Boolean Algebra

Binary Valued Quantities 

o The decision or statement which result into YES (TRUE or 1 ) or NO (FALSE or 0 ) is
called as Binary Decision or Logical Statement or Truth Functions.
o The values TRUE or FALSE are called Truth Values or Logical Constants.
o Variable which can store these truth values are called as Logical Variable or Binary
Valued.
o The operators AND, OR, NOT are called as Boolean Operators or Logical Operators.

Truth Tables  Truth Table is a table which represents all the possible values of logical
variables / statements along with all the possible results of a given combinations of values.
o If result of any logical statement or expression is always TRUE or 1 it is called as Tautology.
o If result of any logical statement or expression is always FALSE or 0 it is called as Fallacy.

1. NOT - for NOT operator symbol used in Boolean algebra is a bar ( ˉ ) or single quote (’) symbol.
The NOT operator is also called as complement of a variable. The possible combinations with
their result is shown in Truth table given below:-
Logical Gate used for NOT :

2. AND --- symbol used in Boolean algebra is dot ( . )

Logical Gate used for AND

X X
X.Y Y X.Y.Z
Y Z

2 variables 3 variables

3. OR --- symbol used in Boolean algebra is plus ( + )

Logical Gate used for OR

X X
X+Y Y X+Y+Z
Y Z

2 variables 3 variables

4. NAND --- symbol used is ● (dot with bar on all the inputted variables)
NAND Logical Gate used for NAND :
A B
0 0 1 A A
0 1 1 A.B B A.B.C
1 0 1 B C
1 1 0
2 variables 3 variables

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 1

5. NOR --- symbol used is + (plus with bar on all the inputted variables)
NOR Logical Gate used for NOR
A B
0 0 1 A A
0 1 0 A+B B A+B+C
B C
1 0 0
1 1 0 2 variables 3 variables

Truth Table showing all possible combinations of function containing three variables or four
variables 8 4 2 1
A B C D
4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0
B C D
1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
3 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 0
4 0 1 0 0
3 0 1 1
5 0 1 0 1
4 1 0 0
6 0 1 1 0
5 1 0 1
7 0 1 1 1
6 1 1 0
8 1 0 0 0
7 1 1 1
9 1 0 0 1
3 Variable Truth Table 10 1 0 1 0
11 1 0 1 1
12 1 1 0 0
13 1 1 0 1
14 1 1 1 0
15 1 1 1 1

4 Variable Truth Table

Prepare Truth Table for following Boolean algebra expressions 

a) X.(Y + Z) + X.Y
X Y Z XY Y+Z X(Y+Z) X(Y+Z)+XY
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

b) X.Y.(Z+Y.Z) + Z
X Y Z XY YZ Z+YZ XY(Z+YZ) XY(Z+YZ)+Z
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 2

 c) A.[(B + C) + C ]
A B C B+C (B+C)+C A((B+C)+C)
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

Verify the following expressions using Truth Table

a) (X + Y)’ = x’ . y’ b) X + X.Y = X
X Y X+Y (X+Y)’ X’ Y’ X’.Y’ X Y XY X+XY
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Verify the following Boolean expression using Truth Table

1) A . B = B . A
2) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
3) (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
4) A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
5) A + B.C = (A+B).(A+C)
6) A + A.B = A
7) A.(A+B) = A
8) (A+B)’ = (A)’. (B)’
9) (A.B)’ = (A)’ + (B)’
10) A + A’.B = A+B
11) (A+B+C)’ =A’B’C’
12) (A’)’ = A

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 3

Circuit Diagrams using Logical Gates  Circuit diagram of following Boolean expressions:-
a) A’.B.C + A.B’.C + A.B.C’ + A.B.C

b) A.B + B.C + A.C

c)

Write the Boolean expression for the following logic diagram 

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 4

 Some more Logical Gates examples

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 5

Write Boolean expression of the circuit diagrams given below:-

Final output when combined with AND gate

Logical Circuits using NAND and NOR Gates

NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates because with the help of these gates we
can draw any circuit diagram

NOT AND OR

Truth Table for AND , NAND Truth Table for OR , NOR

A B C AND NAND A B C OR NOR
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 6

Write Boolean expression of the circuit diagrams given below:-

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 7

 K-Maps
The Karnaugh map (K map) provides a systematic method for simplifying a Boolean
expression or a truth table function. When used properly, the K map will produce the
simplest SOP or POS expression possible. K-Map is a graphical display of the fundamental
products in a truth table. The K map is a table consisting of N = 2n cells, where n is the
number of input variables.
For a SOP expression each cell represents one particular combination of the variables in
product form.

Two variable K map format Three Variable K-Map

0 1 3 2

4 5 7 6

12 13 15 14

8 9 11 10

Steps/Rules for simplifying an expression to SOP using the K-Map 

1. Draw (Identify the type of K-map) and Plot 1 in cell which is included in expression
2. Start grouping the cells.
Grouping Rules :-
i) Each cell with a 1 must be included in at least one group.
ii) Try to form the largest possible groups.
iii) Try to end up with as few groups as possible.
iv) Groups may be in sizes that are powers of 2:
20 = 1 Single
21 = 2 Pair
22 = 4 Quad
23 = 8 Octet
v) Groups may be square or rectangular. No diagonals or zig-zags can be used
to form a group.
Examples showing right and wrong grouping :-

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 8

 vi) Cells in a group can be overlapped a number of times, but there should not
be any redundant group.
Overlapping means same 1 can be encircled more than once.
Redundant group is a group whose all 1’s are overlapped by other groups.

vii) To form a big group we can Map-Roll (consider the map as if its left edge
touching the right and top edge touching the bottom edge) the 1’s in K-Map
as shown in fig below Map rolling can never be done on diagonally opposite
corners :-

3. Apply Reduction Rule:- Remove variables which changes the state from
complemented to un-complemented or vice-versa.
The larger a group is, the more redundant inputs there are:
i) 1 cell  no redundant inputs.
ii) A group of 2 cells (Pair)  1 redundant input.
iii) A group of 4 cells (Quad)  2 redundant inputs.
iv) A group of 8 cells (Octet)  3 redundant inputs.

Write remaining expressions (products of groups) after applying the reduction rules.
All 1’s in the output must be included in a group even if the group is only one cell.
4. Finally, the simplified expression is formed by ORing (placing plus (+)) each of the
(AND) groups.

Example 1 :- Simplify the following expression using K-Map

F(A,B,C,D) = ∑ ( 0 , 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 12 , 15 )
4 var K-Map
and if var’s are not specified
Step-1 Means sum of >7 means 4-var K-Map
here then check expression
product K-Map <4 means 2-var K-Map
on right hand side for number
i.e. SOP K-Map >=4 and <=7 means 3-var K-Map
of variables to design the K-Map

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 9

 Group 1

CD
AB C’D’ C’D CD CD’ Group 3

1 1 1
Step-2

And
A’B’
Step 3 0 1 3 2

A’B
1 1 4 5 7
1 6

1 1
Group 4
AB
12 13 15 14

AB’ 1 8 9 11 10

Group 2

Step 4 : Simplified forms of groups

Group1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
A’ B’ C’ D’ A’ B’ C’ D’ A’ B’ C’ D’ ABCD
A’ B’ C’ D A’ B C’ D’ A’ B C’ D’
A’ B C’ D’ A B C’ D’ A’ B’ C D’
A’ B C’ D A B’ C’ D’ A’ B C D’

A’ C’ C’ D’ A’ D’
Normally if cells of a complete row or column are grouped then the respective row or column
heading is written as answer. As in case of group 2 – cells of all rows that is first column are
grouped together therefore the answer is the column heading C’ D’
If there is any single cells which cannot be a part of any group then the cell itself is written
as a group ( as in case of group 4 specified above ) , which needs no simplification that is
the cell name is written in final answer.
Step 5 : Write simplified expression by ORing (placing plus (+)) each of the (AND) groups
A’C’ + C’D’ + A’D’ + ABCD

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 10

Example 2 :- Simplify the expression
A B C X
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Map all the 1’s and 0’s in K-Map and Group all the adjacent 1’s as shown below :-

0 0 1 0 Only AB left after removing

0 0 1 1 variable C as it is present in both
complemented and un-
Only BC left after removing variable A as it is present in complemented form in the group
both complemented and un-complemented form in the
group So, the simplified form of the given Boolean expression X is AB+BC

Example 3 :-

Example 3 :-
Groups can be overlapped as shown here.
Overlapping means same 1 can be encircled more than once.
Redundant group is a group whose all 1’s are overlapped by other groups.

Example 4:-

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 11

Example 5:-

Grouping and
Minimizing

Plotting

Example 6

Second way
First way of of grouping
grouping

Example 7:-

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 and 4 of grouping

Example 8 :-

First way of grouping Second way of grouping

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 12

Example 8 (Showing different types of grouping on 4-variable K-Map):-

Steps/Rules for simplifying an expression to POS using the K-Map 

1. Draw (Identify the type of K-map) and Plot 0 in cell which is included in expression
2. Start grouping the cells. (all grouping rules are same as SOP)
3. Apply Reduction Rule:- same as SOP
Write remaining expressions (sums of groups) after applying the reduction rules. All
0’s in the output must be included in a group even if the group is only one cell.
5. Finally, the simplified expression is formed by ANDing (placing dot (●)) each of the
(OR) groups.
POS K-Map for 4 Variables

C+D C+D’ C’+D’ C’+D

A+B A+B+C+D A+B+C+D’ A+B+C’+D’ A+B+C’+D

A+B’ A+B’+C+D A+B’+C+D’ A+B’+C’+D’ A+B’+C’+D

A’+B’ A’+B’+C+D A’+B’+C+D’ A’+B’+C’+D’ A’+B’+C’+D

A’+B A’+B+C+D A’+B+C+D’ A’+B+C’+D’ A’+B+C’+D

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 13

 Example 1 :- Simplify the following expression using K-Map
Solving the same example of SOP given above so that you can find the difference between
POS and SOP
F(A,B,C,D) = ( 0 , 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 12 , 15 )
4 var K-Map
and if var’s are not specified
Step-1 Means product >7 means 4-var K-Map
here then check expression
of sum K-Map <4 means 2-var K-Map
on right hand side for number
i.e. POS K-Map >=4 and <=7 means 3-var K-Map
of variables to design the K-Map
Group 1
CD
AB C+D C+D’ C’+D’ C’+D Group 3

0 0 0
Step-2

And
A+B
Step 3 0 1 3 2

A+B’
0 0 4 5 7
0 6

0 0
Group 4

A’+B’
12 13 15 14

A’+B 0 8 9 11 10

Group 2
Step 4 : Simplified forms of groups
Group1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
A+B+C+D A+B+C+D A+B+C+D A+B+C+D
A+B+C+D’ A+B’+C+D A+B’+C+D
A+B’+C+D A’+B’+C+D A+B+C’+D
A+B’+C+D’ A’+B+C+D A+B’+C’+D

A+C C+D A+D

Normally if cells of a complete row or column are grouped then the respective row or column
heading is written as answer. As in case of group 2 – cells of all rows that is first column are
grouped together therefore the answer is the column heading C+D
Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 14
If there is any single cells which cannot be a part of any group then the cell itself is written
as a group ( as in case of group 4 specified above ) , which needs no simplification that is
the cell name is written in final answer.
Step 5 : Write simplified expression by ANDing (placing dot (●)) each of the (OR) groups.
(A+C) . (C+D) . (A+D) . (A+B+C+D)

Example :- Simplify the Product-Of-Sums Boolean expression below, providing a result in

POS form.

Solution :- Transfer the seven maxterms to the map below as 0s. Be sure to complement
the input variables in finding the proper cell location

We map the 0s as they appear left to right top to bottom on the map above. We locate the
last three maxterms with leader lines..

Some extra solved K-Maps

Showing K-Map
folding

Showing K-Map
folding

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 15

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 16
Simplify the following using K-Maps
1) F= Σ (1,3,4,7) 11) F= Σ (2,3,8,14)
2) F= Σ (1,3,5,6) 12) A'C'B’D’ + AB'CD + ABCD'
3) F= Σ (3,4,5,6) 13) A'B'CD + ABC'D' + ABCD'
4) F= Π (1,3,4,7) 14) A'B'C’D + A'BC'D + ABCD
5) F= Π (1,3,5,6) 15) A'B'C'D’ + AB'CD’ + ABC'D'
6) F= Σ (1,3,4,5,11,12,14,15) 16) (A+B+C'+D)(A+B+C+D)
7) F= Σ (1,2,3,4,5,11,12) 17) (A+B+C’+D’)(A+B’+C’+D)(A+B+C'+D)
8) F= Σ (1,3,8,9,10,11,15) 18) (A'+B'+C+D)(A'+B’+C+D’)(A+B'+C+D)
9) F= Σ (1,3,8,14) 19) (A'+B+C+D’)(A'+B'+C'+D’)
10) F= Σ (2,3,8,14) 20) (A+B+C’+D’)(A'+B+C’+D)(A+B'+C+D’)

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 17

Basic Theorems of Boolean Algebra  (use Truth Tables to prove them)
o Properties of 0 and 1 –
A term ANDed with 1 equals that term and a term ANDed with 0 equals 0 (law of Intersection).
1) 0.A=0
2) 1 . A = A
A term ORed with 1 equals 1 and a term ORed with 0 equals that term (law of Union)
1) 1 + A = 1
2) 0 + A = A
o Identity (Indempotent Law) - a term ANDed with itself or ORed with itself is equal to that term
1) A+A=A
2) A.A=A
o Involution or Negation Law (also called as double inversion rule) -- a term that is inverted
twice is equal to the term

o Inverse or Complementarity Law -- a term ANDed with its complement equals 0, and a term
ORed with its complement equals 1
1) A + A’ = 1
2) A . A’ = 0
o Commutative Law -- the order in which terms are written does not affect their value
1) A.B=B.A
2) A+B=B+A
o Associative Law
1) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
2) (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
o Distributive Law
1) A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
2) A + B.C = (A+B).(A+C)
The algebraic proof of first Distributive law –
A + B.C = (A+B) . (A+C)
RHS  (A+B).(A+C) = AA + AC + BA + BC
= A + AC + BA + BC (AA = A , Indempotent law)
= A(1+B) + CA + BC
= A.1 + CA + BC (1+B=1 , property of 0 and 1)
= A + CA + BC (A.1=A , property of 0 and 1)
= A(1+C) + BC
= A.1 + BC (1+C=1 , property of 0 and 1)
= A + BC (A.1=A , property of 0 and 1)
= LHS , Hence Proved
Similarly prove --- A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C of distributive law

o Absorption Law
1) A + A.B = A
2) A.(A+B) = A
The algebraic proof of Distributive law –
A.(A+B) = A
LHS  A.(A+B)
= A.A + A.B
= A + A.B (A.A = A , Indempotent law)
= A(1+B) (1+B = 1 , property of 0 and 1)
= A.1
=A (A.1 = A , property of 0 and 1)
= RHS , Hence Proved
Similarly prove --- A + A.B = A of Absorption law

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 18

o Third Distributive Law  A + A’.B = A+B
The algebraic proof of Third Distributive law –
LHS  A + A’.B
= A.1 + A’.B (A.1 = A , Property of 0 and 1)
= A(1+B) + A’.B (1+B = 1 , property of 0 and 1)
= A + A.B + A’.B
= A + B(A + A’)
= A + B.1 (A+A’= 1 , complementarity of 0 and 1)
=A+B (B.1 = B , Property of 0 and 1)
= RHS , Hence Proved

De Morgan's Law 
First Law:- The complement of ORed two variables (A+B)’ is equal to the ANDing of the complements
of these variables (A)’. (B)’ that is ----(A+B)’ = (A)’. (B)’
Proof:We have to prove complement of A + B = A'B'. By definition of complement, it is sufficient to show
1) (A + B) + A’B’ = 1 (as X + X’ = 1) here X is (A+B), and
2) (A + B).(A’B’) = 0 (as X . X’ = 0) (A+B)’ = A’.B’
Let us prove the First part :-
 (A + B) + A’B’ = 1
LHS = (A + B) + A’B’
= ((A + B)+ A’).((A + B)+ B’) (Distributive Law)
= (A + A’ + B).(A + B + B’)
= (1 + B).(A + 1) (as A + A’ = 1)
= 1.1 (as 1 + A = 1)
= 1
Hence Proved (A + B) + A’B’ = 1
Now Let us prove the Second part :-
 (A + B).(A’B’) = 0
LHS = A’B’.(A + B)
= (A’.B’.A)+(A’.B’.B) (Distributive Law)
= (A’.A.B’)+(A’.B’.B)
= (0.B’)+(A’.0) (as A.A’ = 0)
= 0.0 = 0
Hence Proved (A + B).(A’B’) = 0

Second Law:- The complement of the ANDed two variables (A.B)’ is equal to the ORing of the
complements of these variables (A)’+(B)’ that is ---- (A.B)’ = (A)’ + (B)’
Proof:We have to prove the complement of A+B=A’B’. By definition of complement, it is sufficient to show
1) A.B + (A'+ B') = 1 (as X + X’ = 1) here X is (A.B), and
2) AB.(A’ + B’) = 0 (as X . X’ = 0) (A.B)’ = A’+B’
Let us prove the First part :-
 A.B + (A'+ B') = 1
LHS = (A'+ B') + AB (Associative Law)
= (A’ + B’ + A).(A’ + B’ + B) (Distributive Law, X+YZ=(X+Y).(X+Z))
= (A’ + A + B’).(A’ + B’ + B)
= (1 + B’).(A’ + 1) (as A + A’ = 1)
= 1.1 (as 1 + A = 1)
= 1
Hence Proved (A + B) + A'B' = 1
Now Let us prove the Second part :-
 AB.(A’ + B’) = 0
LHS = AB.(A’ + B’)
= (A.B.A’)+(A.B.B’) (Distributive Law, X.(Y+Z)=(X.Y)+(X.Z))
= (A.A’.B)+(A.B.B’)
= 0.B + A.0 (as A.A’= 0)
= 0+0 = 0 Hence Proved AB.(A’ + B’) = 0
Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 19
Principle of duality 
1 Interchanging each OR ( + ) sign to an AND ( . ) sign and vice versa
2. Interchanging each 0 by 1 and 1 by 0
3. Not changing the form of the variables
Example:
i) The dual of the statement (X.1)(0+X’) = 0 is (X+0)+(1.X’) = 1
ii) The dual of the statement (X+Y)(Y+Z) = X.Z + Y is X.Y + Y.Z = (X+Z).Y
Solve the following expressions:-
Expression 1 :-

Expression 3 :-

as , therefore

= , and
using De-Morgan’s Law =

(Y+Z).X = Y.X + Z.X

here X is

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 20

Expression 2 :-

Some Boolean expressions with proof

Summary of Boolean Algebra Rules

S.No. Rules Rules Names

1 0 + A = A
Properties of 0
2 0 . A = 0
3 1 + A = 1
Properties of 1
4 1 . A = A
5 A + A = A
Identity or Indempotent Law
6 A . A = A

7 Involution Law

8 A + A’ = 1
Complementarity Law
9 A . A’ = 0
10 A + B = B+ A
Commutative Law
11 A . B = B . A
12 (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Associative Law
13 (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
14 A.(B+C) = A.B + A.C
Distributive Law
15 A + B.C = (A+B).(A+C)
16 A + A.B = A
Absorption Law
17 A.(A+B) = A
18 (A+B)’ = (A)’. (B)’
De-Morgan’s Law
19 (A.B)’ = (A)’ + (B)’
20 A + A’.B = A+B Third Distributive Law

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 21

 Minterms and Maxterms
Minterm is a product of all the variables (with or without the bar) within the logic system.
Example :- X.Y’ , X’.Y’ , X.Y , X’.Y are minterms of two variables
X’.Y.Z , X.Y.Z , X.Y’.Z’ etc. are minterms of three variables
Maxterm is a sum of all the variables (with or without the bar) within the logic system.
Example :- X+Y’ , X’+Y’ , X+Y , X’+Y are maxterms of two variables
X’+Y+Z , X+Y+Z , X+Y’+Z’ etc. are maxterms of three variables
Minterms and Maxterms may be used to define the two standard forms for logic expressions,
namely the Sum Of Products (SOP) or sum of minterms, and the Product Of Sums (POS), or
product of maxterms. These standard forms of expression aid the logic circuit designer by
simplifying the derivation of the function to be implemented.
Canonical Expression is a Boolean expression composed entirely of either minterms or maxterms.
Example of SOP :- (X.Y’) + (X’.Y’) + (X.Y) for two variables
(X’.Y.Z) + (X.Y.Z) + (X.Y’.Z’) for three variables

Example of POS :- (X+Y’).(X’+Y’).(X+Y).(X’+Y) for two variables

(X’+Y+Z).(X+Y+Z).(X+Y’+Z’) for three variables

Input Minterms Maxterms

A B C Terms Function F Term Function F
0 0 0 m0 M0
0 0 1 m1 M1
0 1 0 m2 M2
0 1 1 m3 M3
1 0 0 m4 M4
1 0 1 m5 M5
1 1 0 m6 M6
1 1 1 m7 M7

Shorthand Minterm notations 

1. Substitute 0’s for barred letters and 1’s for non-barred letters for minterm
2. Write decimal equivalent of binary word
3. Express as decimal subscript of m
Example :- Represent the function as a minterm expression using shorthand notation.
F(A,B,C)= Σm ( A’B’C’ , A’BC , AB’C’ , ABC )
Solution :- Step 1 :- Substitute 0’s for barred letters and 1’s for non-barred letters
= Σm ( 000 , 011 , 100 , 111 )
Step 2 :- Express the decimal equivalent of binary word
= Σm ( 0 , 3 , 4 , 7 )
Step 3 :- Express as decimal subscript of m
= Σ(m0 , m3 , m4 , m7 )
Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 22
Example :- Represent the complement of the function as a minterm expression using shorthand
notation. F(A,B,C,D)= Σm(0,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14)
Solution :- To take the complement of a minterm expression, you just list the minterms that aren't
present in the original expression: F’ = Σm ( 1 , 2 , 15)
Express as decimal subscript of m
= Σ ( m1 , m2 , m15 )
= Σ ( 0001 , 0010 , 1111 )
= Σm ( A’B’C’D + A’B’CD’ + ABCD )
Example :- Convert shorthand notation to a minterm expression F = m2
Solution :- F = m2 = 010 = A’BC’

Shorthand Maxterm notations 

1. Substitute 1’s for barred letters and 0’s for non-barred letters for maxterm
2. Write decimal equivalent of binary word
3. Express as decimal subscript of M
Example :- Represent the function as a maxterm expression using shorthand notation.
F(A,B,C)= ∏ M( A’+B’+C’ , A’+B+C , A+B’+C’ )
Solution :- Step 1 :- Substitute 1’s for barred letters and 0’s for non-barred letters
= ∏ M ( 111 , 100 , 011 )
Step 2 :- Express the decimal equivalent of binary word =∏M(7,4,3)
Step 3 :- Express as decimal subscript of M = ∏ ( M7 , M4 , M3 )
Example :- Represent complement of function as a maxterm expression using shorthand notation.
F(A,B,C,D)= ∏ M (0,1,3,5,6,7,9,10,11,12,13,14)
Solution :- To take the complement of a maxterm expression, you just list the maxterms that aren't
present in the original expression: F’ = ∏ M ( 2 , 4 , 8 , 15)
Express as decimal subscript of M
= ∏ (M2 , M4 , M8 , M15)
= ∏ ( 0010 , 0100 , 1010 , 1111 )
= ∏ ((A+B+C’+D), (A+B’+C+D), (A’+B+C’+D) , (A’+B’+C’+D’))

Example :- Convert shorthand notation to a maxterm expression F = M6

Solution :- F = M6 = 110 = A+B+C’

Find SOP and POS of Function F1 and F2 from the following Truth Table 

Solution --- Sum Of Products SOP of functions F1 and F2 are :-

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 23

Products Of Sums POS of functions F1 and F2 are :- All the terms with 1 in output in functions
are minterms and with output 0 are maxterms, therefore ---

Convert following three input functions F denoted by the expression into 

1. Canonical SOP form and draw Truth Tables also:-
F = ∑ (3,5,6,7)
Solution :- If three input variables are A, B and C then --- F = m3 + m5 + m6 + m7
m3 = 011 = A’BC
m5 = 101 = AB’C
m6 = 110 = ABC’
m7 = 111 = ABC
Canonical SOP form of the expression is :- A’BC + AB’C + ABC’ + ABC

A’BC = 1

AB’C = 1
ABC’ = 1
ABC = 1

2. Canonical POS form and draw Truth Tables also:-

F = ∏ (0,1,2,4)
Solution :- If three input variables are A, B and C then --- F = M0 + M1 + M2 + M4
M0 = 000 = A+B+C
M1 = 001 = A+B+C’
M2 = 010 = A+B’+C
M4 = 100 = A’+B+C
Canonical POS form of the expression is :
(A’+B’+C’).(A’+B’+C).(A’+B+C’).(A+B’+C’)

A+B+C = 0
A+B+C’ = 0
A+B’+C = 0

A’+B+C = 0

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 24

Steps involved in converting a given expression into Canonical SOP or (Sum of
Minterms) form 
1. Simplify the given expression using appropriate Boolean algebra theorem / rules
2. In each term if a variable is missing, multiply that term with
( missing_variable + missing_variable )
3. Expand the expression
4. Remove all the duplicate terms and we will have the Canonical SOP form

Example :- Find minterms of ( that is convert this to canonical SOP)

Solution ---
Step 1 :- Simplify the given expression using appropriate Boolean algebra theorem / rules

(DeMorgan's Theorem )
(DeMorgan's Theorem )
(Distributive Law)
( X.X’=0 and 0+X=X )

Step 2, 3:- multiply term with ( missing_variable + missing_variable ) and expand

the expression
So, convert the First term --- A.B’
= A.B’.1 ( as X.1=X )
= A.B’.(C+C’) ( as X+X’=1 )
= (A.B’.C) + (A.B’.C’) (Distributive Law)
Similarly, convert the second term --- A’B
= A’.B.1 ( as X.1=X )
= A’.B.(C+C’) ( as X+X’=1 )
= (A’.B.C) + (A’.B.C’) (Distributive Law)
Therefore, A.B’ + A’.B = (A.B’.C) + (A.B’.C’)+ (A’.B.C) + (A’.B.C’)
Step 4 :- Remove all the duplicate terms and we will have the Canonical SOP form.
This expression has no duplicates, therefore it will remain same.
A.B’ + A’.B = (A.B’.C) + (A.B’.C’)+ (A’.B.C) + (A’.B.C’)
101 100 011 010
F = Σm(2,3,4,5)(Minterm Expansion) This is the desired Canonical form.

Example :- Find minterm expansion of F = A’(B’+D)+ACD’

Solution ---
Step 1 :- Simplify the given expression using appropriate Boolean algebra theorem / rules.
The given expression is already in simplified form therefore no need to perform Step 1.
Step 2 :- In each term if a variable is missing, multiply that term with
( missing_variable + missing_variable )
F = A’B’ + ACD’ + A’D
= A’B’(C+C’)(D+D’) + ACD’(B+B’) + A’D(B+B’)(C+C’)
Step 3 :- Expand the expression
F= A’B’(CD + CD’ + C’D + C’D’)+ ABCD’ + AB’CD’+ A’D(BC + BC’ + B’C + B’C’)
(Distributive Law)
F = A’B’CD + A’B’CD’ + A’B’C’D + A’B’C’D’ + ABCD’ + AB’CD’ + A’BCD +
A’BC’D + A’B’CD + A’B’C’D (Distributive Law)

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 25

Step 4 :- Remove all the duplicate terms and we will have the Canonical SOP form.
F = A’B’CD + A’B’CD’ + A’B’C’D + A’B’C’D’ + ABCD’ + AB’CD’ +
A’BCD + A’BC’D + A’B’CD + A’B’C’D
F = A’B’C’D’ + A’B’C’D + A’B’CD’ + A’B’CD + A’BC’D + A’BCD + ABCD’ + AB’CD’
0000 0001 0010 0011 0101 0111 1110 1010
F = Σm(0,1,2,3,5,7,10,14) (Minterm Expansion)

Steps involved in converting a given expression into Canonical POS or (Product of

Maxterms) form 
1. Simplify the given expression using appropriate Boolean algebra theorem / rules
2. In each term if a variable is missing, add that term with
( missing_variable . missing_variable )
3. Expand the expression
4. Remove all the duplicate terms and we will have the Canonical POS form

Example :- Find minterm expansion of F = X.Y + X’.Z

Solution ---
Step 1 :- Simplify the given expression using appropriate Boolean algebra theorem / rules.
F = X.Y + X’.Z (converting all using distributive law)
= ((X.Y)+X’).((X.Y)+Z)
= (X+X’).(X’+Y).(X+Z).(Y+Z)
= (X’+Y).(X+Z).(Y+Z) (as X+X’=1)
Step 2:- In each term if a variable is missing, multiply that term with
( missing_variable . missing_variable )
F = (X’+Y).(X+Z).(Y+Z)
= (X’+Y+(Z.Z’)).(X+Z+(Y.Y’)).((X.X’)+Y+Z)
Step 3 :- Expand the expression
F =(X’+Y+Z).(X’+Y+Z’).(X+Z+Y).(X+Z+Y’).(X+Y+Z).(X’+Y+Z)
=(X’+Y+Z).(X’+Y+Z’).(X+Y+Z).(X+Y’+Z).(X+Y+Z).(X’+Y+Z) (Associative Law)
Step 4 :- Remove all the duplicate terms and we will have the Canonical SOP form.
F = (X’+Y+Z).(X’+Y+Z’).(X+Y+Z).(X+Y’+Z).(X+Y+Z).(X’+Y+Z)
= (X’+Y+Z’).(X’+Y+Z).(X+Y’+Z).(X+Y+Z)
= 101 100 010 000
= ∏ M (5,4,2,0) = ∏ (M5 , M4 , M2 , M0)

Some examples of Boolean Algebra

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 26

Sample Solved Questions

Notes By  Neelima Kamboj 27

 (c) try yourself

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