CHAPTER 12

STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Crystal Structures

12.1 For a ceramic compound, what are the two characteristics of the component ions that determine the
crystal structure?

Solution

The two characteristics of component ions that determine the crystal structure of a ceramic compound are:
1) the magnitude of the electrical charge on each ion, and 2) the relative sizes of the cations and anions.
 12.2 Show that the minimum cation-to-anion radius ratio for a coordination number of 4 is 0.225.

Solution

In this problem we are asked to show that the minimum cation-to-anion radius ratio for a coordination
number of four is 0.225. If lines are drawn from the centers of the anions, then a tetrahedron is formed. The
tetrahedron may be inscribed within a cube as shown below.

The spheres at the apexes of the tetrahedron are drawn at the corners of the cube, and designated as positions A, B,
C, and D. (These are reduced in size for the sake of clarity.) The cation resides at the center of the cube, which is
designated as point E. Let us now express the cation and anion radii in terms of the cube edge length, designated as
a. The spheres located at positions A and B touch each other along the bottom face diagonal. Thus,

AB = 2 rA

But
( AB) 2 = a 2 + a 2 = 2a 2

or

AB = a 2 = 2 rA

And
 2rA
a =
2

There will also be an anion located at the corner, point F (not drawn), and the cube diagonal AEF will be related to
the ionic radii as

AEF = 2 (rA + rC )

(The line AEF has not been drawn to avoid confusion.) From the triangle ABF

(AB) 2 + (FB) 2 = ( AEF)2

But,
2rA
FB = a =
2
and

AB = 2 rA

from above. Thus,

æ 2r ö2 2
(2 rA ) 2 + ç A
÷ = [2 (rA + rC )]
è 2 ø

Solving for the r C/r A ratio leads to

rC 6 - 2
= = 0.225
rA 2
 12.3 Show that the minimum cation-to-anion radius ratio for a coordination number of 6 is 0.414. [Hint:
Use the NaCl crystal structure (Figure 12.2), and assume that anions and cations are just touching along cube
edges and across face diagonals.]

Solution

This problem asks us to show that the minimum cation-to-anion radius ratio for a coordination n umber of 6
is 0.414 (using the rock salt crystal structure). Below is shown one of the faces of the rock salt crystal structure in
which anions and cations just touch along the edges, and also the face diagonals.

From triangle FGH,

GF = 2 rA

and

FH = GH = rA + rC

Since FGH is a right triangle

(GH )2 + (FH )2 = (FG)2

or

(rA + rC )2 + (rA + rC )2 = (2rA )2

which leads to
 2 rA
rA + rC =
2

Or, solving for r C/r A

rC æ 2 ö
= ç - 1÷ = 0.414
rA è 2 ø
 12.4 Demonstrate that the minimum cation-to-a nion radius ratio for a coordination number of 8 is 0.732.

Solution

This problem asks us to show that the minimum cation-to-anion radius ratio for a coordination number of 8
is 0.732. From the cubic unit cell shown below

the unit cell edge length is 2r A, and from the base of the unit cell

x2 = (2rA ) 2 + (2rA ) 2 = 8rA2

Or

x = 2 rA 2

Now from the triangle that involves x, y, and the unit cell edge

x2 + (2rA ) 2 = y2 = (2 rA + 2rC ) 2

(2rA 2 )2 + 4rA2 = (2rA + 2rC ) 2

Which reduces to

2rA ( 3 - 1) = 2 rC

Or
rC
= 3 - 1 = 0.732
rA
 12.5 On the basis of ionic charge and ionic radii given in Table 12.3, predict crystal structures for the
following materials:
(a) CsI,
(b) NiO,
(c) KI, and
(d) NiS.
Justify your selections.

Solution

This problem calls for us to predict crystal structures for several ceramic materials on the basis of ionic
charge and ionic radii.
(a) For CsI, using data from Table 12.3

rCs + 0.170 nm
= = 0.773
rI- 0.220 nm

Now, from Table 12.2, the coordination number for each cation (Cs +) is eight, and, using Table 12.4, the predicted
crystal structure is cesium chloride.
(b) For NiO, using data from Table 12.3

rNi 2+ 0.069 nm
= = 0.493
rO 2- 0.140 nm

The coordination number is six (Table 12.2), and the predicted crystal structure is sodium chloride (Table 12.4).
(c) For KI, using data from Table 12.3

rK + 0.138 nm
= = 0.627
rI- 0.220 nm

The coordination number is six (Table 12.2), and the predicted crystal structure is sodium chloride (Table 12.4).
(d) For NiS, using data from Table 12.3

rNi 2+ 0.069 nm
= = 0.375
rS 2- 0.184 nm

The coordination number is four (Table 12.2), and the predicted crystal structure is zinc blende (Table 12.4).
 12.6 Which of the cations in Table 12.3 would you predict to form iodides having the cesium chloride
crystal structure? Justify your choices.

Solution

We are asked to cite the cations in Table 12.3 which would form iodides having the cesium chloride crystal
structure. First of all, the possibilities would include only the monovalent cations Cs +, K+, and Na+. Furthermore,
the coordination numb er for each cation must be 8, which means that 0.732 < r C/r A < 1.0 (Table 12.2). From Table
12.3 the r C/r A ratios for these three cations and the I- ion are as follows:

rCs + 0.170 nm
= = 0.77
rI- 0.220 nm

rK + 0.138 nm
= = 0.63
rI- 0.220 nm

rNa + 0.102 nm
= = 0.46
rI- 0.220 nm

Thus, only cesium will form the CsCl crystal structure with iodine.
 12.7 Compute the atomic packing factor for the rock salt crystal structure in which r C/r A = 0.414.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the atomic packing factor for the rock salt crystal structure when r C/r A

= 0.414. From Equation 3.2

VS
APF =
VC

With regard to the sphere volume, VS, there are four cation and four anion spheres per unit cell. Thus,

æ4 ö æ4 ö
VS = (4) ç p rA3 ÷ + (4) ç p rC3 ÷
è3 ø è3 ø

But, since r C/r A = 0.414

16 3
VS = [ ]
p r 1 + (0.414 ) 3 = (17.94) rA3
3 A

Now, for r C/r A = 0.414 the corner anions in Table 12.2 just touch one another along the cubic unit cell edges such

that

3
VC = a 3 = [2 (rA + rC )]

3
= [2 (rA + 0.414 rA )] = (22.62) rA3

Thus

VS (17.94) rA3
APF = = = 0.79
VC (22.62) rA3
 12.8 The zinc blende crystal structure is one that may be generated from close-packed planes of anions.
(a) Will the stacking sequence for this structure be FCC or HCP? Why?
(b) Will cations fill tetrahedral or octahedral positions? Why?
(c) What fraction of the positions will be occupied?

Solution

This question is concerned with the zinc blende crystal structure in terms of close-packed planes of anions.
(a) The stacking sequence of close-packed planes of anions for the zinc blende crystal structure will be the
same as FCC (and not HCP) because the anion packing is FCC (Table 12.4).
(b) The cations will fill tetrahedral positions since the coordination number for cations is four (Table 12.4).
(c) Only one-half of the tetrahedral positions will be occupied because there are two tetrahedral sites per
anion, and yet only one cation per anion.
 12.9 The corundum crystal structure, found for Al2O3, consists of an HCP arrangement of O2- ions; the Al3+
ions occupy octahedral positions.
(a) What fraction of the available octahedral positions are filled with Al3+ ions?
(b) Sketch two close-packed O2–planes stacked in an AB sequence, and note octahedral positions that
will be filled with the Al3+ ions.

Solution

This question is concerned with the corundum crystal structure in terms of close-packed planes of anions.
(a) For this crystal structure, two-thirds of the octahedral positions will be filled with Al3+ ions since there
is one octahedral site per O2- ion, and the ratio of Al3+ to O2- ions is two-to-three.
(b) Two close-packed O2- planes and the octahedral positions between these planes that will be filled with
Al3+ ions are sketched below.
 12.10 Iron sulfide (FeS) may form a crystal structure that consists of an HCP arrangement of S2- ions.
(a) Which type of interstitial site will the Fe2+ ions occupy?
(b) What fraction of these available interstitial sites will be occupied by Fe2+ ions?

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem asks that we specify which type of interstitial site the Fe2+ ions will occupy
in FeS if the S2- ion s form an HCP arrangement. Since, from Table 12.3, r 2- = 0.184 nm and r 2+= 0.077 nm, then
S Fe

rFe 2+ 0.077 nm
= = 0.418
rS 2- 0.184 nm

Inasmuch as r C/r A is between 0.414 and 0.732, the coordination number for Fe2+ LV 7 DEOH W
KHUHIRUH

tetrahedral octahedral positions are occupied.

(b) We are now asked what fraction of these available interstitial sites are occupied by Fe2+ ions. Since
there is 1 octahedral site per S2- ion, and the ratio of Fe2+ to S2- is 1:1, all of these sites are occupied with Fe2+ ions.
 12.11 Magnesium silicate, Mg 2SiO4, forms in the olivine crystal structure that consists of an HCP
arrangement of O2- ions.
(a) Which type of interstitial site will the Mg 2+ ions occupy? Why?
(b) Which type of interstitial site will the Si4+ ions occupy? Why?
(c) What fraction of the total tetrahedral sites will be occupied?
(d) What fraction of the total octahedral sites will be occupied?

Solution

(a) We are first of all asked to cite, for Mg 2 SiO4 , which type of interstitial site the Mg 2+ ions will occupy.

From Table 12.3, the cation-anion radius ratio is

rMg 2+ 0.072 nm
= = 0.514
rO 2- 0.140 nm

Since this ratio is between 0.414 and 0.732, the Mg 2+ ions will occupy octahedral sites (Table 12.2).
(b) Similarly, for the Si4+ ions

rSi 4 + 0.040 nm
= = 0.286
rO 2- 0.140 nm

Since this ratio is between 0.225 and 0.414, the Si4+ ions will occupy tetrahedral sites.
(c) For each Mg 2 SiO4 formula unit, there are four O2- ions, and, therefore, eight tetrahedral sites;

furthermore, since there is one Si4+ ion per four O2- ions (eight tetrahedral sites), one-eighth of the tetrahedral sites
will be occupied.
(d) Also, inasmuch as the Mg 2+ to O2- ratio is 1:2, and there is one octahedral site per O2- ion, one-half of
these sites will be filled.
 12.12 Using the Molecule Definition Utility found in both “Metallic Crystal Structures and
Crystallography” and “Ceramic Crystal Structures” modules of VMSE, located on the book’s web site
[www.wiley.com/college/callister (Student Companion Site)] , generate (and print out) a three-dimensional unit
cell for titanium dioxide, TiO2 , given the following: (1) The unit cell is tetragonal with a = 0.459 nm and c = 0.296

nm, (2) oxygen atoms are located at the following point coordinates:
1
0.356 0.356 0 0.856 0.144
2

1
0.664 0.664 0 0.144 0.856
2

and (3) Ti atoms are located at the following point coordinates:

0 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1
0 0 1
2 2 2

1 1 0

Solution

First of all, open the “Molecular Definition Utility”; it may be found in either of “Metallic Crystal Structures
and Crystallography” or “Ceramic Crystal Structures” modules.
In the “Step 1” window, it is necessary to define the atom types, colors for the spheres (atoms), and specify
atom sizes. Let us enter “O” as the name for the oxygen ions (since “O” the symbol for oxygen), and “Ti” as the
name for the titanium ions. Next it is necessary to choose a color for each atom type from the selections that appear
in the pull-down menu—for example, “Red” for O and “Light Cyan” for Ti. In the “Atom Size” window, it is
necessary to enter an atom/ion size. In the instructions for this step, it is suggested that the atom/ion diameter in
nanometers be used. From the table found inside the front cover of the textbook, the atomic radii for oxygen and
titanium are 0.140 nm and 0.068 nm, respectively, and, therefore, their ionic diameters are twice these values (i.e., 0.280
QP DQG QP W
KHUHIRUH ZH HQter the values “0.280” and “0.136” for the two atom types. Now click on the
“Register” button, followed by clicking on the “Go to Step 2” button.
,Q W
KH ³ 6W
HS ´ ZLQGRZ ZHVSHFLI\ SRVLW
LRQVIRUDOORI W
KHDW
RP VZLW
KLQ W
KHXQLWFHOO W
KHLUSRLQWFRRUGLQDtes
are specified in the problem statement. Let’s begin with oxygen. Click on the red sphere that is located to the right of
the “Molecule Definition Utility” box. Some of the point coordinates for the oxygen ions are fractional ones; in these
instances, the unit cell lattice parameters--a or c (i.e., 0.459 or 0.296) are multiplied by the fraction. For example, one
1
oxygen ion is located at the 0.856 0.144 coordinate. Therefore, the x, y, and z atoms positions are (0.856)(0.459) =
2
1
0.393, (0.144)(0.459) = 0.066, and (0.296) = 0.148, respectively. Thus, we enter “0.393” in the “x” position box,
2
“0.066” in the “y” position box, and “0.148” in the “z” position box. [Note: the first two point coordinates relate to
the a lattice parameter (0.459 nm), whereas the third applies to the c lattice parameter (0.296 nm).] Next we click on the
“Register Atom Position” button. Now we repeat the procedure for the remaining oxygen ions
After this step has been completed, it is necessary to specify positions for the titanium ions. To begin, we
click on the light cyan sphere that is located next to the “Molecule Definition Utility” box. One Ti ion will be
positioned at the origin of the coordinate system—i.e., its poin t coordinates are 0 0 0, and, therefore, we enter a “0”
(zero) in each of the “x”, “y”, and “z” atom position boxes. Next we click on the “Register Atom Position” button.
And the enter the coordinate for all of the other titanium ions

For the oxygen io ns, x, y, and z atom position entries for the 4 sets of point coordinates are as follows:
0.163, 0.163, 0
0.305, 0.305, 0
0.393, 0.066, 0.148
0.066, 0.393, 0.148

Now, for the titanium ions, the x, y, and z atom position entries for all 9 sets of point coordinates are as
follows:
0, 0, 0
0.459, 0, 0
0, 0.459, 0
0, 0, 0.296
0.459, 0.459, 0
0.459, 0, 0.296
0, 0.459, 0.296
0.459, 0.459, 0.296
0.230, 0.230, 0.148

In Step 3, we may specify which atoms are to be represented as being bonded to one another, and which
type of bond(s) to use (single solid, single dashed, double, and triple are possibilities), or we may elect to not
represent any bonds at all (in which case we are finished). If it is decided to show bonds, probably the best thing to
do is to represent unit cell edges as bonds. Your resulting image may be rotated by using mouse click-and-drag
Your image should appear as the following screen shot.
Here the darker spheres represent titanium ions, while oxygen ions are depicted by the lighter balls.

[Note: Unfortunately, with this version of the Molecular Definition Utility, it is not possible to save either the data or
the image that you have generated. You may use screen capture (or screen shot) software to record and store your
image.]
 12.13 Calculate the density of FeO, given that it has the rock salt crystal structure.

Solution

We are asked to calculate the theoretical density of FeO. This density may be computed using Equation
(12.1) as

n¢( AFe + AO )
r =
VC N A

Since the crystal structure is rock salt, n' = 4 formula units per unit cell. Using the ionic radii for Fe2+ and O2- from
Table 12.3, the unit cell volume is computed as follows:

3 3
(
VC = a 3 = 2rFe 2+ + 2rO 2- ) = [2 (0.077 nm) + 2 (0.140 nm)]

nm3 cm3
= 0.0817 = 8.17 ´ 10 -23
unit cell unit cell

Thus,

(4 formula units/unit cell)(55.85 g/mol + 16.00 g/mol)

r =
(8.17 ´ 10 -23 cm 3/unit )(
cell 6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)

= 5.84 g/cm3
 12.14 Magnesium oxide has the rock salt crystal structure and a density of 3.58 g/cm3.
(a) Determine the unit cell edge length.
(b) How does this result compare with the edge length as determined from the radii in Table 12.3,
assuming that the Mg 2+ and O2- ions just touch each other along the edges?

Solution

(a) This part of the problem calls for us to determine the unit cell edge length for MgO. The density of MgO
is 3.58 g/cm3 and the crystal structure is rock salt. From Equatio n 12.1

n¢( AMg + AO ) n¢( AMg + AO )

r = =
VC N A a 3 NA

Or, solving for a

é n¢( AMg + AO ) ù1/ 3

a = ê ú
êë r NA úû

Inasmuch as there are 4 formula units per unit cell for the rock salt crystal structure, and the atomic weights of
magnesium and oxygen are 24.31 and 16.00 g/mol, respectively, when we solve for a from the above equation

é (4 formula units/unit cell)(24.31 g/mol + 16.00 g/mol) ù1/ 3

a= ê ú
ë (3.58 g/cm 3)(6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol) û

= 4.21 ´ 10 -8 cm = 0.421 nm

(b) The edge length is determined from the Mg 2+ and O2- radii for this portion of the problem. Now for the
rock salt crystal structure

a = 2rMg 2+ + 2rO 2-

From Table 12.3

a = 2(0.072 nm) + 2(0.140 nm) = 0.424 nm

 12.15 Compute the theoretical density of diamond given that the C—C distance and bond angle are 0.154
nm and 109.5°, respectively. How does this value compare with the measured density?

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the theoretical density of diamond given that the C—C distance and
bond angle are 0.154 nm and 109.5°, respectively. The first thing we need do is to determine the unit cell edge length
from the given C—C distance. The drawing below shows the cubic unit cell with those carbon atoms that bond to
one another in one-quarter of the unit cell.

From this figure, f is one-half of the bond angle or f = 109.5°/2 = 54.75°, which means that

q = 90° - 54.75 ° = 35.25 °

since the triangle shown is a right triangle. Also, y = 0.154 nm, the carbon-carbon bond distance.
Furthermore, x = a /4, and therefore,

a
x = = y sin q
4
Or
a = 4 y sin q = (4)(0.154 nm)(sin 35.25 °) = 0.356 nm

= 3.56 ´ 10-8 cm

The unit cell volume, VC is just a 3 , that is

VC = a 3 = (3.56 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3 = 4.51 ´ 10 -23 cm3

We must now utilize a modified Equation 12.1 since there is only one atom type. There are 8 equivalent atoms per
unit cell, and therefore

n AC
r =
VC N A

(8 atoms/unit cell)(12.01 g/g - atom)

=
(4.51 ´ 10 -23 cm3/unit cell)( 6.022 ´ 10 23 atoms/g - atom)

= 3.54 g/cm3

The measured density is 3.51 g/cm3 .

 12.16 Compute the theoretical density of ZnS given that the Zn—S distance and bond angle are 0.234 nm
and 109.5°, respectively. How does this value compare with the measured density?

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the theoretical density of ZnS given that the Zn—S distance and bond
angle are 0.234 nm and 109.5°, respectively. The first thing we need do is to determine the unit cell volume from the
given Zn—S distance. From the previous problem, the unit cell volume VC is just a 3 , a being the unit cell edge

length, and

VC = (4 y sin q)3 = [(4)(0.234 nm)(sin 35.25 °)]3

= 0.1576 nm3 = 1.576 ´ 10-22 cm3

Now we must utilize Equation 12.1 with n' = 4 formula units, and AZn and AS being 65.41 and 32.06 g/mol, respectively.

Thus

n' ( AZn + AS )
r=
VC N A

(4 formula units/unit cell)(65.41 g/mol + 32.06 g/mol)

=
(1.576 ´ 10 -22 cm3/unit cell)( 6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)

= 4.11 g/cm3

The measured value of the density is 4.10 g/cm3 .

 12.17 Cadmium sulfide (CdS) has a cubic unit cell, and from x-ray diffraction data it is known that the
cell edge length is 0.582 nm. If the measured density is 4.82 g/cm3, how many Cd 2+ and S2- ions are there per unit
cell?

Solution

We are asked to determine the number of Cd 2+ and S2- ions per unit cell for cadmium sulfide (CdS). For
CdS, a = 0.582 nm and r = 4.82 g/cm3 . Solving for n' from Equation 12.1, we get

rVC N A ra 3N A
n¢ = =
ACd + AS ACd + AS

(4.82 g/cm 3)(5.82 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3 (6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units / mol)

=
(112 .41 g/mol + 32.06 g/mol)

= 3.96 or almost 4

Therefore, there are four Cd 2+ and four S2- per unit cell.
 12.18 (a) Using the ionic radii in Table 12 .3, compute the theoretical density of CsCl. (Hint: Use a
modification of the result of Problem 3.3.)
(b) The measured density is 3.99 g/cm3. How do you explain the slight discrepancy between your
calculated value and the measured one?

Solution

(a) W e are asked to compute the density of CsCl. Modifying the result of Problem 3.3, we get

2rCs + + 2rCl- 2 (0.170 nm) + 2 ( 0.181 nm)

a = =
3 3

= 0.405 nm = 4.05 ´ 10-8 cm

From Equation 12.1

n¢ ( ACs + ACl ) n¢( ACs + ACl )

r = =
VC N A a 3 NA

For the CsCl crystal structure, n' = 1 formula unit/unit cell, and thus

(1 formula unit/unit cell)(132.91 g/mol + 35.45 g/mol)

r =
(4.05 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3 /unit cell (6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)

= 4.21 g/cm3

(b) This value of the density is greater than the measured density (3.99 g/cm3 ). The reason for this
discrepancy is that the ionic radii in Table 12.3, used for this computation, were for a coordination number of six,
when, in fact, the coordination number of both Cs + and Cl- is eight. The ionic radii should be slightly greater, leading
to a larger VC value, and a lower density.
 12.19 From the data in Table 12.3, compute the theoretical density of CaF 2, which has the fluorite
structure.

Solution

A unit cell of the fluorite structure is shown in Figure 12.5. It may be seen that there are four CaF2 units per

unit cell (i.e., n' = 4 formula units/unit cell). Assume that for each of the eight small cubes in the unit cell

2rCa 2+ + 2rF -
a =
3

and, from Table 12.3

2 (0.100 nm) + 2 (0.133 nm)

a = = 0.269 nm = 2.69 ´ 10 -8 cm
3

The volume of the unit cell is just

3
[
VC = (2a) 3 = (2) (2.69 ´ 10 -8 cm) ] = 1.56 ´ 10 -22 cm 3

Thus, from Equation 12.1

n' ( ACa + 2 AF )
r =
VC N A

(4 formula units/unit cell) [40.08 g/mol + (2)(19.00 g/mol) ]

=
(1.56 ´ 10 -22 cm3/unit cell)( 6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)

= 3.33 g/cm3

The measured density is 3.18 g/cm3 .

 12.20 A hypothetical AX type of ceramic material is known to have a density of 2.65 g/cm3 and a unit cell
of cubic symmetry with a cell edge length of 0.43 nm. The atomic weights of the A and X elements are 86.6 and 40.3
g/mol, respectively. On the basis of this information, which of the following crystal structures is (are) possible for
this material: rock salt, cesium chloride, or zinc blende? Justify your choice(s).

Solution

We are asked to specify possible crystal structures for an AX type of ceramic material given its density (2.65
g/cm3 ), that the unit cell has cubic symmetry with edge length of 0.43 nm (4.3 ´ 10-8 cm), and the atomic weights of
the A and X elements (86.6 and 40.3 g/mol, respectiv ely). Using Equation 12.1 and solving for n' yields

rVC N A
n' =
å AC + å AA

(2.65 g/cm 3) [(4.30 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3 /unit cell ](6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)

=
(86.6 + 40.3) g/mol

= 1.00 formula units/unit cell

Of the three possible crystal structures, only cesium chloride has one formula unit per unit cell, and therefore, is the
only possibility.
 12.21 The unit cell for MgFe2O4 (MgO-Fe2O3) has cubic symmetry with a unit cell edge length of 0.836 nm.
If the density of this material is 4.52 g/cm3, compute its atomic packing factor. For this computation, you will need
to use io nic radii listed in Table 12.3.

Solution

This problem asks us to compute the atomic packing factor for MgFe2 O4 given its density and unit cell edge

length. It is first necessary to determine the number of formula units in the unit cell in order to calculate the sphere
volume. Solving for n' from Equation 12.1 leads to

rVC N A
n' =
å AC + å AA

(4.52 g/cm3) [(8.36 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3 /unit cell ](6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)

=
(1)(24.31 g/mol) + (2)(55.85 g/mol) + (4)(16.00 g/mol)

= 8.0 formula units/unit cell

Thus, in each unit cell there are 8 Mg 2+, 16 Fe3+, and 32 O2- ions. From Table 12.3, r = 0.072 nm, r 3+ = 0.069
M g2+ Fe
nm, and r 2- = 0.140 nm. Thus, the total sphere volume in Equation 3.2 (which we denote as VS), is just
O

æ4 ö æ4 ö
VS = (8) ç p ÷( 7.2 ´ 10 -9 cm) 3 + (16) ç p ÷ ( 6.9 ´ 10 -9 cm) 3
è3 ø è3 ø

æ4 ö
+ (32) ç p ÷ (1.40 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3
è3 ø

= 4.02 ´ 10-22 cm3

Now, the unit cell volume (VC) is just

VC = a 3 = (8.36 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3 = 5.84 ´ 10 -22 cm3

Finally, the atomic packing factor (APF) from Equation 3.2 is just

VS 4.02 ´ 10 -22 cm3

APF = = = 0.688
VC 5.84 ´ 10 -22 cm3
 12.22 The unit cell for Cr 2O3 has hexagonal symmetry with lattice parameters a = 0.4961 nm and c =
1.360 nm. If the density of this material is 5.22 g/cm3, calculate its atomic packing factor. For this computation
assume ionic radii of 0.062 nm and 0.140 nm, respectively for Cr 3+ and O2-.

Solution

This problem asks for us to calculate the atomic packing factor for chromium oxide given values for the a
and c lattice parameters, and the density. It first becomes necessary to determine the value of n' in Equation 12.1.
This necessitates that we calculate the value of VC, the unit cell volume. In Problem 3.6 it was shown that the area of

the hexagonal base (AREA) is related to a as

æ a ö2
AREA = 6R2 3 = 6ç ÷ 3 = 1.5a 2 3
è2ø

inasmuch as, for HCP, a = 2R (where R is the atomic radius). Now, incorporating the value of a provided in the
problem statement into the above expression leads to

AREA = (1.5) (4.961 ´ 10 -8 cm) 2 ( 3) = 6.39 ´ 10 -15 cm2

The unit cell volume now is just

VC = (AREA)(c) = (6.39 ´ 10 -15 cm 2 )(1.360 ´ 10 -7 cm)

= 8.70 ´ 10-22 cm3

Now, solving for n' (Equation 12.1) yields

rN AVC
n' =
å AC + å AA

=
(5.22 g/cm 3)(6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)(8.70 ´ 10 -22 cm3/unit cell)
(2)(52.00 g/mol) + (3)(16.00g/mol)

= 18.0 formula units/unit cell

Or, there are 18 Cr2 O3 units per unit cell, or 36 Cr3+ ions and 54 O2- ions. As given in the problem statement, the radii

of these two ion types are 0.062 and 0.140 nm, respectively. Thus, the total sphere volume in Equation 3.2 (which we
denote as VS), is just

æ4 ö æ4 ö
VS = (36) ç p ÷(rCr 3+ ) 3 + (54) ç p ÷(rO 2- ) 3
è3 ø è3 ø

æ4 ö æ4 ö
= (36) ç p ÷(6.2 ´ 10 -9 cm) 3 + (54) ç p ÷(1.4 ´ 10 -8 cm) 3
è3 ø è3 ø

= 6.57 ´ 10-22 cm3

Finally, the APF is just

V 6.57 ´ 10 -22 cm3

APF = S = = 0.755
VC 8.70 ´ 10 - 22 cm3
 12.23 Compute the atomic packing factor for the diamond cubic crystal structure (Figure 12.15). Assume
that bonding atoms touch one another, that the angle between adjacent bonds is 109.5°, and that each atom
internal to the unit cell is positioned a/4 of the distance away from the two nearest cell faces (a is the unit cell edge
length).

Solution

We are asked in this problem to compute the atomic packing factor for the diamond cubic crystal structure,
given that the angle between adjacent bonds is 109.5°. The first thing that we must do is to determine the unit cell
volume VC in terms of the atomic radius r . From Problem 12.15 the following relationship was developed

a = 4y sin q

in which y = 2r and q = 35.25°. Furthermore, since the unit cell is cubic, VC = a 3 ; therefore

VC = (4 y sin q) 3 = [(4)(2 r )(sin 35.25 °)]3 = 98.43 r 3

Now, it is necessary to determine the sphere volume in the unit cell, VS, in terms of r . For this unit cell (Figure 12.15)

there are 4 interior atoms, 6 face atoms, and 8 corner atoms. The entirety of the interior atoms, one-half of each face
atom, and one-eighth of each corner atom belong to the unit cell. Therefore, there are 8 equivalent atoms per unit
cell; hence

æ4 ö
VS = (8) ç p r 3 ÷ = 33.51 r 3
è3 ø

Finally, the atomic packing factor is just

VS 33.51 r 3
APF = = = 0.340
VC 98.43 r 3
 12.24 Compute the atomic packing factor for cesium chloride using the ionic radii in Table 12.3 and
assuming that the ions touch along the cube diagonals.

Solution

We are asked in this problem to compute the atomic packing factor for the CsCl crystal structure. This
requires that we take the ratio of the sphere volume within the unit cell and the total unit cell volume. From Figure
12.3 there is the equivalence of one &VDQG RQH&OLRQ SHUXQLWFHOO W KHLRQLF UDGLLRI W
KHVHW
ZR LRQVDUH QP DQG
0.181 nm, respectively (Table 12.3). Thus, the sphere volume, VS, is just

4
VS = (p) (0.170 nm) 3 + (0.181 nm) 3
[ ]= 0.0454 nm3
3

For CsCl the unit cell edge length, a, in terms of the atomic radii is just

2r + + 2r - 2(0.170 nm) + 2(0.181 nm)

a = Cs Cl =
3 3

= 0.405 nm

Since VC = a 3

VC = (0.405 nm)3 = 0.0664 nm3

And, finally the atomic packing factor is just

V 0.0454 nm 3
APF = S = = 0.684
VC 0.0664 nm 3
 12.25 For each of the following crystal structures, represent the indicated plane in the manner of Figures
3.11 and 3.12, showing both anions and cations:
(a) (100) plane for the rock salt crystal structure,
(b) (110) plane for the cesium chloride crystal structure,
(c) (111) plane for the zinc blende crystal structure, and
(d) (110) plane for the perovskite crystal structure.

Solution

(a) A (100) plane for the rock salt crystal structure would appear as

(b) A (110) plane for the cesium chloride crystal structure would appear as

(c) A (111) plane for the zinc blende crystal structure would appear as
(d) A (110) plane for the perovskite crystal structure would appear as
 Silicate Ceramics

12.26 In terms of bonding, explain why silicate materials have relatively low densities.

Solution

The silicate materials have relatively low densities because the atomic bonds are primarily covalent in nature
(Table 12.1), and, therefore, directional. This limits the packing efficiency of the atoms, and therefore, the magnitude
of the density.
 12.27 Determine the angle between covalent bonds in an SiO44- tetrahedron.

Solution

This problem asks for us to determine the angle between covalent bonds in the SiO4-
4 tetrahedron. Below
is shown one such tetrahedron situated within a cube.

Now if we extend the base diagonal from one corner to the other, it is the case that

(2 y) 2 = a 2 + a 2 = 2a 2

or
a 2
y =
2

Furthermore, x = a /2, and

x a /2 1
tan q = = =
y a 2 /2 2

From which
æ 1 ö
q = tan-1 ç ÷ = 35.26°
è 2ø

Now, solving for the angle f

f = 180 ° - 90° - 35.26 ° = 54.74 °

Finally, the bond angle is just 2f, or 2f = (2)(54.74°) = 109.48°.

 Imperfections in Ceramics

12.28 Would you expect Frenkel defects for anions to exist in ionic ceramics in relatively large
concentrations? Why or why not?

Solution

Frenkel defects for anions would not exist in appreciable concentrations because the anion is quite large and
is highly unlikely to exist as an interstitial.
 12.29 Calculate the fraction of lattice sites that are Schottky defects for sodium chloride at its melting
temperature (801°C). Assume an energy for defect formation of 2.3 eV.

Solution

We are asked in this problem to calculate the fraction of lattice sites that are Schottky defects for NaCl at its
melting temperature (801°C), assuming that the energy for defect formation is 2.3 eV. In order to solve this problem it
is necessary to use Equation 12.3 and solve for the Ns/N ratio. Rearrangement of this expression and substituting

values for the several parameters leads to

Ns æ Q ö
= exp ç- s ÷
N è 2kT ø

é 2.3 eV ù
= exp ê- -5 ú
ë (2)(8.62 ´ 10 eV/K)(801 + 273 K) û

= 4.03 ´ 10-6
 12.30 Calculate the number of Frenkel defects per cubic meter in zinc oxide at 1000°C. The energy for
defect formation is 2.51 eV, while the density for ZnO is 5.55 g/cm3 at (1000°C).

Solution

This p roblem asks that we compute the number of Frenkel defects per cubic meter in zinc oxide at 1000°C.
Solution of this problem is possible using Equation 12.2. However, we must first determine the value of N, the
number of lattice sites per cubic meter, whiFK LVSRVVLEOHXVLQJ DP RGLILHG IRUP RI ( TXDW
LRQ W
KXV

N Ar
N =
AZn + AO

(6.022 ´ 10 23 atoms/mol)(5.55 g/cm 3 )(10 6 cm3/m 3)

=
65.41 g/mol + 16.00 g/mol

= 4.11 ´ 1028 lattice sites/m3

And, finally the value of Nfr is computed using Equation 12.2 as

æ Q fr ö
N fr = N exp ç- ÷
è 2kT ø

é 2.51 eV ù
= (4.11 ´ 10 28 lattice sites/m3 ) exp ê- -5 ú
ë (2)(8.62 ´ 10 eV/K)(1000 + 273 K) û

= 4.43 ´ 1023 defects/m3

 12.31 Using the data given below that relate to the formation of Schottky defects in some oxide ceramic
(having the chemical formula MO), determine the following:
(a) The energy for defect formation (in eV),
(b) The equilib rium number of Schottky defects per cubic meter at 1000°C, and
(c) The identity of the oxide (i.e., what is the metal M?)

T (°C) ρ (g/cm3) Ns (m–3)

750 5.50 9.21 × 10 19

1000 5.44 ?
1250 5.37 5.0 × 10 22

Solution

This problem provides for some oxid e ceramic, at temperatures of 750°C and 1250°C, values for density and
the number of Schottky defects per cubic meter. The (a) portion of the problem asks that we compute the energy for
defect formation. To begin, let us combine a modified form of Equation 4.2 and Equation 12.3 as

æ Q ö
N s = N exp ç- s ÷
è 2kT ø

æ N r ö æ Q ö
A
= ç ÷ exp ç- s ÷
è AM + AO ø è 2kT ø

Inasmuch as this is a hypothetical oxide material, we don't know the atomic weight of metal M, nor the value of Qs in
the above equation. Therefore, let us write equations of the above form for two temperatures, T1 and T2. These are

as follows:

æ N r ö æ Q ö
N s1 = ç A 1 s
÷ exp ç- ÷ (12.S1a)
è AM + AO ø è 2kT1 ø

æ N r ö æ Qs ö
N s2 = ç A 2
÷ exp ç- ÷ (12.S1b)
è AM + AO ø è 2kT2 ø

Dividing the first of these equations by the second leads to

 æ N r ö æ Qs ö
A 1
ç ÷ exp ç- ÷
N s1 è AM + AO ø è 2kT1 ø
=
N s2 æ N Ar 2 ö æ Qs ö
ç ÷ exp ç- ÷
è M + AO ø
A è 2kT2 ø

which, after some algebraic manipulation, reduces to the form

N s1 r1 é Q æ1 1 öù
= exp ê- s çç - ÷ú (12.S2)
N s2 r2 êë 2k è T1 T2 ÷øúû

Now, taking natural logarithms of both sides of this equation gives

æN ö ær ö Q æ1 1ö
ln ç s1 ÷ = ln ç 1 ÷ - s ç - ÷
è Ns2 ø è r2 ø 2k è T1 T2 ø

and solving for Qs leads to the expression

é æN ö æ r öù
-2k ê lnç s1 ÷ - lnç 1 ÷ú
ë è Ns2 ø è r 2 øû
Qs =
1 1
-
T1 T2

Let us take T1 = 750°C and T2 = 1250°C, and we may compute the value of Qs as

é æ 9.2 ´ 10 19 m-3 ö æ 5.50 g/cm3 öù

-(2)(8.62 ´ 10 -5 eV/K) ê ln ç ÷ - ln ç ÷ú
êë è 5.0 ´ 10 22 m-3 ø è 5.37 g/cm3 øúû
Qs =
1 1
-
750 + 273 K 1250 + 273 K

= 3.40 eV

(b) It is now possible to solve for Ns at 1000°C using Equation 12.S2 above. This time let's take T1 = 1000°C
and T2 = 750°C. Thus, solving for Ns1, substituting values provided in the problem statement and Qs determined

above yields

N s 2 r1 é Q æ1 1 öù
N s1 = exp ê- s çç - ÷ú
r2 êë 2k è T1 T2 ÷øúû
 (9.2 ´ 10 19 m-3)( 5.44 g/cm 3 ) é æ 1 1 öù
= exp ê- 3.40 eV ç - ÷ú
5.50 g/cm 3 (2)(8.62 ´ 10 -5 eV/K) è 1000 + 273 K 750 + 273 K øû
ë

= 4.0 x 1021 m-3

(c) And, finally, we want to determine the identity of metal M. This is possible by computing the atomic
weight of M (AM ) from Equation 12.S1a. Rearrangement of this expression leads to

æ N r ö æ Q ö
A 1
ç ÷ = N s1exp ç s ÷
è AM + AO ø è 2kT1 ø

And, after further algebraic manipulation

é ù
ê ú
ê N A r1 ú = A + A
ê æ Q öú M O
ê N s1exp ç s ÷ ú
ë è 2kT1 ø û

And, solving this expression for AM gives

é ù
ê ú
ê N A r1 ú - A
AM = O
ê æ Q öú
N exp s
ê s1 ç ÷ú
ë è 2kT1 ø û

Now, assuming that T1 = 750°C, the value of AM is

ì ü
ï ï
ï (6.022 ´ 10 23 ions/mol)( 5.50 g/cm 3)(10 6 cm3 / m 3 ) ï
AM = í ý - 16.00 g/mol
ï (9.2 ´ 10 19 ions/m3 ) exp é 3.40 eV ùï
ïî ê úï
ë (2)(8.62 ´ 10 -5 eV/K)(750 + 273 K) ûþ

= 136.7 g/mol

Upon consultation of the periodic table in Figure 2.6, the divalent metal (i.e., that forms M 2+ ions) that has an atomic
weight closest to 136.7 g/mol is barium. Thus, this metal oxide is BaO.
 12.32 In your own words, briefly define the term “stoichiometric.”

Solution

Stoichiometric means having exactly the ratio of anions to cations as specified by the chemical formula for
the compound.
 12.33 If cupric oxide (CuO) is exposed to reducing atmospheres at elevated temperatures, some of the Cu 2+
ions will become Cu + .
(a) Under these conditions, name one crystalline defect that you would expect to form in order to
maintain charge neutrality.
(b) How many Cu + ions are required for the creation of each defect?
(c) How would you express the chemical formula for this nonstoichiometric material?

Solution

(a) For a Cu 2+O2- compound in which a small fraction of the copper ions exist as Cu +, for each Cu + formed
there is one less positive charge introduced (or one more negative charge). In order to maintain charge neutrality, we
must either add an additional positive charge or subtract a negative charge. This may be accomplished be either
creating Cu 2+ interstitials or O2- vacancies.
(b) There will be two Cu + ions required for each of these defects.
(c) The chemical formula for this nonstoichiometric material is Cu 1+xO or CuO1-x, where x is some small

fraction.
 12.34 (a) Suppose that Li2O is added as an impurity to CaO. If the Li+ substitutes for Ca 2+ , what kind of
vacancies would you expect to form? How many of these vacancies are created for every Li+ added?
(b) Suppose that CaCl2 is added as an impurity to CaO. If the Cl- substitutes for O2-, what kind of
vacancies would you expect to form? How many of the vacancies are created for every Cl- added?

Solution

(a) For Li+ substituting for Ca2+ in CaO, oxygen vacancies would be created. For each Li+ substituting for
Ca2+, one positive charge is removed; in order to maintain charge neutrality, a single negative charge may be
removed. Negative charges are eliminated by creating oxygen vacancies, and for every two Li+ ions added, a single
oxygen vacancy is formed.
(b) For Cl- substituting for O2- in CaO, calcium vacancies would be created. For each Cl- substituting for an
O2-, one negative charge is removed; in order to maintain charge neutrality, two Cl- ions will lead to the formation of
one calcium vacancy.
 12.35 What point defects are possible for Al2O3 as an impurity in MgO? How many Al3+ ions must be
added to form each of these defects?

Solution

For every Al3+ ion that substitutes for Mg 2+ in MgO, a single positive charge is added. Thus, in order to
maintain charge neutrality, either a positive charge must be removed or a negative charge must be added.
Negative charges are added by forming O2- interstitials, which are not likely to form.
Positive charges may be removed by forming Mg 2+ vacancies, and one magnesium vacancy would be
formed for every two Al3+ ions added.
 Ceramic Phase Diagrams

12.36 For the ZrO2– CaO system (Figure 12.26), write all eutectic and eutectoid reactions for cooling.

Solution

There is only one eutectic for the portion of the ZrO -CaO system shown in Figure 12.26. It occurs at
2
approximately 2250°C and 23.5 wt% CaO, and, upon cooling, the reaction is

Liquid ® cubic ZrO2 + CaZrO3

There are two eutectoids. One occurs at about 1000°& DQG DERXW ZW &D2 LW
VUHDFW
LRQ XSRQ FRROLQJ LVDVIROORZV

tetragonal ® monoclinic ZrO2 + cubic ZrO2

The second eutectoid occurs at about 850°C and 7 wt% CaO. This reaction is

cubic ® monoclinic ZrO2 + CaZr4O9

 12.37 From Figure 12.25, the phase diagram for the MgO–Al2O3 system, it may be noted that the spinel
solid solution exists over a range of compositions, which means that it is nonstoichiometric at compositions other
than 50 mol% MgO– 50 mol% Al2O3.
(a) The maximum nonstoichiometry on the Al2O3-rich side of the spinel phase field exists at about 2000°C
(3630°F) corresponding to approximately 82 mol% (92 wt%) Al2O3. Determine the type of vacancy defect that is
produced and the percentage of vacancies that exist at this composition.
(b) The maximum nonstoichiometry on the MgO-rich side of the spinel phase field exists at about 2000°C
(3630°F) corresponding to approxima tely 39 mol% (62 wt%) Al2O3. Determine the type of vacancy defect that is
produced and the percentage of vacancies that exist at this composition.

Solution

(a) For this portion of the problem we are to determine the type of vacancy defect that is produced on the
Al2O3-rich side of the spinel phase field (Figure 12.25) and the percentage of these vacancies at the maximum
nonstoichiometry (82 mol% Al2O3). On the alumina-rich side of this phase field, there is an excess of Al3+ ions,

which means that some of the Al3+ ions substitute for Mg 2+ ions. In order to maintain charge neutrality, Mg 2+
3+
vacancies are formed, and for every Mg 2+ vacancy formed, two Al ions substitute for three Mg 2+ ions.
Now, we will calculate the percentage of Mg 2+ vacancies that exist at 82 mol% Al2O3. Let us arbitrarily
choose as our basis 50 MgO-Al2O3 units of the stoichiometric material, which consists of 50 Mg 2+ ions and 100

Al3+ ions. Furthermore, let us designate the number of Mg 2+ vacancies as x, which means that 2x Al3+ ions have
been added and 3x Mg 2+ ions have been removed (two of which are filled with Al3+ ions). Using our 50 MgO-Al2O3
unit basis, the number of moles of Al2O3 in the nonstoichiometric material is (100 + 2x VLP LODUO\ W
KH QXP EHURI
moles of MgO is (50 – 3x). Thus, the expression for the mol% of Al2O3 is just

é 100 + 2x ù
ê 2 ú
mol% Al 2O3 = ê ú ´ 100
100 + 2x
ê + (50 - 3x) ú
ë 2 û

If we solve for x when the mol% of Al2O3 = 82, then x = 12.1. Thus, adding 2x or (2)(12.1) = 24.2 Al3+ ions to the

original material consisting of 100 Al3+ and 50 Mg 2+ ions will produce 12.1 Mg 2+ vacancies. Therefore, the
percentage of vacancies is just

12.1
% vacancies = ´ 100 = 8.1%
100 + 50
 (b) Now, we are asked to make the same determinations for the MgO-rich side of the spinel phase field, for
39 mol% Al2O3. In this case, Mg 2+ ions are substituting for Al3+ ions. Since the Mg 2+ ion has a lower charge than

the Al3+ ion, in order to maintain charge neutrality, negative charges must be eliminated, which may be accomplished
by introducing O2- vacancies. For every 2 Mg 2+ ions th at substitute for 2 Al3+ ions, one O2- vacancy is formed.
Now, we will calculate the percentage of O2- vacancies that exist at 39 mol% Al2O3. Let us arbitrarily
choose as our basis 50 MgO-Al2O3 units of the stoichiometric material which consists of 50 Mg 2+ ions 100 Al3+

ions. Furthermore, let us designate the number of O2- vacancies as y, which means that 2y Mg 2+ ions have been
added and 2y Al3+ ions have been removed. Using our 50 MgO-Al2O3 unit basis, the number of moles of Al2O3 in

the nonstoichiometric material is (100 – 2y VLP LODUO\ W

KH QXP EHU RI P ROHV RI 0 J 2 LV y). Thus, the
expression for the mol% of Al2O3 is just

é 100 - 2 y ù
ê 2 ú
mol% Al 2O3 = ê ú ´ 100
100 - 2 y
ê + (50 + 2 y) ú
ë 2 û

If we solve for y when the mol% of Al2O3 = 39, then y = 7.91. Thus, 7.91 O2- vacancies are produced in the original

material that had 200 O2- ions. Therefore, the percentage of vacancies is just

7.91
% vacancies = ´ 100 = 3.96%
200
 12.38 When kaolinite clay [Al2(Si2O5)(OH) 4] is heated to a sufficiently high temperature, chemical water
is driven off.
(a) Under these circumstances, what is the composition of the remaining product (in weight percent
Al2O3)?
(b) What are the liquidus and solidus temperatures of this material

Solution

(a) The chemical formula for kaolinite clay may also be written as Al2 O3 – 2SiO2 -2H2 O. Thus, if we remove
the chemical water, the formula becomes Al2 O3 – 2SiO2 . The formula weight for Al2 O3 is just (2)(26.98 g/mol) +
J P RO J P RO DQG IRU6L2 2 the formula weight is 28.09 g/mol + (2)(16.00 g/mol) = 60.09 g/mol. Thus,
the composition of this product, in terms of the concentration of Al2 O3 , CAl O , in weight percent is just
2 3

101.96 g / mol
C Al O = ´ 100 = 45.9 wt%
2 3 101.96 g / mol + (2)(60.09 g / mol)

(b) The liquidus and solidus temperatures for this material as determined from the SiO2–Al2O3 phase

diagram, Fig ure 12.27, are 1825°C and 1587°C, respectively.

 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics

12.39 Briefly explain

(a) why there may be significant scatter in the fracture strength for some given ceramic material, and
(b) why fracture strength increases with decreasing specimen size.

Solution

(a) There may be significant scatter in the fracture strength for some given ceramic material because the
fracture strength depends on the probability of the existence of a flaw that is capable of initiating a crack; this
probability varies from specimen to specimen of the same material.
(b) The fracture strength increases with decreasing specimen size because as specimen size decreases, the
probably of the existence of a flaw of that is capable of initiating a crack diminishes.
 12.40 Th e tensile strength of brittle materials may be determined using a variation of Equation 8.1.
Compute the critical crack tip radius for an Al2O3 specimen that experiences tensile fracture at an applied stress of
275 MPa (40,000 psi). Assume a critical surface crack length of 2 ´ 10 -3 mm and a theoretical fracture strength of
E/10, where E is the modulus of elasticity.

Solution

We are asked for the critical crack tip radius for an Al2 O3 material. From Equation 8.1

æ a ö1/ 2
s m = 2s 0 çç ÷÷
è rt ø

Fracture will occur when sm reaches the fracture strength of the material, which is given as E W
KXV

E æ a ö1/ 2
= 2 s 0 çç ÷÷
10 è rt ø

Or, solving for r t

400 a s 20
rt =
E2

From Table 12.5, E = 393 GPa, and thus,

(400 ) (2 ´ 10 -3 mm) (275 MPa) 2

rt =
(393 ´ 10 3 MPa) 2

-7
= 3.9 ´ 10 mm = 0.39 nm
 12.41 The fracture strength of glass may be increased by etching away a thin surface layer. It is believed
that the etching may alter surface crack geometry (i.e., reduce crack length and increase the tip radius). Compute
the ratio of the original and etched crack tip radii for an eightfold increase in fracture strength if two-thirds of the
crack length is removed.

Solution

This problem asks that we compute the crack tip radius ratio before and after etching. Let

r t = original crack tip radius, and

r' = etched crack tip radius
t

Also,
s 'f = s f

a
a' =
3

s 0' = 8s 0

r t'
Solving for from the following
rt

æ ö1/2
æ a ö1/2 ça' ÷
s f = 2s 0 çç ÷÷ = s 'f = 2s 0' ç ÷
r
è tø çr' ÷
è tø

yields

2 2
r't æ s '0 ö æ a ' ö æ 8s 0 ö æ a/ 3 ö
=ç ÷ ç ÷=ç ÷ ç ÷ = 21.3
rt è s 0 ø è a ø è s 0 ø è a ø
 Stress-Strain Behavior

12.42 A three-point bending test is performed on a glass specimen having a rectangular cross section of
height d = 5 mm (0.2 in.) and width b = PP LQ W
KHGLVW
DQFHEHW
ZHHQ VXSSRUWSRLQW
VLV PP LQ
(a) Compute the flexural strength if the load at fracture is 290 N (65 lb f).
(b) The point of maximum deflection ∆y occurs at the center of the specimen and is described by

FL3
Dy =
48EI

where E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the cross-sectional moment of inertia. Compute Dy at a load of 266 N
(60 lb f).

Solution

(a) For this portion of the problem we are asked to compute the flexural strength for a glass specimen that is
subjected to a three-point bending test. The flexural strength (Equation 12.7a) is just

3F f L
s fs =
2bd 2

for a rectangular cross-section. Using the values given in the problem statement,

(3)(290 N) (45 ´ 10 -3 m)
s fs = = 7.83 ´ 10 7 N/m2 = 78.3 MPa (10, 660 psi)
(2)(10 ´ 10 -3 m) (5 ´ 10 -3 m) 2

(b) We are now asked to compute the maximum deflection. From Table 12.5, the elastic modulus (E) for
glass is 69 GPa (10 ´ 106 psi). Also, the moment of inertia for a rectangular cross section (Figure 12.32) is just

bd 3
I =
12

Thus,

FL3 FL3
Dy = =
æ bd 3 ö 4Ebd 3
48E ç ÷
è 12 ø
 (266 N) (45 ´ 10 -3 m) 3
=
(4) (69 ´ 10 9 N/m2 )(10 ´ 10 -3 m) (5 ´ 10 -3 m) 3

-5 -2 -3
= 7.0 ´ 10 m = 7.0 ´ 10 mm (2.5 ´ 10 in.)
 12.43 A circular specimen of MgO is loaded using a three-point bending mode. Compute the minimum
possible radius of the specimen without fracture, given that the applied load is 425 N (95.5 lb f), the flexural
strength is 105 MPa (15,000 psi), and the separation between load points is 50 mm (2.0 in.).

Solution

We are asked to calculate the maximum radius of a circular specimen of MgO that is loaded using three-point
bending. Solving for R from Equation 12.7b

é F L ù1/3
f ú
R =ê
êë s fsp úû

which, when substituting the parameters stipulated in the problem statement, yields

é (425 N) (50 ´ 10 -3 m) ù1/3

R =ê ú
ë (105 ´ 10 6 N / m2 ) (p) û

-3
= 4.0 ´ 10 m = 4.0 mm (0.16 in.)
 12.44 A three-point bending test was performed on an aluminum oxide specimen having a circular cross
VHFW
LRQ RI UDGLXV PP LQ W
KHVSHFLP HQ IUDFW
XUHG DWD ORDG RI 950 N (215 lb f) when the distance between
the support points was 50 mm (2.0 in.). Another test is to be performed on a specimen of this same material, but
one that has a square cross section of 12 mm (0.47 in.) length on each edge. At what load would you expect this
specimen to fracture if the support point separation is 40 mm (1.6 in.)?

Solution

For this problem, the load is given at which a circular specimen of aluminum oxide fractures when subjected
to a three-point bending test; we are then are asked to determine the load at which a specimen of the same material
having a square cross-section fractures. It is first necessary to compute the flexural strength of the aluminum oxide,
Equation 12.7b, and then, using this value, we may calculate the value of F f in Equation 12.7a. From Equation 12.7b

Ff L
s fs =
pR3

(950 N) (50 ´ 10 -3 m)
= = 352 ´ 10 6 N/m2 = 352 MPa (50, 000 psi)
(p) (3.5 ´ 10 -3 m) 3

Now, solving for F f from Equation 12.7a, realizing that b = d = 12 mm, yields

2s fsd 3
Ff =
3L

(2) (352 ´ 10 6 N / m2 ) (12 ´ 10 -3 m)3

= = 10, 100 N (2165 lb f )
(3) (40 ´ 10 -3 m)
 12.45 (a) A three-point transverse bending test is conducted on a cylindrical specimen of aluminum oxide
having a reported flexural strength of 390 MPa (56,600 psi). If the specimen radius is 2.5 mm (0.10 in.) and the
support point separation distance is 30 mm (1.2 in.), predict whether or not you would expect the specimen to
fracture when a load of 620 N (140 lb f) is applied. Justify your prediction.
(b) Would you be 100% certain of the prediction in part (a)? Why or why not?

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem asks that we determine whether or not a cylindrical specimen of aluminum
oxide having a flexural strength of 390 MPa (56,600 psi) and a radius of 2.5 mm will fracture when subjected to a load
of 620 N in a three-point bending test; the support point separation is given as 30 mm. Using Equation 12.7b we will
calculate the value of s; if this value is greater than sfs (390 MPa), then fracture is expected to occur. Employment of

Equation 12.7b yields

FL
s =
pR3

(620 N) (30 ´ 10 -3 m)
= = 379 ´ 10 6 N/m2 = 379 MPa (53, 500 psi)
(p) (2.5 ´ 10 -3 m) 3

Since this value is less than the given value of sfs (390 MPa), then fracture is not predicted.

(b) The certainty of this prediction is not 100% because there is always some variability in the flexural
strength for ceramic materials, and since this value of s (379 MPa) is relatively close to sfs (390 MPa) then there is

some chance that fracture will occur.

 Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation

12.46 Cite one reason why ceramic materials are, in general, harder yet more brittle than metals.

Solution

Crystalline ceramics are harder yet more brittle than metals because they (ceramics) have fewer slip systems,
and, therefore, dislocation motion is highly restricted.
 Miscellaneous Mechanical Considerations

12.47 The modulus of elasticity for beryllium oxide (BeO) having 5 vol% porosity is 310 GPa (45 ´ 10 6
psi).
(a) Compute the modulus of elasticity for the nonporous material.
(b) Compute the modulus of elasticity for 10 vol% porosity.

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem requests that we compute the modulus of elasticity for nonporous BeO given
that E = 310 GPa for a material having 5 vol% porosity. Thus, we solve Equation 12.9 for E0 , using P = 0.05, which

gives

E
E0 =
1 - 1.9P + 0.9P 2

310 GPa
= = 342 GPa (49.6 ´ 10 6 psi)
1 - (1.9)(0.05) + (0.9)(0.05) 2

(b) Now we are asked to determine the value of E at P = 10 vol% (i.e., 0.10). Using Equation 12.9 we get

E = E0 (1 - 1.9P + 0.9P 2 )

[ ]
= (342 GPa) 1 - (1.9)(0.10) + (0.9)(0.10) 2 = 280 GPa (40.6 ´ 10 6 psi)
 12.48 The modulus of elasticity for boron carbide (B4C) having 5 vol% porosity is 290 GPa (42 ´ 10 6 psi).
(a) Compute the modulus of elasticity for the nonporous material.
(b) At what volume percent porosity will the modulus of elasticity be 235 GPa (34 ´ 10 6 psi)?

Solution

(a) This portion of the problem requests that we compute the modulus of elasticity for nonporous B4 C given
that E = 290 GPa (42 ´ 106 psi) for a material having 5 vol% porosity. Thu s, we solve Equation 12.9 for E0, using P =

0.05, which gives

E
E0 =
1 - 1.9P + 0.9P 2

290 GPa
= = 320 GPa (46.3 ´ 10 6 psi)
1 - (1.9)(0.05) + (0.9)(0.05) 2

(b) Now we are asked to compute the volume percent porosity at which the elastic modulus of B4 C is 235
MPa (34 ´ 106 psi). Since from part (a), E0 = 320 GPa, and using Equation 12.9 we get

E 235 MPa
= = 0.734 = 1 - 1.9P + 0.9P 2
E0 320 MPa

Or

0.9P 2 - 1.9P + 0.266 = 0

Now, solving for the value of P using the quadratic equation solution yields

1.9 ± (-1.9) 2 - (4)(0.9)(0.266)

P =
(2)(0.9)

The positive and negative roots are

P + = 1.96
P - = 0.151

Obviously, only the negative root is physically meaningful, and therefore the value of the porosity to give the
desired modulus of elasticity is 15.1 vol%.
 12.49 Using the data in Table 12.5, do the following:
(a) Determine the flexural strength for nonporous MgO assuming a value of 3.75 for n in Equation 12.10.
(b) Compute the volume fraction porosity at which the flexural strength for MgO is 62 MPa (9000 psi).

Solution

(a) This part of the problem asks us to determine the flexural strength of nonporous MgO assuming that the
value of n in Equation 12.10 is 3.75. Taking natural logarithms of both sides of Equation 12.10 yields

ln s fs = ln s 0 - nP

In Table 12.5 it is noted that for P = 0.05, sfs = 105 MPa. For the nonporous material P = 0 and, ln s0 = ln sffss. Solving
for ln s0 from the above equation and using these data gives

ln s 0 = ln s fs + nP

= ln (105 MPa) + (3.75)(0.05) = 4.841

or s0 = e4.841 = 127 MPa (18,100 psi)

(b) Now we are asked to compute the volume percent porosity to yield a sfs of 62 MPa (9000 psi). Taking

the natural logarithm of Equation 12.10 and solving for P leads to

ln s 0 - ln s fs
P =
n

ln (127 MPa) - ln (62 MPa)

=
3.75

= 0.19 or 19 vol%
 12.50 The flexural strength and associated volume fraction porosity for two specimens of the same ceramic
material are as follows:

σfs (MPa) P

100 0.05
50 0.20

(a) Compute the flexural strength for a completely nonporous specimen of this material.
(b) Compute the flexural strength for a 0.10 volume fraction porosity.

Solution

(a) Given the flexural strengths at two different volume fraction porosities, we are asked to determine the
flexural strength for a nonporous material. If the natural logarithm is taken of both sides of Equation 12.10, then

ln s fs = ln s 0 - nP

Using the data provided in the problem statement, two simultaneous equations may be written as

ln (100 MPa) = ln s 0 - (0.05) n

ln (50 MPa) = ln s 0 - (0.20) n

Solving for n and s0 leads to n = 4.62 and s0 = 126 MPa. For the nonporous material, P = 0, and, from Equation 12.10,
s0 = sfs. Thus, sfs for P = 0 is 126 MPa.
(b) Now, we are asked for sfs at P = 0.10 for this same material. Utilizing Equation 12.10 yields

s fs = s 0 exp (- nP)

= (126 MPa) exp [- (4.62)(0.10)]

= 79.4 MPa
 DESIGN PROBLEMS

Crystal Structures

12.D1 Gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium phosphide (GaP) both have the zinc blende crystal structure
and are soluble in one another at all concentrations. Determine the concentration in weight percent of GaP that
must be added to GaAs to yield a unit cell edge length of 0.5570 nm. The densities of GaAs and GaP are 5.316 and
4.130 g/cm3, respectively.

Solution

This problem asks that we determine the concentration (in weight percent) of GaP that must be added to
GaAs to yield a unit cell edge length of 0.5570 nm. The densities of GaAs and GaP were given in the problem as 5.307
and 4.130 g/cm3 , respectively. To begin, it is necessary to employ Equation (13.1), and solve for the unit cell volume,
VC, for the GaP-GaAs alloy as

n' Aave
VC =
rave N A

where Aave and r ave are the atomic weight and density, respectively, of the InAs-GaAs alloy. Inasmuch as both of
these materials have the zinc blende crystal structure, which has cubic symmetry, VC is just the cube of the unit cell

length, a. That is

VC = a 3 = (0.5570 nm)3

= (5.570 ´ 10-8 cm)3 = 1.728 ´ 10-22 cm3

It is now necessary to construct expressions for Aave and r ave in terms of the concentration of indium arsenide,
CInAs using Equations 4.11a and 4.10a. For Aave we have

100
Aave =
CGaP (100 - C
GaP
)
+
AGaP AGaAs

100
=
C
GaP
(100 - C
GaP
)
+
100.69 g/mol 144.64 g/mol
whereas for r ave

100
r ave =
CGaP
+
(100 - CGaP )
rGaP rGaAs

100
=
CGaP
+
(100 - CGaP )
4.130 g/cm3 5.316 g/cm3

Within the zinc blende unit cell there are four formula units, and thus, the value of n' LQ ( TXDW
LRQ LV KHQFH W
KLV
expression may be written in terms of the concentration of GaP in weight percent as follows:

VC = 1.728 ´ 10-22 cm3

n' Aave
=
rave N A

é ù
ê ú
100
(4 formula units/unit cell) ê ú
ê CGaP
+
(100 - CGaP ) ú
êë 100.69 g/mol 144.64 g/mol úû
=
é ù
ê ú
ê 100 ú (6.022 ´ 10 23 formula units/mol)
ê CGaP (100 - CGaP ) ú
êë 4.130 g/cm3 + 5.316 g/cm3 úû

And solving this expression for CGaP leads to CGaP = 33.7 wt%.
 Stress-Strain Behavior

12.D2 It is necessary to select a ceramic material to be stressed using a three-point loading scheme
(Figure 12.32). The specimen must have a circular cross section and a radius of 2.5 mm (0.10 in.), and must not
experience fracture or a deflection of more than 6.2 ´ 10 -2 mm (2.4 ´ 10 -3 in.) at its center when a load of 275 N (62
lb f) is applied. If the distance between support points is 45 mm (1.77 in.), which of the materials in Table 12.5 are
candidates? The magnitude of the centerpoint deflection may be computed using the equation supplied in
Problem 12.42.

Solution

This problem asks for us to determine which of the ceramic materials in Table 12.5, when fabricated into
cylindrical specimens and stressed in three-point loading, will not fracture when a load of 275 N (62 lb f) is applied,

and also will not experience a center-point deflection of more than 6.2 ´ 10-2 mm (2.4 ´ 10-3 in.). The first of these
criteria is met by those materials that have flexural strengths greater than the stress calculated using Equation 12.7b.
According to this expression

FL
s fs =
p R3

(275 N) (45 ´ 10 -3 m)
= = 252 ´ 10 6 N / m2 = 252 MPa (35, 000 psi)
(p) (2.5 ´ 10 -3 m) 3

Of the materials in Table 12.5, the following have flexural strengths greater than this value: Si3N4, ZrO2, SiC, and
Al2O3

For the second criterion we must solve for the magnitude of the modulus of elasticity, E, from the equation
given in Problem 12.42 where the expression for the cross-VHFW LRQDOP RP HQWRI LQHUW
LDDSSHDUVLQ ) LJ XUH W
KDWLV
p R4
for a circular cross-section I = . Solving for E from these two expressions
4

FL3
E =
12 p R4 Dy

(275 N) (45 ´ 10 -3 m) 3
=
(12)(p) (2.5 ´ 10 -3 m) 4 (6.2 ´ 10 -5 m)

= 274 ´ 109 N/m2 = 274 GPa (38 ´ 106 psi)

Of those materials that satisfy the first criterion, only Al2O3, Si3 N4 , and SiC have moduli of elasticity greater than this

value (Table 12.5), and, therefore, are possible candidates.