) –
DNA: double helix, composed of nucleotides; 5 carbon simple and stratified; squamous, cuboidal, columnar,
sugar (deoxyribose, nitrogen base, phosphate) transitional

Flow of Genetic Information: (Central Dogma) Types of Epithelial Tissues:

DNA Replication, Transcription, Translation Simple Epithelium – 1 layer of cells

Cell Division: 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell; Stratified Epithelium – many layers of cells
mitosis and meiosis Simple Squamous – 1 layer of flat, tile-like cells
Body cells – Somato Simple Cuboidal – 1 layer of cube-shaped cells
Sperm & Egg – Gametes Simple Columnar – 1 layer of tall, narrow cells
46 Chromosomes - diploid Pseudostratified Columnar – appears stratified but isn’t
Sperm & Egg – 23 chromosomes Stratified Squamous – many layers of flat, tile-like cells
Mitosis: Transitional – changes shape (stretched squamous)
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Free Cell Surfaces: not in contact with other cells

46 Goblet Cells – produce mucus

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Cell Connections:
Tight Junctions – bind adjacent cells together Blood: liquid connective tissue; erythrocytes, leukocytes,
platelets
Desmosomes – mechanical links that bind cells
Muscular Tissue: skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Hemidesmosomes – bind cells to base membrane
Nervous Tissue: consists of neurons, controls and
Gap Junctions – small channels that allows molecules to coordinates body movements; includes axons, dendrites
pass, allows to communicate and cell bodies
Glands: secrete substances onto a surface, into cavity or Tissue Repair: substitution of dead cells
into blood
Regeneration – same type develop (no scar)
Exocrine – with ducts Endocrine – without ducts
Replacement – different type develop (with scar)
Types of Exocrine Glands:
Inflammation: tissues are damaged
Simple – no branches
Chemical Mediators – released after injury, causes
Compound – many branches
dilation of blood vessels
Tubular – end of a duct Symptoms of Inflammation:
Alveolus – sac-like structure
1. Redness – blood vessels dilate
Connective Tissues: cells are far apart; classified based 2. Heat – increased blood flow
on type of extracellular matrix and function
3. Swelling – water and proteins
Types of Protein Fibers:
4. Pain – damage and swelling
Collagen – like ropes, flexible
Body Membranes: cover surfaces
Reticular – fills spaces between organs and tissues
Epithelial Membrane: cutaneous, mucous, serous;
Elastic – recoil covering and lining membranes
Functions – enclose and separate, connect tissues, Cutaneous – epidermis and dermis
support and movement, storage, cushion and insulate,
transport, protect Mucous – lines all body cavities that open to the exterior
Types of Ordinary Connective Tissue: Serous – line body cavities closed to the exterior
Loose – between organs, muscles, glands, skin Serous comes in pairs:
Dense – tends, ligaments, skin Parietal – ventral body cavity
Areolar – universal packaging tissue Visceral – outside of the organs
Adipose – under skin and around organs Serous Fluid – separates the serous layers
Reticular – internal framework of an organ Peritoneum – abdominal cavity
Cartilage: type of connective tissue, composed of Pleurae – surrounding the lungs
chondrocytes
Pericardia – surrounding the heart
Types of Cartilage:
Connective Tissue Membrane: synovial
Hyaline cartilage – ends of bones
Synovial – no epithelial cells at all
Fibrocartilage – between vertebra
Bursae – small sacs of connective tissue
Elastic Cartilage – ear and tip of nose
Tendon Sheaths – tubelike
Bone: hard connective tissue, composed of osteocytes
Skin: major organ of the integumentary system
Integument – ‘covering’ Apocrine – axillary, genitals
Functions: Hair – flexible epithelial structure
1. Protect deeper tissues from mechanical damage, Hair Follicle – compound structures
chemical damage, microbe damage, UV radiation,
thermal damage, dessication Nails – scale like modification of the epidermis

2. Aids in body heat loss or heat retention Skeletal System: internal framework, includes joints,
cartilages and ligaments
3. Aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
Two parts – Axial and Appendicular
4. Synthesizes vitamin D
Functions: support, protection, allow movement,
Epidermis – made up of stratified squamous epithelium storage, blood cell formation
Avascular – has no own blood supply (epidermis) Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Tissue) - adipose (fat) issue Classification of Bones – Compact and Spongy
Keratinocytes – most cells of the epidermis Compact – dense, looks smooth
Keratin – fibrous protein Spongy – spiky, open appearance
Keratinization – process of making keratin Classification according to Shape:
5 Layers of Epidermis: Long Bones – longer than wide (ex. bones of the limbs)
Stratum Basale – deepest cell layer of the epidermis Flat Bones – thin, flattened, usually curved (ex. bones of
the skull, ribs, sternum)
Stratum Spinosum – thick bundles of intermediate
filaments Short Bones – generally cube-shaped (ex. wrist and
ankle)
Stratum Granulosum – increasingly keratinized
Irregular Bones – don’t fit into any of the categories (ex.
Stratum Lucidum – occurs where skin is hairless and vertebrae, makes up the spinal column)
extra thick
Diaphysis – makes up most of the bone’s length
Stratum Corneum – outermost layer, cells are dead
Periosteum – covers the diaphysis
Melanin: pigment that ranges in color from yellow to
brown to black, produced by melanocytes Epiphysis – ends of long bones
Dermis – made up mostly of dense connective tissue; Articular Cartilage – covers its external surface
papillary and reticular
Medullary Cavity – storage area for red marrow (infants)
Papillary – superficial
Yellow Marrow – replaces red marrow
Reticular – deepest
Bone Markings: projections and depressions
Hemoglobin: pigment in red blood cells
Projections – grow out from the bone surface
Appendages of the Skin:
Depressions – indentations in the bone
Cutaneous Glands – sweat glands, sebaceous glands
Osteocytes – mature bone cells
Sebaceous Glands – oil, found all over the body except
on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet Lacunae – tiny cavities

Sebum – keeps the skin soft and moist Lamellae – concentric circles where lacunae is arranged

Sweat Glands – eccrine and apocrine Osteon – central canal and matrix rings

Eccrine – produces heat and sweat Haversian System – structural and functional unit of
compact bone
Axial Skeleton: forms the longitudinal axis of the body Thoracic Cage – also called ‘bony thorax’
3 Parts: Skull, Vertebral Column, Thoracic Cage Sternum – breastbone
Skull – Cranium and Facial Bones Ribs – 12 pairs
Cranium: protects the brain tissue True Ribs – first 7 pairs, attached to sternum
Facial Bones: cradle for the eyes and allow facial muscles False Ribs – next 5 pairs, either attached directly or not
to show feelings at all
Cranium – 8 large flat bones Floating Ribs – last 2 pairs, lack sternal attachments
Frontal – forehead Intercoastal Spaces – spaces between ribs, contains
intercoastal muscles
Parietal – lateral walls of cranium
Appendicular Skeleton: composed of 126 bones; limbs,
Sagittal Suture – midline where parietal bones meet pectoral and pelvic girdles
Temporal – inferior to the parietal bones (near the ear Bones of the Shoulder Girdle – Clavicle, Scapula
area)
Clavicle – collar bones
Occipital – posterior bone of the cranium
Scapula – shoulder blades
Sphenoid – butterfly shaped, floor of the cranial cavity
Bones of the Upper Limbs – Humerus, Radius and Ulna,
Ethmoid – roof of the nasal cavity Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges
Facial Bones – 14 bones; 12 are paired Humerus – arm
Maxillae – form upper jaw Radius and Ulna – lateral and medial bone, respectively
Palatine – posterior to the palatine processes of the Carpal – wrist
maxillae
Metacarpal – palm of the hands
Zygomatic – cheekbones
Phalanges – fingers
Lacrimal – passageway for tears
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle – Coxal Bones, commonly hip
Nasal – bridge of the nose bones and sacrum
Vomer – separates the nostrils
Bones of the Lower Limbs – Femur, Tibia and Fibula,
Inferior Nasal Conchae – lateral walls of the nasal cavity Tarsals, Metatarsals and Phalanges

Mandible – lower jaw Femur – heaviest, strongest and longest bone in the body

Hyoid Bone: the only bone that doesn’t articulate; Tibia – larger bone
midneck region, above the larynx Fibula – thin, stick like
Vertebral Column (Spine): 33 separate bones (before Tarsal – posterior half of the foot
birth) called VERTEBRAE
Metatarsals – form the sole
9 fuse to form composite bones – Sacrum and Coccyx
Phalanges – form the toes
C1-C7 Cervical Curvature
Joints: also called articulations, where two bones meet;
T1-T12 Thoracic Curvature hold bones together yet give mobility
L1-L5 Lumbar Curvature Synarthroses – immovable joints
5 Fused Vertebrae – Sacral Curvature Ampiarthroses – slightly movable
4 Fused Vertebrae – Coccyx Diarthroses – freely movable joints
Types of Joints:
Fibrous – united by fibrous tissue (ex. skull sutures)
Cartilaginous – synchondroses (hyaline cartilage) and
symphyses (fibrocartilage)
Synovial – bone ends are separated by joint cavity
Types of Synovial Joints based on Shape:
Plane Joint – essentially flat
Hinge Joint – cylindrical bone fits into trough shaped
surface
Pivot Joint – rounded end fits into ring of bone
Saddle Joint – convex and concave areas
Ball and Socket Joint – spherical head into round socket