TECHNOLOGY AND OPERATIONS

MANAGEMENT
#6 S y s t em D ev el opm en t M a n a gin g Proj ect a n d Progra m
OUTLINE
• Global Company Profile: Bechtel Group
• The Importance of Project Management
• Project Planning
• Project Scheduling
• Project Controlling
• Project Management Techniques: PERT and CPM
• Determining the Project Schedule
• Variability in Activity Times
• Cost-Time Trade-offs and Project Crashing
• A Critique of PERT and CPM
• Using Microsoft Project to Manage Projects
• System Development Life Cycle
BECHTEL PROJECTS
• Constructing 30 high-security data centers worldwide for Equinix, Inc. ($1.2 billion)
• Building a rail line between London and the Channel Tunnel ($4.6 billion)
• Developing an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea region to Russia ($850 million)
• Expanding the Dubai Airport in the UAE ($600 million), and the Miami Airport in Florida ($2 billion)
• Building liquid natural gas plants in Yemen ($2 billion) and in Trinidad, West Indies ($1 billion)
• Building a new subway for Athens, Greece ($2.6 billion)
• Constructing a natural gas pipeline in Thailand ($700 million)
• Building 30 plants for iMotors.com, a company that sells refurbished autos online ($300 million)
• Building a highway to link the north and south of Croatia ($303 million)
• Bechtel Project Management:
• International workforce, construction professionals, cooks, medical personnel, security
• Strategic value of time-based competition
• Quality mandate for continual improvement
PROJECT CHARACTERISTICS
Single unit
Many related activities
Difficult production planning and inventory control
General purpose equipment
High labor skills

Examples: building a construction, research project, etc.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
Deliverable
• Items that you hand off to the client or management for their review and approval and that
must be produced to complete a project or part of a project.

Project Portfolio Management (PPM)

• Set of business practices to manage projects as a strategic portfolio.

Business Case
• Identifies an opportunity, problem, or need and the desired business outcomes of the
project.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
Project Portfolio Management Path

Map proposed projects to

organizational strategies.

Assess the value that a proposed

project brings to the company.

Assess the complexity of

proposed projects.

Prioritize project proposals for

project selection.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
Operations vs. Projects
Operations
• Business as usual
Projects
• Clearly defined scope, deliverables, and results.
• Estimated time frame or schedule subject to a high degree of uncertainty.
• Estimated budget subject to a high degree of uncertainty.
• Requirement of extensive interaction among participants.
• Tasks that may compete or conflict with other business activities.
• Risky but with a high profit potential or benefits.
Scope Creep
• Project growth is the piling up of small changes that by themselves are manageable but in
aggregate are significant.
• Contributes to overages in budget, deadline, and/or resources.
• Standard project management approaches reduce scope creep.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS

Scope

Project
Success

Time Cost
MANAGEMENT OF PROJECTS
Planning - goal setting, defining the project,
Planning
team organization
Objectives
Scheduling - relate people, money, and Scheduling
Resources
supplies to specific activities and activities to Project activities
Work break-down structure
each other Organization
Start and end times
Network
Controlling - monitor resources, costs,
quality, and budgets; revise plans and shift
resources to meet time and cost demands

Controlling
Monitor, compare,
revise, action
PROJECT PLANNING, SCHEDULING, AND
CONTROLLING
PROJECT PLANNING, SCHEDULING, AND
CONTROLLING
PROJECT PLANNING, SCHEDULING, AND
CONTROLLING
PROJECT PLANNING, SCHEDULING, AND
CONTROLLING
 PROJECT PLANNING, SCHEDULING, AND
CONTROLLING Time/cost estimates
Budgets
Engineering diagrams
Cash flow charts
Material availability details

CPM/PERT
Gantt charts
Milestone charts
Cash flow schedules
Budgets
Delayed activities report
Slack activities report
PROJECT PLANNING
• Establishing objectives
• Defining project
• Creating work breakdown structure
• Determining resources
• Forming organization
PROJECT ORGANIZATION
• Often temporary structure
• Uses specialists from entire company
• Headed by project manager
• Coordinates activities
• Monitors schedule and costs

• Permanent structure called ‘matrix organization’

PROJECT ORGANIZATION MOST
HELPFUL WHEN:
1. Work can be defined with a specific goal and deadline
2. The job is unique or somewhat unfamiliar to the existing organization
3. The work contains complex interrelated tasks requiring specialized skills
4. The project is temporary but critical to the organization
5. The project cuts across organizational lines
A SAMPLE PROJECT ORGANIZATION
President

Human Quality
Resources Marketing Finance Design Production
Mgt

Project Project Mechanical Test

No. 1 Technician
Manager Engineer Engineer

Project Project Electrical Computer

No. 2 Technician
Manager Engineer Engineer
MATRIX ORGANIZATION
Marketing Operations Engineering Finance

Project 1

Project 2

Project 3

Project 4
ROLE OF THE PROJECT MANAGER
Highly visible
Responsible for making sure that:
Project managers should be:
• All necessary activities are finished in
order and on time ▶ Good coaches
▶ Good communicators
• The project comes in within budget
▶ Able to organize activities
• The project meets quality goals from a variety of disciplines

• The people assigned to the project

receive motivation, direction, and
information
ETHICAL ISSUES
Project managers face many ethical decisions on a daily basis
The Project Management Institute has established an ethical code to deal with
problems such as:
1. Offers of gifts from contractors
2. Pressure to alter status reports to mask delays
3. False reports for charges of time and expenses
4. Pressure to compromise quality to meet schedules
PROJECT PLANNING, EXECUTION, AND
BUDGET
Project Business Case
• Identifies an opportunity, problem, or need and the desired business outcomes of the
project.

Statement of Work (SOW)

• A definitive statement that defines the project plan, but does not offer any options or
alternatives in the scope.
• After the project plan in the SOW is reviewed, a go or no-go decision is made.

Go/No-Go Decision
• Formal decision made by PM, sponsor, and appropriate executives and stakeholders.
PROJECT PLANNING, EXECUTION, AND
BUDGET
PROJECT PLANNING, EXECUTION, AND
BUDGET
Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
• Identifies all work or activities that need to be performed, the schedule of work, and who will
perform the work.

Milestones
• Used to manage the project work effort, monitor results, and report meaningful status to
project stakeholders.

Crowdfunding
• Raising funds for a project from the public, or crowd, via the Web.
PROJECT PLANNING, EXECUTION, AND
BUDGET
Responsibility Matrix
• Shows who has primary responsibility and who has support responsibility for the activities
listed in the WBS.

Gantt Chart
• A bar chart that shows the timeline of the project schedule.

Baseline (Master Plan)

• Finalized and accepted project plan.
• Changed only through formal change control processes.

Variance
• Any change to the baseline.

Crowdfunding
• Raising funds for a project from the public, or crowd, via the Web.
PROJECT MONITORING, CONTROL, AND
CLOSING
Integrated Change Control
• Process helps to manage the disruption resulting from requested changes and corrective actions
across the project life cycle.
• Required to defend:
• Approved/rejected change requests
• Updates to the project plan/scope
• Approved corrective and preventive actions
• Approved/validated defect repair

Critical Path
• Longest path of tasks through a project. Extends the length of the project with delays unless
something is done to compensate. Contains critical tasks or activities.
Critical Tasks
• Tasks or activities on the critical path that must be completed on schedule in order for the project
to finish on time.
Noncritical tasks
• Tasks or activities not on the critical path, but may go critical if delayed enough.
PROJECT MONITORING, CONTROL, AND
CLOSING
PROJECT MONITORING, CONTROL, AND
CLOSING
Project Control
• Used to identify when to declare the ongoing project a failure and kill it.

Sunk Cost
• Money already spent on the project.

Project Closing and Postmortem

• Project closure does not benefit the completed project.
• The enterprise and people who worked on the project benefit.
• Post-project reviews, or postmortems, identify the reasons the project was successful or not,
strengths and weaknesses of the project plan, how problems were detected and resolved,
and how the project was successful in spite of them.
WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE
Level:
1. Project
2. Major tasks in the project
3. Subtasks in the major tasks
4. Activities (or “work packages”) to be completed
WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE
Develop Windows 8
Level 1 1.0
Operating System

Software Cost Management System

Level 2 1.1 1.2 1.3
Design Plan Testing

Develop Design Cost Module

Level 3 1.1.1 1.2.1 1.3.1
GUIs Tracking Reports Testing

Ensure Compatibility Develop Defect

with Earlier Versions 1.1.2 Cost/Schedule 1.2.2 Testing 1.3.2
Interface

Compatible with
Level 4 1.1.2.1
Windows 7
(Work packages)
Compatible with
1.1.2.2
Windows Vista

Compatible with
Windows XP 1.1.2.3
PROJECT SCHEDULING
Project Scheduling Techniques Purposes of Project Scheduling
• Ensure that all activities are planned for • Shows the relationship of each activity
to others and to the whole project
• Their order of performance is
accounted for • Identifies the precedence relationships
among activities
• The activity time estimates are
recorded • Encourages the setting of realistic time
and cost estimates for each activity
• The overall project time is developed
• Helps make better use of people,
money, and material resources by
identifying critical bottlenecks in the
project
PROJECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
Gantt chart
Critical Path Method (CPM)
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
A SIMPLE GANTT CHART
Time
J F M A M J J A S

Design
Prototype
Test
Revise
Production
SERVICE FOR A DELTA JET
Deplaning
Passengers
Baggage claim
Baggage Container offload
Pumping
Fueling
Engine injection water
Cargo and mail Container offload
Main cabin door
Galley servicing
Aft cabin door
Lavatory servicing Aft, center, forward
Drinking water Loading
First-class section
Cabin cleaning
Economy section
Cargo and mail Container/bulk loading
Galley/cabin check
Flight services
Receive passengers
Operating crew Aircraft check
Baggage Loading
Passengers Boarding
0 10 20 30 40
Time, Minutes
PROJECT CONTROL
Project Controlling Project Control Reports
• Close monitoring of resources, costs, • Detailed cost breakdowns for each task
quality, budgets
• Labor requirements
• Feedback enables revising the project
plan and shift resources • Cost and hour summaries

• Computerized tools produce extensive • Raw materials and expenditure

reports forecasts
• Variance reports
• Time analysis reports
• Work status reports
PROJECT MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE
There are several popular packages for managing projects
• Oracle Primavera
• MindView
• HP Project
• Fast Track
• Microsoft Project
PERT AND CPM
• Network techniques
• Developed in 1950s
• CPM by DuPont for chemical plants (1957)
• PERT by Booz, Allen & Hamilton with the U.S. Navy, for Polaris missile (1958)

• Consider precedence relationships and interdependencies

• Each uses a different estimate of activity times
SIX STEPS PERT AND CPM
1. Define the project and prepare the work breakdown structure
2. Develop relationships among the activities – decide which activities must precede
and which must follow others
3. Draw the network connecting all of the activities
4. Assign time and/or cost estimates to each activity
5. Compute the longest time path through the network – this is called the critical path
6. Use the network to help plan, schedule, monitor, and control the project
QUESTIONS PERT AND CPM CAN
ANSWER
1. When will the entire project be completed?
2. What are the critical activities or tasks in the project?
3. Which are the noncritical activities?
4. What is the probability the project will be completed by a specific date?
5. Is the project on schedule, behind schedule, or ahead of schedule?
6. Is the money spent equal to, less than, or greater than the budget?
7. Are there enough resources available to finish the project on time?
8. If the project must be finished in a shorter time, what is the way to accomplish this
at least cost?
A COMPARISON OF AON AND AOA
NETWORK CONVENTIONS
Activity on Activity Activity on
Node (AON) Meaning Arrow (AOA)

A comes before B,
(a) A B C which comes
before C A B C
A A
A and B must both be
(b) C completed before C
can start C
B B
B
B and C cannot
(c) A begin until A is B
completed A
C C
A COMPARISON OF AON AND AOA
NETWORK CONVENTIONS
Activity on Activity Activity on
Node (AON) Meaning Arrow (AOA)

C and D cannot A C
A C begin until both A
(d) and B are
completed
B D B D

C cannot begin until

both A and B are
A C completed A C
(e) D cannot begin until B Dummy activity
is completed
B D A dummy activity is
introduced in AOA B D
A COMPARISON OF AON AND AOA
NETWORK CONVENTIONS
Activity on Activity Activity on
Node (AON) Meaning Arrow (AOA)

B and C cannot
begin until A is
completed
A B D D cannot begin A B D
until both B and C
(f) are completed
A dummy activity is Dummy C
C again introduced in activity
AOA
AON EXAMPLE: MILWAUKEE PAPER
MANUFACTURING’S ACTIVITIES AND
PREDECESSORS
IMMEDIATE
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION PREDECESSORS
A Build internal components —
B Modify roof and floor —
C Construct collection stack A
D Pour concrete and install frame A, B
E Build high-temperature burner C
F Install pollution control system C
G Install air pollution device D, E
H Inspect and test F, G
AON NETWORK FOR MILWAUKEE PAPER

Activity A
A
(Build Internal Components)

Start

Activity B
Start B
(Modify Roof and Floor)
Activity
AON NETWORK FOR MILWAUKEE PAPER
Activity A Precedes Activity C

A C

Start

B D

Activities A and B
Precede Activity D
AON NETWORK FOR MILWAUKEE PAPER

F
A C

E
Start H

B D G

Arrows Show Precedence

Relationships
AON NETWORK FOR MILWAUKEE PAPER
C
2 4
(Construct
Stack)
F
Co (Ins

n t al
ne ern
n t t al

s)
om d A

(Build Burner)
po Int ro l
ls)
C u il

H
Dummy 7
(B

1 6

E
Activity (Inspect/
Test)
Ro (M B G ll
o f od t a on
/F ify s i
lo
or (In llut ce)
i
) 3
D
5 Po ev
D
(Pour
Concrete/
Install Frame)
DETERMINING THE PROJECT SCHEDULE
Perform a Critical Path Analysis
• The critical path is the longest path through the network
• The critical path is the shortest time in which the project can be completed
• Any delay in critical path activities delays the project
• Critical path activities have no slack time
DETERMINING THE PROJECT SCHEDULE
ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION TIME (WEEKS)
A Build internal components 2
B Modify roof and floor 3
C Construct collection stack 2
D Pour concrete and install frame 4
E Build high-temperature burner 4
F Install pollution control system 3
G Install air pollution device 5
H Inspect and test 2
Total time (weeks) 25
DETERMINING THE PROJECT SCHEDULE
Perform a Critical Path Analysis

Earliest start (ES) = earliest time at which an activity can

start, assuming all predecessors have
been completed
Earliest finish (EF) = earliest time at which an activity can be
finished
Latest start (LS) = latest time at which an activity can start
so as to not delay the completion time
of the entire project
Latest finish (LF) = latest time by which an activity has to
be finished so as to not delay the
completion time of the entire project
DETERMINING THE PROJECT SCHEDULE
Activity Format

Activity Name
or Symbol
A Earliest
Earliest ES EF Finish
Start

Latest LS LF Latest
Start 2 Finish

Activity Duration
FORWARD PASS
Begin at starting event and work forward

Earliest Start Time Rule: Earliest Finish Time Rule:

▶ If an activity has only a single ▶ The earliest finish time (EF) of an

immediate predecessor, its ES equals activity is the sum of its earliest start
the EF of the predecessor time (ES) and its activity time

▶ If an activity has multiple immediate

predecessors, its ES is the maximum of
EF = ES + Activity time
all the EF values of its predecessors

ES = Max {EF of all immediate predecessors}

ES/EF Network for Milwaukee
Paper
ES EF = ES + Activity time
Start
0 0

0
 ES/EF Network for Milwaukee
Paper
EF of A =
ES
ES of A + 2
of A
A
Start
0 2
0 0

2
 ES/EF Network for Milwaukee
Paper
A
0 2

2 EF of B =
ES
ES of B + 3
0
Start
0 of B
B
0 0 3

3
 ES/EF Network for Milwaukee
Paper
A C
0 2 2 4

2 2

Start
0 0

B
0 3

3
 ES/EF Network for Milwaukee
Paper
A C
0 2 2 4

2 2

Start
0 0
= Max (2, 3) D
0
3 7
B
0 3

3
4
 ES/EF Network for Milwaukee
Paper
A C
0 2 2 4

2 2

Start
0 0

B D
0 3 3 7

3 4
 ES/EF Network for Milwaukee
Paper
A C F
0 2 2 4 4 7

2 2 3

Start E H
0 0 4 8 13 15

0 4 2

B D G
0 3 3 7 8 13

3 4 5
BACKWARD PASS
Begin with the last event and work backwards
Latest Finish Time Rule: Latest Start Time Rule:

▶ If an activity is an immediate ▶ The latest start time (LS) of an activity is

predecessor for just a single activity, its the difference of its latest finish time
LF equals the LS of the activity that (LF) and its activity time
immediately follows it
▶ If an activity is an immediate
LS = LF – Activity time
predecessor to more than one activity,
its LF is the minimum of all LS values of
all activities that immediately follow it

LF = Min {LS of all immediate following activities}

 LS/LF Times for
Milwaukee Paper
A C F
0 2 2 4 4 7

2 2 3

Start E H
0 0 4 8 13 15
13 15
0 4 2

B LS = LF
D – Activity timeG
0 3 3 7 8 13

3 4 5 LF = EF
of Project
 LS/LF Times for
Milwaukee Paper
A C F
0 2 2 4 4 7

10 13
2 2 3

Start E H
0 0
LF =
4 Min(LS
8 of 13 15
following activity) 13 15
0 4 2

B D G
0 3 3 7 8 13

3 4 5
 LS/LF Times for
Milwaukee Paper
LF = Min(4, 10)

A C F
0 2 2 4 4 7

2 4 10 13
2 2 3

Start E H
0 0 4 8 13 15

4 8 13 15
0 4 2

B D G
0 3 3 7 8 13
8 13
3 4 5
 LS/LF Times for
Milwaukee Paper
A C F
0 2 2 4 4 7

0 2 2 4 10 13
2 2 3

Start E H
0 0 4 8 13 15

0 0 4 8 13 15
0 4 2

B D G
0 3 3 7 8 13
1 4 4 8 8 13
3 4 5
COMPUTING SLACK TIME
After computing the ES, EF, LS, and LF times for
all activities, compute the slack or free time for
each activity

▶ Slack is the length of time an activity can be

delayed without delaying the entire project

Slack = LS – ES or Slack = LF – EF
COMPUTING SLACK TIME
EARLIEST EARLIEST LATEST ON
START FINISH LATEST FINISH SLACK CRITICAL
ACTIVITY ES EF START LS LF LS – ES PATH
A 0 2 0 2 0 Yes
B 0 3 1 4 1 No
C 2 4 2 4 0 Yes
D 3 7 4 8 1 No
E 4 8 4 8 0 Yes
F 4 7 10 13 6 No
G 8 13 8 13 0 Yes
H 13 15 13 15 0 Yes
COMPUTING SLACK TIME
EARLIEST EARLIEST LATEST ON
START FINISH LATEST FINISH SLACK CRITICAL
ACTIVITY ES EF START LS LF LS – ES PATH
A 0 2 0 2 0 Yes
B 0 3 1 4 1 No
C 2 4 2 4 0 Yes
D 3 7 4 8 1 No
E 4 8 4 8 0 Yes
F 4 7 10 13 6 No
G 8 13 8 13 0 Yes
H 13 15 13 15 0 Yes
Activities with zero slack are on the critical path. It:
▶ Starts at the first activity in the project
▶ Terminates at the last activity in the project
▶ Includes only critical activities
 Critical Path for
Milwaukee Paper
A C F
0 2 2 4 4 7

0 2 2 4 10 13
2 2 3

Start E H
0 0 4 8 13 15

0 0 4 8 13 15
0 4 2

B D G
0 3 3 7 8 13
1 4 4 8 8 13
3 4 5
 ES – EF Gantt Chart
for Milwaukee Paper
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

A Build internal
components
B Modify roof and floor
C Construct collection
stack
D Pour concrete and
install frame
E Build high-temperature
burner
F Install pollution control
system
G Install air pollution
device
H Inspect and test
 LS – LF Gantt Chart
for Milwaukee Paper
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

A Build internal
components
B Modify roof and floor
C Construct collection
stack
D Pour concrete and
install frame
E Build high-temperature
burner
F Install pollution control
system
G Install air pollution
device
H Inspect and test
VARIABILITY IN ACTIVITY TIMES
CPM assumes we know a fixed time estimate for each activity and there is no
variability in activity times
PERT uses a probability distribution for activity times to allow for variability
Three time estimates are required
• Optimistic time (a) – if everything goes according to plan
• Pessimistic time (b) – assuming very
unfavorable conditions
• Most likely time (m) – most realistic estimate
VARIABILITY IN ACTIVITY TIMES
Estimate follows beta distribution

Expected activity time: Expected activity time:

t = (a + 4m + b)/6
t = (a + 4m + b)/6
Probability of 1t in=
100(a + 4m + b)/6
of < a occurring
Variance of activity v = [(b − a)/6]2
Probability
Probability of 1 in 100
completion times: Variance of activity completion of >times:
b occurring

v = [(b – a)/6]2
v = [(b – a)/6]2 Activity
Time

Optimistic Most Likely Pessimistic

Time (a) Time (m) Time (b)
COMPUTING VARIANCE
MOST
OPTIMISTIC LIKELY PESSIMISTIC EXPECTED TIME VARIANCE
ACTIVITY a m b t = (a + 4m + b)/6 [(b – a)/6]2
A 1 2 3 2 .11

B 2 3 4 3 .11

C 1 2 3 2 .11

D 2 4 6 4 .44

E 1 4 7 4 1.00

F 1 2 9 3 1.78

G 3 4 11 5 1.78

H 1 2 3 2 .11
PROBABILITY OF PROJECT
COMPLETION
Project variance is computed by summing the variances of critical
activities
Project variance
s2p = Project variance s2 = .11 + .11 + 1.00 + 1.78 + .11 = 3.11
= å(variances of activities p
on critical path)
Project standard deviation
sp = Project variance
= 3.11 = 1.76 weeks
PROBABILITY OF PROJECT
COMPLETION
PERT makes two more assumptions:
• Total project completion
times follow a normal
probability distribution Standard deviation = 1.76 weeks

• Activity times are

statistically independent

15 Weeks
(Expected Completion Time)
PROBABILITY OF PROJECT
COMPLETION
What is the probability this project can be
completed on or before the 16 week
deadline?

Z = Due – Expected date /sp

date of completion
= (16 weeks – 15 weeks)/1.76

= 0.57
Where Z is the number of standard
deviations the due date or target
date lies from the mean or expected
date
PROBABILITY OF PROJECT
COMPLETION
From Appendix I

.00
What is the probability .01 .07can be
this project .08
completed .1 on.50000
or before the 16 week
.50399 .52790 .53188
deadline?.2 .53983 .54380 .56749 .57142

.5 = due
Z.69146 − expected date /s
Due .69497Expected
.71566
date .71904
p
Z = date – of completion /sp
.6 date .72907of completion
.72575 .74857 .75175
=
= (16 wks −– 15
(16 weeks wks)/1.76
15 weeks)/1.76

= 0.57
Where Z is the number of standard
deviations the due date or target
date lies from the mean or expected
date
PROBABILITY OF PROJECT
COMPLETION
0.57 Standard deviations
Probability
(T ≤ 16 weeks)
is 71.57%

15 16 Time
Weeks Weeks
DETERMINING PROJECT COMPLETION
TIME

Probability of
0.99

Probability of
0.01

2.33 Standard Z
From Appendix I deviations
0 2.33
VARIABILITY OF COMPLETION TIME FOR
NONCRITICAL PATHS
• Variability of times for activities on noncritical paths must be considered when
finding the probability of finishing in a specified time
• Variation in noncritical activity may cause change in critical path
WHAT PROJECT MANAGEMENT HAS
PROVIDED SO FAR
1. The project’s expected completion time is 15 weeks
2. There is a 71.57% chance the equipment will be in place by the 16 week deadline
3. Five activities (A, C, E, G, and H) are on the critical path
4. Three activities (B, D, F) are not on the critical path and have slack time
5. A detailed schedule is available
COST–TIME TRADE-OFFS AND PROJECT
CRASHING
It is not uncommon to face the following situations:

▶ The project is behind schedule

▶ The completion time has been moved forward

Shortening the duration of the project is called project

crashing
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN
CRASHING A PROJECT
• The amount by which an activity is crashed is, in fact, permissible
• Taken together, the shortened activity durations will enable us to finish the project
by the due date
• The total cost of crashing is as small as possible
STEPS IN PROJECT CRASHING
Step 1: Compute the crash cost per time period. If
crash costs are linear over time:

Crash cost (Crash cost – Normal cost)

per period
=
(Normal time – Crash time)

Step 2: Using current activity times, find the critical

path and identify the critical activities
STEPS IN PROJECT CRASHING
Step 3: If there is only one critical path, then select the
activity on this critical path that (a) can still be
crashed, and (b) has the smallest crash cost
per period. If there is more than one critical
path, then select one activity from each critical
path such that (a) each selected activity can
still be crashed, and (b) the total crash cost of
all selected activities is the smallest. Note that
the same activity may be common to more
than one critical path.
Step 4: Update all activity times. If the desired due
date has been reached, stop. If not, return to
Step 2.
CRASHING THE PROJECT
TIME (WEEKS) COST ($)
CRASH COST CRITICAL
ACTIVITY NORMAL CRASH NORMAL CRASH PER WEEK ($) PATH ?
A 2 1 22,000 22,750 750 Yes

B 3 1 30,000 34,000 2,000 No

C 2 1 26,000 27,000 1,000 Yes

D 4 3 48,000 49,000 1,000 No

E 4 2 56,000 58,000 1,000 Yes

F 3 2 30,000 30,500 500 No

G 5 2 80,000 84,500 1,500 Yes

H 2 1 16,000 19,000 3,000 Yes

CRASH AND NORMAL TIMES AND COSTS
FOR ACTIVITY B
Activity
Cost
Crash

$34,000 — Crash Cost – Normal Cost

Crash Cost/Wk =
Normal Time – Crash Time
Crash $33,000 — $34,000 – $30,000
Cost =
3–1
$32,000 —
$4,000
= = $2,000/Week
$31,000 — 2 Wks

$30,000 —
Normal
Normal —
Cost
| | |
1 2 3 Time (Weeks)
Crash Time Normal Time
CRITICAL PATH AND SLACK TIMES FOR
MILWAUKEE PAPER
A C F
0 2 2 4 4 7

0 2 2 4 10 13
2 2 3

Start Slack = 0 Slack = 0 E Slack = 6 H

0 0 4 8 13 15

0 0 4 8 13 15
0 4 2

B D Slack = 0 G Slack = 0
0 3 3 7 8 13
1 4 4 8 8 13
3 4 5

Slack = 1 Slack = 1 Slack = 0

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
PERT/CPM
• Especially useful when scheduling and • Project activities have to be clearly
controlling large projects defined, independent, and stable in their
relationships
• Straightforward concept and not
mathematically complex • Precedence relationships must be
specified and networked together
• Graphical networks help highlight
relationships among project activities • Time estimates tend to be subjective and
are subject to fudging by managers
• Critical path and slack time analyses help
pinpoint activities that need to be closely • There is an inherent danger of too much
watched emphasis being placed on the longest, or
critical, path
• Project documentation and graphics
point out who is responsible for various
activities
• Applicable to a wide variety of projects
• Useful in monitoring not only schedules
but costs as well
LIMITATIONS OF PERT/CPM
1. Project activities have to be clearly defined, independent, and stable in their
relationships
2. Precedence relationships must be specified and networked together
3. Time estimates tend to be subjective and are subject to fudging by managers
4. There is an inherent danger of too much emphasis being placed on the longest, or
critical, path
USING MICROSOFT PROJECT
USING MICROSOFT PROJECT
USING MICROSOFT PROJECT

Pollution Project
Percentage Completed on
Aug. 12
ACTIVITY COMPLETED
A 100
B 100
C 100
D 10
E 20
F 20
G 0
H 0
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
• The traditional system development method for large IT projects, such as IT infrastructure or
an enterprise system.
• A structured framework that consists of a sequential set of processes.
• Highly susceptible to scope creep through:
• Additional feature requests
• Unnecessary stakeholders
• Technological change/improvement
SYSTEM Initial Idea

DEVELOPMEN
T LIFE CYCLE Maintenance
Objectives
Requirements
Analysis

Expectations

Specifications
Implementation System Analysis

Development
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
Requirements Analysis Testing
• Deficiencies are identified and used to • Verification that apps, interfaces, data
specify new system requirements. transfers, etc., work correctly under all
• More time invested in analysis mean possible conditions.
greater probability of IS success.
Implementation
System Analysis • Conversion of the old system to the new
• Design of the proposed system. system.
• Parallel: simultaneous transfer
Feasibility Studies • Direct: cut off and migration
• Technical, Economic, Legal and • Pilot: test new than roll out
Organizational, and Behavioral. • Phased: specific components in stages

System Development Maintenance

• Creation based on functional objectives to • Perform audits to assess capabilities and
solve the business problem. determine operational correctness.
THANK YOU
Com m en t s ? Ques t ion s ?