INTRODUCTION

TO

InFocus

AUTOMATED ULTRASONIC

GIRTH WELD

INSPECTION SYSTEM

Shaw Pipeline Services Ltd.

8010 – 40 Street SE
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2C 2Y3
Phone: 403-279-2400
Fax: 403-279-2879
E-Mail: [email protected]
Website: www.shawpipeline.com

Revision 4 January, 2001

 INFOCUS
Automated UT Girth Weld
Inspection System
Page 2 of 44

 2001 Shaw Pipeline Services Ltd.

This document has been produced by Shaw Pipeline Services Ltd. (SPS).

Each copy is controlled and remains the property of SPS.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted in any form or by any means
without the prior written permission
of
Shaw Pipeline Services Ltd., Canada

Inquiries can be directed to:

Shaw Pipeline Services Ltd.

8010 – 40 Street SE
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2C 2Y3
Phone: 403-279-2400
Fax: 403-279-2879
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.shawpipeline.com

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 3 of 44

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 GENERAL OVERVIEW.....................................................................................................................................6
1.1 COMPARISON WITH RT....................................................................................................................................6
1.1.1 System Layout.........................................................................................................................................7
1.1.2 Main Components...................................................................................................................................7
1.2 APPLICATIONS..................................................................................................................................................7
1.2.1 Automatic Welds.....................................................................................................................................7
1.2.2 Manual Welds.........................................................................................................................................8
1.2.3 On/Offshore............................................................................................................................................8
2 ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS.......................................................................................................................9
2.1 PROBE TYPES...................................................................................................................................................9
2.1.1 Focused Transducers..............................................................................................................................9
2.1.1.1 S.W.S. Transducers..........................................................................................................................................10
2.1.1.2 Q.C. Transducers.............................................................................................................................................10
2.1.1.3 TOFD Transducers..........................................................................................................................................10
2.1.1.4 Creeping Wave Transducers............................................................................................................................10
2.1.2 Acoustical Coupling of Probes and Wedges.........................................................................................10
2.1.3 Tandem Transducers.............................................................................................................................10
2.2 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON VELOCITY.........................................................................................................11
3 INSTRUMENTATION.......................................................................................................................................12
3.1 USIP 20.........................................................................................................................................................12
3.1.1 Basic Configuration..............................................................................................................................12
3.1.2 Basic Operation....................................................................................................................................12
3.1.2.1 A-Scan 1..........................................................................................................................................................13
3.1.2.2 A-Scan 2..........................................................................................................................................................13
3.1.3 Key Settings..........................................................................................................................................13
3.2 COMPUTER INTERFACE MODULE (CIM).......................................................................................................13
3.3 SCANNER CONTROL MODULE (SCM)...........................................................................................................14
3.4 PNEUMATIC CONTROL MODULE (PCM)........................................................................................................14
3.5 SMART HAND CONSOLE (SHC).....................................................................................................................14
4 COMPUTER.......................................................................................................................................................16
4.1 HARDWARE....................................................................................................................................................16
4.2 SOFTWARE.....................................................................................................................................................16
4.3 DATA STORAGE..............................................................................................................................................20
5 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS...............................................................................................................................20
5.1 SCANNER.......................................................................................................................................................20
5.2 DRIVE SYSTEM..............................................................................................................................................21
5.3 PNEUMATIC SYSTEM......................................................................................................................................21
5.4 COUPLANT SYSTEM.......................................................................................................................................21
5.4.1 Land-Based Operations........................................................................................................................22
5.4.2 Offshore Operations.............................................................................................................................22
5.5 TEMPERATURE CONTROL..............................................................................................................................23
5.6 POWER SUPPLY..............................................................................................................................................23
6 TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION (TOFD).................................................................................................24
6.1 TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION IS AN INSPECTION TOOL..............................................................................24
6.2 TIME-OF-FLIGHT DIFFRACTION (TOFD) TECHNIQUE...................................................................................24
6.3 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION...................................................................................................................26
6.4 TOFD 'D' SCAN IMAGES...........................................................................................................................27

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 4 of 44

6.5 DETECTION & SIZING..............................................................................................................................28

6.6 ACCURACY & REPEATABILITY.............................................................................................................28
6.7 COVERAGE & RESOLUTION..................................................................................................................29
6.7.1 Near Surface Resolution.......................................................................................................................29
6.7.2 Volumetric Coverage............................................................................................................................29
6.7.3 Far Surface Resolution.........................................................................................................................30
6.8 DEFECTIVE TYPES....................................................................................................................................30
6.8.1 Cracks & Lack of Fusion......................................................................................................................30
6.8.2 Horizontal Planar Defects - Laminations............................................................................................31
6.8.3 Transverse defects................................................................................................................................31
6.8.4 Inclusions..............................................................................................................................................31
6.8.5 Structural Defects.................................................................................................................................31
6.9 OTHER APPLICATIONAL CONSTRAINTS.............................................................................................31
6.9.1 Temperature Limitations.......................................................................................................................31
6.9.2 Materials...............................................................................................................................................32
6.9.3 Complex Geometry...............................................................................................................................32
6.10 INTERPRETATION.....................................................................................................................................32
6.11 AUTOMATIC INTERPRETATION OF TOFD DATA FOR ONLINE WELD INSPECTION.........................................33
6.12 TOFD SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................34
7 INSPECTION......................................................................................................................................................34
7.1 SPECIFICATION AND PROCEDURES.................................................................................................................34
7.2 CALIBRATION STANDARDS............................................................................................................................34
7.3 INSPECTION SETUP AND CALIBRATION..........................................................................................................35
7.4 WELD INSPECTION.........................................................................................................................................35
7.4.1 Drive Band Installation........................................................................................................................35
7.4.2 Installation of Scanner on Drive Band.................................................................................................36
7.4.3 Inspection.............................................................................................................................................36
7.4.4 Evaluation.............................................................................................................................................36
7.4.5 Reporting..............................................................................................................................................36
7.5 WELD EVALUATION.......................................................................................................................................36
7.5.1 Typical Flaw Evaluation.......................................................................................................................36
7.6 DEFECT INTERACTION RULES AND VERTICAL HEIGHT EVALUATION...........................................................38
7.6.1 Vertical Height Evaluation Rules.........................................................................................................40
7.6.1.1 Indication in One Inspection Zone (Rule #1)...................................................................................................40
7.6.1.2 Indications in Two Inspection Zones (Rule #2)................................................................................................40
7.6.1.3 Indications in Three Inspection Zones (Rule #3).............................................................................................41

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 5 of 44

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1 -TANDEM TRANSDUCER – OPTIMAL ORIENTATION OF BEAM .......................................................................11

FIGURE 2 - BEAM PATH REPRESENTATION OF A TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON THE LCP.................................................12
FIGURE 3 – CONNECTIONS............................................................................................................................................15
FIGURE 4 - STRIP CHART...............................................................................................................................................17
FIGURE 5 - CHANNEL DETAILS AMPLITUDE/TIME OF FLIGHT.......................................................................................17
FIGURE 6 - CHANNEL DETAILS WAVE FORM ALSO CALLED MAPPING.........................................................................18
FIGURE 7 – WELD PROFILE 2D VIEW...........................................................................................................................18
FIGURE 8 – COUPLANT MONITOR.................................................................................................................................19
FIGURE 9 – TOFD DISPLAY..........................................................................................................................................19
FIGURE 10 – STRIP CHART WITH TOFD........................................................................................................................20
FIGURE 11 - AIR SYSTEM LAYOUT................................................................................................................................21
FIGURE 12 - COUPLANT SYSTEM...................................................................................................................................22
FIGURE 13 - SCANNER SUPPLY......................................................................................................................................23
FIGURE 14 – TOFD PROBE ARRANGEMENT FOR WELD INSPECTION...........................................................................24
FIGURE 15 – SCHEMATIC OF TOFD A-SCAN.................................................................................................................25
FIGURE 16 – TOFD D-SCAN OF BUTT WELD AND DEFECT.........................................................................................25
FIGURE 17 – TOFD.......................................................................................................................................................27
FIGURE 18 – METALLURGICAL STRUCTURE OF AREAS EXAMINED..............................................................................27
FIGURE 19 – NEURAL NETWORK FOR THE DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN TOFD SCANS................................................33
FIGURE 20 – ONLINE AUTOMATIC DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WELDS FROM TOFD SCANS (A) RAW TOFD SCAN OF
50% COMPLETE SA WELD IN 85MM FERRITIC STEEL ACQUIRED AT 150° C (B) PIXEL LABELING BY NEURAL
NET IN FIGURE 19 (C) DETECTED DEFECT............................................................................................................33
FIGURE 21 - DEFECT INTERACTION RULES...................................................................................................................38
FIGURE 22 - DEFECT INTERACTION API 1104...............................................................................................................39
FIGURE 23 - SAMPLE OF A HEIGHT TABLE...................................................................................................................43

REVISION RECORD

HISTORY

REVISION DATE COMMENTS

4 JAN., 2001 Added the following:
6.0 Time Of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)

3 FEB., 2000

2 JUNE, 1998

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 6 of 44

1 GENERAL OVERVIEW
The use of automated ultrasonic girthweld inspection has been utilized in Canada since 1980. The introduction of
automated UT was brought about because of the use of the automated welding processes that were being introduced
into Canada at that time. There was concern that not all of the defects in the welds were being detected by
radiography.

The initial concern was with the compound bevel design of the automatic welding process, which had a 37.5-degree
root angle and a 45-degree hot pass angle within the bevel geometry. Defects along these two bevel areas were not
always visible or discernible on a radiographic film. The other area of concern was the probability of detection and
correct length assessment of very tight lack of sidewall fusion. These were occurring along the 5-degree bevel in the
fill zone.

From 1980 until the early 1990’s, both radiography and automated UT were utilized on all automatic welding jobs in
Canada. This allowed for the accumulation of a large database of correlation information to be collected. The
results were that the only area that UT had problems with was in the characterization of porosity. In the early 1990’s,
this area became the focus of substantial research. This resulted in the integration of “mapping” channels into the
UT system. This overcame all of the porosity defect issues that had been highlighted in the correlation.

In the summer of 1993, the first total UT weld evaluation job was successfully completed. Over the years,
substantial enhancements have been incorporated into the InFocus system. One enhancement occurred in early
1999, the use of Time of Flight Diffraction was implemented into the InFocus system to complement the existing
inspection techniques.

InFocus is a PC based inspection system. It utilizes state of the art ultrasonic instrumentation and transducers to
carry out the inspection. Shaw Pipeline Services developed custom inspection software and all of the custom
electronic instrumentation for the inspection system.

InFocus is a continually evolving system in both the software and the methods of defect detection and evaluation.
InFocus is a modular system, which has been designed to allow for the quick replacement of components. This
helps in the reduction of down time by having the components replaced and then repaired off line.

1.1 Comparison with RT

A major advantage that automated UT has over radiography is the ability to accurately size defects and
accurately determine the through wall position of an indication. This allows for the evaluation of indications to
a ‘fitness for purpose’ or ‘engineering critical assessment’ criteria. To implement a FFP or ECA criteria the
inspection system must demonstrate the ability to accurately size the vertical extent of an indication. The
InFocus system accomplishes this by dividing the weld into separate inspection zones, and by scanning each
zone with a specific transducer arranged to interrogate the bevel at the appropriate angle. The transducer is
focused to inspect only one inspection zone. Planar and volumetric discontinuities require a two-axis
assessment, length and height is required, not length and width, to ensure that the requirements of a fitness for
purpose specification is met. The accuracy required is not within current radiographic capabilities and still
maintains the high production rates necessary for current pipeline welding.

Automated UT Inspection also allows the operator to help the welding foreman identify areas of concern. The
area of concern may not be rejectable, but may lead to a repair on a future weld if the problem is not corrected.
It also helps the repair welder in that he has an accurate flaw depth and position within the weld.

Last, but certainly not least, is the safety issue. With an ever-increasing emphasis on safety, radiation and
chemical hazards are not issues with mechanized ultrasonic inspection. This has led to mechanized ultrasonic
inspection becoming the inspection method of choice.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 7 of 44

1.1.1 System Layout

UPS Power House, Transformer or

Generator Power
Power
Printer
Conditioner

Computer Monitor Remote Pulsar

Pneumatic Control
Scanner Control Air System
Bulkhead
USIP SHC CIM

Water Supply

Scanner A Scanner B

1.1.2 Main Components

No. Component Description

1 Air System The air supply for the scanners consists of the air compressor, dryer,
and particle trap.
2 Computer Interface Module The brain of the system which brings together all the different
components. (CIM) It controls the system itself or it packages the
information, and passes it onto the main computer so that the
information can be displayed and controlled by the main computer.
3 Inspection Scanner The scanner holds the ultrasonic transducers at a fixed distance from
the weld centerline as it runs around the weld on a band.
4 Main Computer Receives and displays all of the inspection data. Controls all aspects
of the inspection including the running of calibrations and welds, aid
the evaluation of the weld, data storage, and printing of the hard
copies.
5 Pneumatic Control Module Controls the air supply and regulates the air pressure to the scanner

6 Scanner Control Module The SCM controls the movement of the scanner
(SCM)
7 Smart Hand Console Allows the operator to control the operation of the system

8 Uninterruptible Power Delivers battery power to the instrumentation when there is an

Supply (UPS) interruption of power to the system
9 USIP 20 The ultrasonic flaw detector

10 Water System The water supply for the scanner consists of the tank and pumps that
deliver the water to the scanners.
1.2 Applications

1.2.1 Automatic Welds

InFocus was originally designed for the inspection of automatic welding systems. To date, it has performed
field production inspections on CRC Evans (Internal and External Root), AWS, Passo, Submerged Arc,
RMS, Vermaat, Saturnax, Phoenix, and Phoenix Gold welding systems.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 8 of 44

Each automatic welding systems has an individual weld ‘signature’. This ‘signature’ is comprised of the
types of defects and the types of geometry indications that are common to that system. Familiarization
with each type of weld ‘signature’ comes with experience of inspecting that welding system. Shaw
Pipeline Services has a large database of all of the above listed welding system. The database can be
utilized to review welds for the familiarization of each weld ‘signature’.

1.2.2 Manual Welds

The use of manual hand scanning of manual welds has been utilized for a long time. The main drawbacks
that many customers have expressed with manual hand scanning are:

1. There is no permanent record other than a check mark on an inspection report.

2. The results are very dependent upon the experience and ability of the person performing the hand scan.
3. It is time consuming.

The use of automated ultrasonic inspection has tried to address these issues in much the same way that it
achieved in the automatic welding system inspection. The automatic inspection of manual welds achieved
the same acceptance as the automatic inspection of automatic welding in the mid 1990’s.

The weld ‘signature’ for a manual weld is completely different from any of the automatic welding system.
This is due to a more random type of defect and non-uniform orientation of defects, which requires
different evaluation and setup procedures.

1.2.3 On/Offshore
InFocus has been used successfully on both land pipeline construction and on pipe laying barges offshore.
For both onshore and offshore applications, there are advantages and disadvantages for use of the InFocus
system.

The advantages of the InFocus System are the speed of inspection, the immediate results, the limited down
time, no chemical or radioactive hazards, the ability to identify the exact depth, the position of an
indication, and the ability to detect welding trends which if they continue could result in repairs (i.e.:
quality control).

The disadvantages are that it requires time to set up the inspection scanner for each wall thickness and pipe
diameter (there is not a quick change over for unexpected variations). If the project utilizes multiple pipe
manufacturers, the material velocities may vary. This would require different calibration standards and
scanner setups for each difference.

For land work, the inspection system is mounted onto a specially designed truck so that all of the
equipment is safely secured and shock mounted to work in rugged terrain. The trucks are also equipped to
allow for ease of towing. InFocus is self contained and powered by a generator. The truck will also have a
water tank that is large enough to hold water for at least one full day of high production inspection. The
truck is laid out allowing inspections to be carried out in extreme elements. Most land work is usually 6
days a week, 12 hours a day. All maintenance on the system is carried out at the end of each day’s
production.

For offshore lay barges the inspection system is configured differently mainly to accommodate the
available space requirements of each barge. InFocus is usually powered by barge power either directly or
through a transformer to change it to our requirements (110V, 60Hz). InFocus is set up in interconnecting
modules for ease of transportation and connections on board. Each barge usually receives a custom setup.
All offshore work runs 7 days a week, 24 hours a day. All maintenance on the system is carried out in
between welds and during any down time.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 9 of 44

2 ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCERS
The SPS Automated Ultrasonic System uses focused ultrasonic transducers for inspection of three specific areas of
the weld. These areas are:

1. The fusion zone or the bevel face

2. The heat affected zone in the parent material
3. The volumetric area or the deposited weld metal.

These three zones contain the specific defects that the UT system is targeted to identify.

Each transducer provides the Operator with two information elements:

1. Time of Flight (TOF) or Steel Path Distance Information: this provides the position of an indication within
the targeted area which, relates to a known reference position.
2. Echo Amplitude Information: this provides the signal strength of an indication which, is utilized in defining
the specific size and orientation of an indication.

These two pieces of information are extracted from each transducer, then combined together in multiple views and
formats to locate, identify, and size all relevant indications. On selected transducers, additional information is
gathered and is presented on “mapping” channels. The mapping channel provides a stacked digitized A-scan
presentation of the CRT trace within the Time of Flight gate.

Only probes that have been pre-approved for use with the girth weld system shall be used. The serial number and
specific inspection zone of each probe shall be identified and recorded prior to release for field use. The project
guide will reference specific probes (by part number) for specific inspection planes. These probes will not be
interchangeable for use on different inspection planes unless written approval is obtained.

2.1 Probe Types

The InFocus ultrasonic set up is a modular system in which the transducers and wedges are separate
components. Each transducer and wedge has it’s own unique serial number. The transducer is also identified
by its part number that is related to the characteristics of the transducer. The wedge is also identified by the
incident angle that is marked on it. This permits the ability to use the same transducer on different wedges for
various applications. It also permits the rapid replacement of a damaged wedge without changing the transducer
or vise versa. Should a transducer or wedge need to be replaced, care should be taken to ensure that a matching
part number transducer, or a matching incident angle wedge are utilized. The wedge has an aluminum
horseshoe mounted on it, which contains four carbide wear pads that are the only contact points with the pipe.

2.1.1 Focused Transducers

InFocus utilizes custom built focused transducers for the inspection. The transducers have a shaped crystal
(curved element) to propagate a focused shear wave into the test specimen. The specific beam profile and
related characteristics for each transducer are verified by the manufacturer and by the research department
of SPS. A typical spot size of 2 or 3mm at the target distance is currently being utilized.

The transducers are configured in both pulse-echo and tandem modes and are identified by the last three
numbers of the transducers part number. The SPS transducers provide a focused sound field, which is
smaller than a standard transducer. This focusing of the sound energy provides us with the ability to
accurately determine the size of the defects, and locate their depth from the surface of the weld.

The term spot size is used to describe the effective size of the sound beam at its working distance. The
focal spot size is defined as the full beam width in between the 6db edges. However, the sound field

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 10 of 44

continues to exist outside the main focal area. The transducer will still be sensitive to reflectors outside the
focal spot. This means that defect detection is possible between the peak focal spot of two transducers and
channel “overlap” must be considered when sizing indications. Channel overlap is determined from
calibration information.

SPS uses four basic types of transducers. S.W.S., Q.C., TOFD and Creeping Wave.

2.1.1.1 S.W.S. Transducers

S.W.S. probes are cylindrically focused transducers. This type of focusing controls the vertical height
aspect of the sound beam with limited horizontal control of the beam. SWS transducers are usually
utilized , but not limited to, the high angle (60-70 degree) long steel path applications.

2.1.1.2 Q.C. Transducers

Q.C. transducers come in two styles, focused and standard flat configuration. The focused Q.C.
transducers derive there focusing capability from a spherical element. This type of focusing controls
both the vertical and horizontal aspect of the sound beam. The flat configuration probes are a standard
off the shelf unit and are used mainly as the receiver on the tandem configurations. Q.C. transducers
are usually utilized, but not limited to, the lower angle (40-60 degrees), shorter steel path applications.

2.1.1.3 TOFD Transducers

TOFD probes are highly damped, high frequency, ¼” diameter transducers, which transmit a wide
sound beam to flood the weld with sound. TOFD probes are utilized in a pitch-catch mode to generate
a longitudinal wave that is transmitted across the weld from one side to the other.

2.1.1.4 Creeping Wave Transducers

InFocus also utilizes creeping wave transducers, these are usually implemented on the last fill channel
of very thick wall pipe or special applications. Typical creeping wave transducers use 2-¼” 5MHz flat
transducers mounted in a single wedge in tandem or pitch-catch mode to generate a subsurface
creeping wave targeted just below the OD surface of the weld.

2.1.2 Acoustical Coupling of Probes and Wedges

Acoustical coupling between the probe and wedge is accomplished in two ways:

The first way is with the use of a thin piece of brass which is placed between the probe and the wedge to
provide an area in which a very thin water column is formed. The center section of the brass shim has been
machined out to allow the water column to be held in an area directly in front of the probe element. A
constant supply of water must be insured to prevent air bubbles from forming, as this would destroy the
acoustic integrity of the interface. A small amount of water leakage from between the shim and wedge
helps to expel small air bubbles from this interface, as well as aiding in maintaining a constant transducer
temperature. In cold weather environments, the coupling water is heated and in hot weather environments,
the water flow aids in heat dissipation.

The second way is with a solid couplant that is placed between the probe and wedge to facilitate the
acoustical coupling.

2.1.3 Tandem Transducers

The tandem transducer system that is used on the InFocus system is comprised of a focused transducer and
wedge transmitter and an unfocused 5 MHz transducer and wedge receiver that is mounted in a tandem

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 11 of 44

bracket. The tandem bracket is designed to maintain a constant index to index spacing and allows the
tandem pair to pivot so that it can follow undulations around the circumference of the pipe. The tandem
configuration propagates the sound into the pipe at the OD. The sound then bounces off the ID and if there
is a flaw present the sound will hit the defect and return to the receiver. This approach allows for optimal
orientation of the beam.

Figure 1 -Tandem Transducer – Optimal Orientation of Beam

Transmit Receive

2.2 Temperature Effects on Velocity

SPS has undergone extensive research into the effects of temperature variation in materials and probe wedges.

The two primary results are:

1) In steel, the sound velocity variation due to pipe temperature change is minimal within the usual
inspection range of 0-100 degree C. The refracted angle variations were correspondingly small, so no
adjustments were required to maintain signal integrity.
2) In the wedge material, the sound velocity variation due to temperature change is significant. Velocity
changes in wedge materials can rapidly alter the refracted angle. This effect is more pronounced in
high angle transducers, ie: 70-degree angles, due to their long sound path distance to the target zone in
comparison to low angle transducers, ie: 45-degree angles.

The temperature effects are most prevalent when there is a large difference in the ambient temperature and the
inspection temperature. For example: when the ambient temperature is –40º C verses a weld temperature of
+80ºC the temperature difference is 120 degrees. The large temperature difference will mean that the
temperature of a wedge will cool very quickly. The weld temperature will aid in maintaining the wedge
temperature in the desired range. It is desirable that the inspection cycle remains within a ±10-degree range of
the calibrated temperature to insure signal integrity. Should a significant temperature change happen during the
course of a day, resulting in difficulty in maintaining the temperature inspection window, a setup modification
to accommodate a lower or higher nominal temperature may be required. The temperature effects are minor in
non-cold weather applications due to a much smaller temperature difference.

Below is an example of how a wedge velocity variation may affect the refracted angle.

Wedge Steel Wedge Steel

Sin 45 Sin X1 Sin 45 Sin X2

2.341 3.200 X1=75.14 Degrees 2.360 3.200 X2=73.49 Degrees

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 12 of 44

Using a 12.7mm wall thickness the surface distances will be:

For X1: 2*12.7*Tan 75.14 = 95.73mm full skip or 47.87mm half skip

For X2: 2*12.7*Tan 73.49 = 85.71mm full skip or 42.86mm half skip

Temperature integrity is maintained by a number of devices within the InFocus system.

To monitor the wedge temperature variations, thermocouples are imbedded in the probe wedges and connected
to a digital thermometer. The calibration standard and coupling water can be heated. As well, the scanner and
calibration bed can be enclosed within a heated area.

Figure 2 - Beam Path Representation of a Temperature Effect on the LCP

Set up temperature Beam Path Center

Colder wedge temperature Beam Path Center
Hotter wedge temperature Beam Path Center

3 INSTRUMENTATION
All the non-ultrasonic instrumentation is controlled by and any data is transferred through the Shaw Field Net
(SFN). The SFN is a program facilitating communication between the different components within the InFocus
system. For all instrumentation components, there is a technical manual. The manuals contain the specific
information dealing with the operation and set up requirements for that component.

3.1 USIP 20

3.1.1 Basic Configuration

The USIP 20 is a multiplexed, multichannel ultrasonic instrument. It is comprised of two different
components.

1. The USIP, which houses the CRT, multiplexer, and computer, which runs the whole system.
2. The Remote Pulsar Preamp (also known as the Expansion Chassis). The expansion chassis houses the
remote pulser channel cards. Each expansion chassis can house up to sixteen channel cards. Each
channel card operates one transducer in the pulse echo mode or one tandem setup (TX/RX). If more
than sixteen channel cards are required, an additional expansion chassis can be added. Each channel is
set up as the equivalent of a separate flaw detector.

3.1.2 Basic Operation

The USIP is a computer based ultrasonic instrument, and follows basic computer start up procedures, i.e.
cold boot or warm boot.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 13 of 44

1. The cold boot procedure will calibrate all of the channel cards and load default settings to all of
channels. The USIP will automatically do a cold boot if it is shut down improperly or if there is a loss
of power to the instrument.
2. The warm boot procedure will restart the machine and default to the settings that the USIP had been
utilizing before being powered down.

Once the USIP is up and running, the setup parameters can be entered manually or retrieved from a file.
The set up parameters can be saved or retrieved as on any normal computer. In the InFocus system all of
the gates are referenced from the IF (interface) Gate. For each channel, there are two settings:

3.1.2.1 A-Scan 1
A-Scan 1 delivers the inspection information. Gate-1 and Gate-3 are linked to A-scan 1. Gate-1 is an
amplitude gate and Gate-3 is a time of flight (TOF) gate.

3.1.2.2 A-Scan 2
A-Scan 2 delivers the couplant monitoring information. Gate-2 and Gate-4 are linked to A-scan 2.
Gate-2 is a couplant monitor gate and Gate-4 is not used at this time.

Adjustments (with the exception of the IF-Gate) made within A-Scan 1 do not affect settings in A-Scan
2 and visa versa due to their independent nature.

3.1.3 Key Settings

Each channel is configured to match the parameters that are laid out on the job specific setup sheet. The
research and development department generates this. Some parameters are generic to most of the projects.
Job specific information that you will have to enter into the USIP will be:
1. Gate Settings,
2. Channel Amplitudes,
3. Channel Delays
4. Number Of Channels
5. Probe Type
6. Main PRF
7. Global Gain Settings.
Once these are entered, the settings should be stored into a file. File names correspond to the serial number
assigned to the test piece. The USIP will assign its own suffix to the file. Periodically the file should be
updated as changes are made to the set up while in operation. The file should also be saved onto a 3.5”
floppy in case of a computer crash or a file gets corrupted.

3.2 Computer Interface Module (CIM)

The Computer Interface Module is the link between the USIP, SFN (Shaw Field Net), and computer. All of the
scanner control commands are passed through the CIM via the SFN when the Smart Hand Console is
controlling the scanner. The Shaw Field Net control program is housed in the Shaw Master Card in the CIM.

During calibrations and inspection runs, the USIP produces data that must be converted to a data stream that the
computer can understand. The data from the USIP includes information from signal amplitude channels, time
of flight channels, mapping and TOFD information. All raw data from the standard inspection setups on the

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 14 of 44

USIP is selectively analyzed by the CIM and then compressed into "Worse Case" groups over a given distance.
Typically, the resolution is 1 mm.

‘Worst case’ means that the highest amplitude within the 1 mm is passed on to the computer. For TOF the
‘worst case’ means that the first indication to trip a predetermined threshold is passed on to the computer. For
mapping, a ‘snapshot’ of the A-scan is taken at a given point in the 1-mm. This compression provides an
information buffer for the computer, which enables high-speed operation. The TOFD information is similar to
the mapping information in that a “snap shot” of the A-scan is taken and then passed onto the main computer.
The CIM does not have any user adjustable controls other than the on/off and reset.

3.3 Scanner Control Module (SCM)

The SCM controls the movement of the scanner and is connected to the CIM via the umbilical. The SCM
receives data through the SFN, the front panel controls, or the rear analog interface. Control of the scanner is
accomplished by the use of feedback information from the motor and the encoder. This method results in a
constant travel speed around the pipe circumference. During the scanners travel around the weld, the SCM
makes automatic speed adjustments based upon feedback from the encoder.

Within the SCM, there are a number of control parameters which affect how the feedback is processed.
When varying load conditions, gear ratio changes, and motor parameter changes occur, adjustments will
be required. To access the control parameters the “CAL” button is utilized and parameter choices are
displayed in the LCD window. Toggling the FWD/REV switch changes parameter choices.

Any values selected to be changed CANNOT be retrieved once the change has been initialized.

3.4 Pneumatic Control Module (PCM)

The PCM controls the air supply that raises and lowers the individual transducers and the encoder onto the pipe.
The PCM receives control commands through the SFN, or the front panel controls. The PCM regulates the
amount of air pressure that is delivered to the scanner when in the DOWN mode. When in the UP mode, the
PCM does not regulate the air pressure and the air pressure delivered is the preset tank pressure. Pneumatic
solenoids controlled by the PCM enable the UP/DOWN movement of the probe array within the scanner.

For correct solenoid operation, the manufacturer recommends a minimum of 20psi. SPS settings are 20-24psi
for the probe array, and 24-28psi for the encoder. If the solenoids are activated by the front panel controls, the
SFN will not override it. There is a manual override button on the top of each solenoid if problems arise.

3.5 Smart Hand Console (SHC)

The operator controls the scanner functions using the SHC. Data and power is transferred from the SFN
interface to the smart hand console. Activation of the pneumatic system is done manually on the SHC. Two
types of scanner control are available to the operator on the SHC:

1. Manual mode: allows all control functions to operate from the SHC, this includes the selection of travel
speed and direction.
2. Auto mode: diverts control of the scanner drive system from the SHC to the main computer. The operator
may override the auto mode by toggling the FWD/REV switch, which enables manual control immediately.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 15 of 44

Figure 3 – Connections

KEYBOARD MOUSE PRINTER

38 40 34
37 39 33

30 29
MONITOR COMPUTER HAND CONTROL

28 24 26 31

27 23 25 32

K 21 22
E
Y
B 42 USIP CIM
O 41 19 20
A
R
D
17 18

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15

UMBILICAL

2
EXPANSION CHASSIS 1 4
6

8
EXPANSION CHASSIS 2 10
12

PNEUMATIC CONTROL
35 14

SCANNER CONTROL
36 16

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 16 of 44

4 COMPUTER
The SPS InFocus Inspection System is implemented using industry standard PC hardware. The research and
development team frequently evaluates and incorporates new hardware advancements into the system to ensure top
performance. As more processing power, improved graphics engines, and enhanced communication speeds emerge,
SPS has incorporated these into the system.

SPS also seeks to be responsive to customer requirements and requests in prioritizing enhancements. Some of the
practical improvements that SPS has brought to the industry are decreased inspection cycle times, higher resolution
data displays, and dedicated graphical user interfaces. As PC power increases more items on the “wish list” will be
implemented.

4.1 Hardware
Because the hardware on which the InFocus system runs is continually being updated, no specific list of
components is included in this document. Standard components include a computer, monitor, keyboard, mouse,
printer, and UPS.

4.2 Software
The InFocus software is a Windows application that runs on the latest version of Microsoft Windows NT. The
primary window in which weld data is displayed (shown below) is called the strip chart. The strip chart is
comprised of sets of vertical strips, each of which corresponds to a different inspection zone, such as the root,
cross penetration, hot pass or one of several fill zones. The strips are often referred to as channels. In each
inspection zone there may be strips displaying amplitude, time of flight, couplant, or volumetric mapping data.
Each strip is labeled at the top with a symbol representing its inspection zone. For example, the root amplitude
channel might be labeled RT-A. A ruler indicating the circumferential location of data is located in the center of
the screen.

Since there are transducers on opposing sides of the weld, the ruler is used to divide the two sides. SPS
designates the band side of a weld as the upstream side and the opposite as the downstream side. This typically
means that on the display window the upstream side is on the left-hand side of the central ruler. This may be
changed at the customer’s request.

Inspection zones displayed towards the center of the stripchart are low in the weld and the zones moving out
from the center are moving higher up in the weld. Therefore, the inspection zones displayed nearest the ruler
are the root channels. Subsequent channels are cross penetration, hot pass and fill channels respectively moving
up the bevel profile. The strips on the outer edges of the stripchart, i.e., towards the weld cap, include the
volumetric mapping channels.

Couplant channels are displayed on the furthest left side of the standard strip chart. Each vertical strip of
information and its associated data are color coded to help the operator quickly evaluate the indications as they
appear. At the far-left hand side of the strip chart is the TOFD channel, which is represented as a grey scale
inspection channel. This is utilized by the operator to help to speed up the evaluation process by confirming the
existence or lack thereof of indications.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 17 of 44

Figure 4 - Strip Chart

When interpreted correctly, the patterns displayed in the strip chart reveal indications in the weld being
examined. Two other representations of weld data are also available to further enhance the identification of a
specific type of indication. These are the Channel Point Details window and the 2D View window. To open
these windows and get a more detailed view of an indication, the operator needs only to click on the indication
in the strip chart. Both the Channel Point Details window and the 2D view will then be opened.

The Channel Point Details window reveals details of the specific channel that was most recently clicked on by
the operator. The Channel Point Details view will always include the circumferential location of the indication.
Depending on the type of channel, it may also include a color coded representation of the data recorded for that
channel. Actual data value(s) recorded at that location (e.g. 78%fsh/3.45mm) or a digitized A-scan
representation of the signal either for mapping or for TOFD is displayed. These details can then be used to
classify and accurately size the indication. Three examples of Channel Point Details windows are shown below.
The first is an Amplitude Channel, the Second a Time of Flight Channel, and the third a digitized view of a
Volumetric Mapping Channel.

Figure 5 - Channel Details Amplitude/Time of Flight

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 18 of 44

Figure 6 - Channel Details Wave Form also Called Mapping

The 2D View (shown below) depicts a two-dimensional representation of the weld profile. It plots indications
from all of the transducers at the selected circumferential location. The location of each indication is derived
from time of flight channels, and the size is determined from the amplitude of reflected signals from the
indication.

Figure 7 – Weld Profile 2D View

A third window, the Couplant Monitor window is provided for use during a weld inspection. The Couplant
Monitor provides a bar chart style representation of couplant signals between pairs of transducers. This allows
the operator to monitor couplant signals in specific channels. All of the monitored couplant channels are
displayed within the window. This window is not usually utilized during a inspection scan as the information is
already displayed on the strip chart. Adjustments in 2dB increments may be made through this window. The
range of the couplant monitor is –16dB to +6dB.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 19 of 44

Figure 8 – Couplant Monitor

Beside the main data strip chart display is the 256 gray scale TOFD data inspection window displayed below.

Figure 9 – TOFD Display

The entire inspection window that the operator is utilizing to make his weld evaluation is displayed below.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 20 of 44

Figure 10 – Strip Chart with TOFD

4.3 Data Storage

Upon completion of every inspection scan, the operator must save the file to permanent storage. To protect
against media failure or accident, two copies of the file are saved: a main and a backup copy. These copies are
typically saved to removable media that are capable of storing many welds. The number of welds that can be
stored is dependent upon the file size and the capacity of the specific media used. The file size is dependent
upon the number of inspection channels and the circumferential length of the weld. File compression is used to
decrease the size of each weld and conserve space.

The operator must also fill out a disc log which records the relevant data contained on each disc. The disc log
consists of the job designation, the disc number, the start date, the finish date, the first weld number on the disc,
the last weld number on the disc, and the name of the operator who changed the disc. At the completion of the
project, or at crew change intervals, the full weld discs are returned to SPS office to allow permanent archive
copies to be made on CD-ROMs. A viewer program is available for review of the weld files.

5 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
5.1 Scanner
The purpose of the scanner is to provide a stable mechanism that houses the UT transducers. It will also travel
circumferentially around a pipe weld holding the UT transducers at a fixed distance from the weld centerline.
The scanner must deliver reliable data back to the instrumentation for processing. The SPS scanner was
designed to inspect a wide range of pipe diameters with a minimal requirement for customized components for
specific pipe sizes. The scanner is composed of approximately 80 parts and provides several functions. It
houses the drive system enabling the scanner to clamp on to the band and then travel around the weld. It also
distributes water to three different areas on the scanner.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 21 of 44

1. The Prewet: sprays the pipe in advance of the scanner.

2. The Transducer Water: (when applicable) creates the water column between the transducer and the
wedge. In some applications a sold couplant is utilized which replaces the use of water between the
transducer and the wedge.
3. The Wedge Water: creates an interface between the wedge and the pipe to insure the acoustic transmission
into the pipe

The scanner also houses the pneumatic system, which allows the transducers to be held up out of the way, when
the scanner is mounted. A constant down pressure on the transducers maintains good contact between the
wedge and pipe during the inspection cycle. The scanner also contains the encoder, which supplies
circumferential position and speed information.

5.2 Drive System

The drive system is the mechanism on to which the scanner components are mounted and delivers the power
necessary to move the scanner around the weld. The scanner control module delivers the power and direction
of travel for the drive system. Initially a CRC Evans cutting bug and band system was modified to allow
mounting of the inspection scanner. The current configuration is dependent upon the welding system being
inspected. If the welding system is CRC-Evans then the bug is a CRC bug. If the welding system is not CRC,
then the drive system is the Shaw bug and band system.

5.3 Pneumatic System

The pneumatic system is designed to deliver a controlled pressurized air supply to the scanners. The system is
controlled through the SFN, SHC, the front panel controls of the PCM, or the manual override button on the top
of each solenoid in the PCM. The system is used to extend and retract the transducer assemblies and the
encoder wheel. The components are: the air compressor motor and air tank, air dryer, air filter, PCM, bulkhead
interconnect, scanner air manifold, and the individual transducer air cylinders.

Figure 11 - Air System Layout

Air Dryer Particle Trap

Pneumatic
Bulkhead Control
Air Compressor
Module
Switching Bulkhead

Scanner A Scanner B

5.4 Couplant System

The couplant system is designed to deliver a constant water supply to the inspection scanner. Each pump of the
couplant system supplies water to a separate scanner. The water pumps are powered through a UPS to avoid air
entering the system and to allow the completion of an inspection in progress to be completed, should a power
outage occur. Two different configurations are utilized. One for land based operations with the system setup
inside a truck, and one for offshore operations.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 22 of 44

5.4.1 Land-Based Operations

The couplant system is comprised of three separate elements. The scanner water supply, couplant return,
and couplant heater system.

1. Scanner Supply: provides each scanner with a constant pressurized flow of water. It is comprised of
the main water tank, water pumps, and switching valves.
2. Couplant Return: provides a method of recovering couplant that is used during the calibration
sequences. This system also enables SPS to reclaim couplant that is recovered from weld inspection
during cold weather.
3. Couplant Heater System: is a closed loop system that has the ability to heat the water in the main
couplant tank. This system is comprised of a recalculating pump and propane fired water heater and is
only utilized in cold weather operations.

Figure 12 - Couplant System

Heater Pump

Main Water Tank

Heater

Pump A Pump B
UPS Power

Water
Filter
Scanner A Scanner B

Return
Pump
Return Tray

5.4.2 Offshore Operations

1. Scanner supply utilizes the same system components as the land based scanner supply with the only
exception being that a water filter is includes between the barge water and the main water tank.
2. Couplant return, has not been necessary offshore.
3. Couplant heater, has not been necessary offshore.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 23 of 44

Figure 13 - Scanner Supply

Barge Water Water Filter

Main Water Tank

Pump A UPS Power

Pump B

Scanner A Scanner B

5.5 Temperature Control

Temperature monitoring and control of certain items is an important aspect to the quality of the inspection for
cold weather operation. Temperature monitoring and control is accomplished with thermocouples, these are
connected to digital thermometers and the temperature appears on a digital display. Most critical to the
inspection is the temperature of the transducer wedge material. Operating windows are set to allow calibration
and inspection to take place within an acceptable temperature range of the transducer wedge material. Other
items monitored and controlled are the temperature of the test piece and the couplant temperature. The
temperature of these are adjusted so that they help to warm or cool the transducers wedge, thus maintaining the
appropriate temperature range.

5.6 Power Supply

An uninterruptable power supply (UPS) is used to protect various components from over/under voltage
conditions, unintended power loss, and other circumstances that could damage electronic, ultrasonic and
computer equipment. The UPS contains batteries, which provide the back-up capability. These batteries will
sustain power long enough to provide the operator with the ability to do approximately 8 to 10 minutes of
inspection or trouble shooting before a complete power loss takes place.

In case of a power loss, the two components that require attention prior to total power loss are the USIP and the
computer. If the loss of power cannot be identified and corrected in 8 to 10 minutes, the operator must proceed
with the standard shutdown procedures of the USIP and the computer. If these are not performed prior to the
loss of battery power in the USIP and the computer, the programs contained in these devices may be corrupted.

A power conditioner is used to protect the printer and the print source select switch from voltage spikes. The
printer is not connected to the UPS due to the high current requirement of its heating cycle. The power
conditioner does not have the capability to maintain a current supply should power be lost.

6 TIME OF FLIGHT DIFFRACTION (TOFD)

6.1 Time of Flight Diffraction is an Inspection Tool

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 24 of 44

In isolation TOFD is prospectively one of the most effective and reliable methods of non-invasive condition
assessment yet developed but, like all other methods, it is not without limitation. Developed in the late 1960's
by the safety-conscious nuclear industry in recognition of the inherently poor defect sizing and characterization
capabilities of available inspection techniques, TOFD is an ultrasonic method which, rather than
(conventionally) relying on the amount of energy reflected by discontinuities, measures the time differences
from signals diffracted by the extremities of such defects. In doing so, it provides a statement of size and
position while eliminating one of the main variables of ultrasonic testing - amplitude.

For many years scientists promoted the technique as a highly specialized 'sizing' tool - so complex that it
required their specialist knowledge and sophisticated technology to effectively apply - and unsubstantiated
claims were made about what the technique could and could not achieve.

This may have been the case in the very early stages of evolution but TOFD has now been around for more than
25 years. Its effectiveness has been proven by performance demonstration.

TOFD is undoubtedly a very powerful and viable plant asset, management tool.

6.2 Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique

The typical apparatus for a TOFD weld examination is shown in Fig. 14. Usually a two probe (one transmitter;
one receiver) arrangement is used - the chosen transmitter producing a relatively wide beam spread to maximize
the extent of the scan. The two probes are aligned geometrically on either side of the weld and an A-scan is
taken at sequential positions along the length of the bead. The time taken to scan a length of weld is, therefore,
very short since no raster scanning at each position is necessary.

Figure 14 – TOFD Probe Arrangement for Weld Inspection

A schematic of an A-scan for the arrangement shown in Fig. 14 is given in Fig. 15. This shows the detection of
four main signals:
1. the surface or lateral signal which travels along the surface of the component and has the shortest arrival
time
2. the top tip of the defect
3. the bottom tip of the defect
4. the backwall echo, which has the longest transit time.
Also present in the A-scan are reflections from mode converted signals which have a slower speed of
propagation through the specimen and hence a longer transit time. Although mode converted signals are not
usually examined in TOFD inspection, they can often duplicate the main body of the A-scan. If both tips of a
defect can be resolved in the A-scan then the actual depth and 'through-wall' thickness of the flaw can be
accurately calculated. This was the main thrust behind the development of the technique, since other methods,
such as, standard pulse echo techniques could often locate but not size defects accurately.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 25 of 44

Figure 15 – Schematic of TOFD A-Scan

Figure 16 – TOFD D-Scan of Butt Weld and Defect

TOFD has a drawback in that it is rare to achieve clear signals in the A-scans due to the nature of the weak
diffracted signals, coupled with noise, and interference from signals derived from very small pores or non-
uniformity in the weld region. However, one of the reasons why TOFD examination has attained widespread
use is the associated data acquisition and presentation methodologies proposed very early in its development by
Silk (1977).

Each A-scan is digitized as it is collected by the receiver, to a resolution of 8 bits - the signal is not rectified and
instead is mapped directly to the 256 possible gray levels. A series of A-scans, for a section of weld, is then
presented in B or D-scan fashion as shown in the example scan in Fig. 16. In this example scan we can clearly
see the lateral wave (at the top), and the mass of backwall echoes (at the bottom). Also present between these
signals is a defect, D, around which are peculiar down curved arcs which are typical of TOFD signatures. The
arcs are caused by the interaction of the defect with the wide beam spread when the probes are not exactly in
line with the flaw - hence the signal becomes progressively stronger near the center of the arc as the actual
position of the defect reaches the center of the ultrasonic beam. Since the signals associated with the presence
of defects are often quite characteristic when shown in Silk's D-scan plot, the TOFD technique is also now
extensively employed for defect detection, as well as sizing.

TOFD scans are commonly undertaken with automated scanning manipulators, and the obtained scans can be
compared with pulse echo scans using the same apparatus. Currently there are several commercial digital
ultrasonic such systems that can acquire data in this way. All of these systems now employ various data
enhancement algorithms such as pseudo colouring, geometric stretching, and most notably the Synthetic

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 26 of 44

Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) which can be used to eliminate beam spread effects and thus improve
defect characterization.

6.3 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

It should perhaps first be restated that TOFD is an ultrasonic technique and, as such, is governed essentially by
the same laws of physics which apply to established reflectivity methods and is therefore subject to many of the
same limitations.

Most notably these are the laws of wave propagation at the frequencies in question - typically 5 - 15 MHz. - and
consequently an elastic medium is necessary to support the transmission of vibration energy on which all
ultrasonic techniques depend. A coupling medium must therefore be maintained between the transducers and
the items under test and this must be adequate to ensure signal transmission at all times. Loss of couplant will
result in loss of signal which, in turn, results in lack of coverage. TOFD does however enjoy the benefit of
continuously monitoring and recording couplant status so that any shortcomings can be identified and
addressed.

Where TOFD differs radically from all other ultrasonic based methods is that it relies on the detection of
diffracted rather than reflected signals. On initial assessment, this may not appear all that significant, but closer
analysis shows that the consequences of this have a major bearing on the techniques capabilities and its
limitations.

Rather than monitoring the (high) amplitude response of reflected energy and using this to make a comparative
assessment of 'equivalent' defect size, TOFD relies on the detection of relatively low amplitude signals
diffracted only from the tips of defects which form a basis for absolute position (and therefore size)
measurement - irrespective of amplitude response. This is achieved by using two separate transducers in a
directly opposed tandem configuration - both being reasonably well matched short pulse, wide beam probes of
the same angle but one acting as transmitter and the other as a discreet receiver.

As with conventional ultrasonic testing, the majority of transmitted energy is lost through absorption and
diffusion by the material under test or is reflected by any discontinuities falling within its effective envelope -
but some is radiated by these discontinuities. It is these very low amplitude diffracted signals on which TOFD
relies. By capturing these responses and processing them in a fashion whereby they can be discriminated from
background and structural noise, it is possible to create an image which, by differentiation, makes it possible to
identify the presence and location of defects; and to accurately position these with respect to the geometry of the
item under test.

Because the technique does not rely on detection of reflected energy, it is not amplitude dependant (for defect
size measurement) and, therefore, not so susceptible as 'pulse echo' testing to consistent surface and
consequently couplant conditions.

Also, because of the comprehensive coverage afforded by the characteristically wide probe beams used for
TOFD the technique is not as dependant as conventional pulse echo ultrasonics to variances in probe position or
defect orientation relative to nominal probe angle. This makes TOFD much less subjective in application and
more effective as a routine detection method.

TOFD also differs from conventional ultrasonic examination by virtue of the fact that is performed using only
compression waves and consequently any mode converted signals which propagate at lower velocity do not
confuse the picture.

But perhaps the most significant distinction between TOFD and all other non-invasive volumetric inspection
methods is the manner in which these diffracted signals are captured and processed for display in the form of a
proportionate sectional image of the item under test.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 27 of 44

This is achieved by digitizing all 'raw' position related radio-frequency waveforms which are amplitude
quantized using a grey scale to provide pattern differentiation when a series of collected A scans are stacked
together to create a coherent sectional B or D scan image representing depth through and distance along the
material under examination. The geometry or profile of the item under test is also usually 'imaged' by virtue of a
near surface lateral wave transmitted between the two transducers which highlights the test surface and signals
which are direct compression wave reflections off the far surface. Any defects encountered within the volume of
material by the probe beam are consequently displayed in true relative position to the geometry in question.

One fundamental problem with TOFD is that these diffracted defects signal responses are exaggerated in length
on the on-line display as a consequence of being scanned across by the wide beam envelope. Consequently,
even an isolated gas pore will appear initially as a linear response on the created image.

However, this problem is readily overcome because it is of a recurrent and known nature - caused specifically
by beam geometry. Knowing the beam characteristics, it is possible to rectify this effect either visually (by
using a profiled cursor) or electronically using a process referred to as Synthetic Aperture Focusing. But both
techniques can only be used off-line to correct pre recorded data. It is likely; however, that the next generation
of instruments available to perform TOFD will incorporate effective real time SAFT algorithms to produce
corrected on-line images.

6.4 TOFD 'D' SCAN IMAGES

Figure 18: Hard copy print out of a 'D' scan as collected in real time on a heavy wall clad reactor in Petro-
chemical service.

Figure 17 – TOFD

Figure 18 – Metallurgical Structure of Areas Examined

TOFD with its inherent capability of imaging the metallurgical structure of areas examined, as well as, the
speed with which data can be collected which is a direct result of the single pass data collection technique
employed, is the ideal tool for defect detection (screening), critical sizing, defect characterization and
propagation monitoring. Not only are on line hard copy print out's of the areas inspected produced, as
evidenced above, but all the ultrasonic data is digitized and stored to magnetic medium. The stored data is then
available for further off line processing and forms a fingerprint on which the assessment of future material

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 28 of 44

degradation can be based. Because the results of inspections produce accurate measurements of the defects
detected, the results can be used to carry out fracture mechanic studies with confidence.

6.5 DETECTION & SIZING

The sizing capabilities of TOFD are now almost universally accepted.

Because it is fast, efficient, 'sees' everything and records all raw data for presentation in a proportionate and
representative fashion, TOFD is an ideal detection tool which provides an accurate and invaluable 'fingerprint'
of condition as a quality control function at the time of construction. Because the process is highly repeatable,
it also constitutes the most reliable means of propagation monitoring and, because of its inherent accuracy, this
provides plant operators with invaluable management tool.

From a commercial point of view, one of the major advantages of TOFD is that both detection and sizing can
usually be performed instantaneously from the same source data without any need to recalibrate and rescan
using additional or alternate techniques. This clearly has a radical bearing on time and on cost.

6.6 ACCURACY & REPEATABILITY

It is perhaps understandable why engineers, used to absolute facts and physical measurement, balk at
radiographic, pulse-echo ultrasonic and 'surface' inspection methodology and reporting phraseology.

Statement like '2dBs above grass', 'cluster of porosity' and 'intermittent LOF' do little to instill confidence and
even less as a reliable basis for structural integrity assessment.

Unlike virtually all other inspection techniques, TOFD does not rely on comparative assessment to quantify the
significance of a detected defect.

Not only is it capable of visualizing virtually every material or structured anomaly in characteristic fashion, it is
also capable of giving such discontinuities true dimension and location to an order of accuracy and repeatability
that is unprecedented in the field of NDT.

These are measurements related in millimeters, not dB's or 'equivalent' scales of response. The dimensions are
absolute and unambiguous. Evasive descriptive jargon is not necessary when absolute size and accurate
classification can be readily derived; as is the case in all but the most complex application.

The proven levels of accuracy attainable are often to within ± 0,5mm in terms of (critical) through wall extent
and ± 0,1 - 0,5mm in terms of horizontal and vertical dimensional extent. Position is usually established to
within 0,5mm and angular dispositions can be resolved to within a few degrees when appropriate scan
procedures are used. For the first time accurate and reliable defect data can be used as a basis for fracture
mechanics assessment without resorting to self-defeating methods entailing destructive intervention and
physical measurement.

With TOFD, all relevant parameters are accurately recorded at very high resolution. These are stored digitally
and can be retrieved and redisplayed at any time. All data is position related so that location can be reliably
identified and results from recurrent inspection can be directly compared for change and propagation
monitoring. The fact that the data is so comprehensive and inherently accurate means that sophisticated
analysis techniques can be used for this purpose. This includes pattern recognition processes that are capable of
eliminating any spurious factors, such as, couplant variation and datum displacement.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 29 of 44

6.7 COVERAGE & RESOLUTION

6.7.1 Near Surface Resolution

This is by far the most commonly quoted limitation of TOFD and one of the few substantiated by fact.

As previously explained, TOFD relies upon the reception of angled compression ultrasonic waves
generated by a discreet transmitter and diffracted by the tips of any defects falling within its envelope of
coverage. Because the two transducers used to achieve this condition are configured to face each other, an
element of the beam is detected which travels direct from the transmit to the receive crystal just beneath the
material surface. This is referred to as the lateral wave, which, in effect, is a relatively short pulse/low
amplitude 'standing' signal occurring at a fixed position along the time base, dictated by probe separation.

In some respect this phenomena is useful in that, with known velocity and fixed probe separation, it defines
the inspection surface and creates an important datum for defect depth positioning.

However, the fact that it is always present means that the very near surface - (typically 3 - 5mm) will
always contain a signal which is often construed as a negative factor affecting near surface resolution -
sometimes described by the ill-informed as a 'dead zone'.

By using very high energy, short pulse (shock wave) transducers whose beam envelope is concentrated in
the main area of interest, it is possible to reduce this lateral wave effect to 2 - 3mm in steel and to suppress
its amplitude effect to just a few dB's - making defect discrimination more effective.

Because the lateral wave is a consistent signal occurring in a predictable and recurrent position, it is
possible to nullify electronically (and visually) its effect in much the same way that unwanted noise is
eliminated in audio equipment.

Even when the regularity of the lateral wave is disturbed by uneven surface or by unstable couplant
conditions, it is possible to 'process out' these anomalies by 'electronically straightening' the signal-trace to
further improve defect discrimination.

So in other words - Yes - TOFD does suffer from a near surface effect caused by its inherent lateral wave.

While radiography may be a little more sensitive at detecting such minor inclusions, it would not provide
any depth or worthwhile through wall positional information.

If such defects are of genuine concern than a combination of TOFD and remote field eddy current or
ultrasonic 'head wave' testing should be performed.

6.7.2 Volumetric Coverage

With the vast majority of available inspection techniques, coverage and resolution and inextricably linked
to speed - and therefore cost. This is not the case with TOFD. By virtue of the comprehensive volumetric
coverage afforded by linearly scanning very wide beam transducers at relatively high speed and processing
all high resolution positional and inspection data in effective real time, it is possible to rapidly inspect large
areas and thick sections without unacceptable degradation in performance.

With a TOFD tandem array straddling a 50mm thick weld it is possible, by virtue of the divergent beam, to
inspect the full volume of weld material and HAZs at speeds which cannot be contemplated by
conventional reflectivity ultrasonic methods which rely on comprehensive raster scan coverage by a
number of relatively focused probes of different angle. TOFD has also been demonstrated to be faster than
field radiography on all but the thinnest materials. Because of the simplicity of the transducer
configuration and its ease of application, set up and calibration are also far more efficient than with
alternate methods of ultrasonic testing.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 30 of 44

The coverage rates attainable are restricted only by the practicalities of scanning and production rate of 100
-150mm/sec are not out of the question using manual deployment methods and even higher rates of
coverage can be achieved when automated scanning is used. It should be remembered that these statistics
relate to the length of weld volumetrically inspected in a single 'pass' of the transducer array and not just
the scanning speed of the probes.

If anything TOFD becomes even more effective and reliable on thicker material because trigonometric
displacement ensures greater separation between signal responses at long range (so improving signal
discrimination and positional measurement) and the effects of signal attenuation are not an important issue
providing sufficient energy is available to enable the detection of very small changes (± 0.5dB) in signal
amplitude response.

More importantly, from a commercial point of view, there is no time (and therefore cost) premium to pay in
achieving such depth or volumetric coverage as there is for instance with angle shear wave pulse echo
testing and with radiography. Very often a single 'pass' is sufficient to adequately cover the volume of
material under test and scanning is so efficient that even when multiple passes are required there is no real
time penalty.

Clearly at very long ranges or on coarse materials the effects of signal attenuation apply; but TOFD has
been proven to be highly effective at reliably reporting code critical defects (missed by other methods) on
250mm thick reactor vessels for the nuclear and chemical industries - including over extended 'ranges'
caused by complex geometry in the vicinity of flanges, nozzles and penetrations.

6.7.3 Far Surface Resolution

Because of its effectiveness at longer ranges, TOFD is ideally suited to those 'far surface' inspection
applications which prove so difficult for more established methods of testing.

As with interface cracking TOFD is perfectly suited to resolving intrusive root defects (including lack of
penetration and cracking) in a very efficient 'single pass' fashion. Mismatch or HI/LO can also be detected
but additional scans are required if transverse position is required.

TOFD is also particularly suited to the resolution of surface breaking circumferential cracks such as those
caused by fatigue and prevalent in cyclically loaded rotating machinery.

6.8 DEFECTIVE TYPES

6.8.1 Cracks & Lack of Fusion

TOFD is generally accepted as being particularly sensitive to 'tight' vertically orientated planar defects such
as cracks and LOF, where the disposition of the discontinuity is ± 30 degrees off normal to the main beam
axis. What is less often appreciated is that the technique is also sensitive to virtually all types of defect,
irrespective of orientation. This versatility is partly attributable to the very wide fan of angular coverage
afforded (in all planes) by the characteristically divergent beam used and partly because of the physics
involved. These are probably worth restating.

In very simple terms, all discontinuities absorb and radiate the mechanical energy induced by ultrasonic
excitation (vibration). Because TOFD employs a discreet transmitter and receiver, the majority of radiated
(reflected) energy is ignored and only the (diffracted) signals emanating from the peripheries of defects are
detected. This applies irrespective of size, type, orientation or position and, providing the defects fall
within the effective beam envelope, the (very low amplitude) signals diffracted from its edges will be
captured and displayed in correct relative position.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 31 of 44

With very tight cracks, or where discontinuities are contaminated with material deposits capable of
supporting the passage of ultrasound, the phenomena of through transmission can sometimes occur. The
resultant image appears as a ghostly translucent 'shadow' made up of processed signals diffracted through
the body of the defect and these can often highlight microscopic details such as 'beachmarks' where cyclic
fatigue crack propagation has arrested during its destructive progression.

6.8.2 Horizontal Planar Defects - Laminations

Another popular misconception is that TOFD is not effective at detecting defect lying parallel to the
inspection surface. This is probably borne out of the fact that the technique is hypersensitive to vertically
orientated cracks but, dependent upon the scan format prescribed, TOFD not only reliably detects the
presence of such defects as laminations and lack of inter-run fusion but is also capable of accurately depth
positioning them.

6.8.3 Transverse defects

Because defects radiate diffracted signals in all directions and because the characteristic wide beam fans
both horizontal and vertical planes, TOFD is equally sensitivity to most transverse defects - even when
axial scanning is performed where the main beam axis lies in the same plane as the defect itself.

This includes the ability to detect irregular structural defects such as 'chevron cracking' and the resolution
of multi-faced defects such as stress or hydrogen induced micro-cracks.

6.8.4 Inclusions
Again, it is commonly believed that TOFD cannot resolve 'included' defects such as fabrication-induced
slag and porosity. This is not the case - but with particularly poor quality welding where the incidence of
such defects is high, it can prove difficult to report porosity in accordance with established radiographic
accept/reject criteria and linear inclusions need careful analysis (and possible additional scan coverage) to
discriminate from more integrity affecting flaws such as lack of inter run fusion. None the less, these
limitations and their resolution is no more of a problem than with other non invasive inspection techniques
and TOFD is demonstrably more reliable at detecting really critical defects than any of the other
commercially available methods of non-destructive testing.

6.8.5 Structural Defects

Because TOFD 'images' everything in its envelope of detection, it is possible to observe and report
microscopic degradation caused by fatigue, stress and chemical attack - including such effects as Type 4
cracking, IGSCC, HIC and HHA - it has even proven possible to quantify micro cracking caused by copper
dilation through weld electrode contamination - providing some knowledge of the probable fault
mechanism is suspected prior to intervention.

These can be serious integrity affecting conditions which are beyond the scope of detection, let alone
quantification, of the majority of available NDT methods, and which cost industry billions each year in
maintenance, repair and downtime.

6.9 OTHER APPLICATIONAL CONSTRAINTS

6.9.1 Temperature Limitations

Again, TOFD is not significantly different to other 'contract' inspection methods when it comes to its
usability on components at elevated temperature - the effectiveness of a suitable couplant medium often
being the limiting factor. By using high temperature tolerant probe construction materials, water cooling

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 32 of 44

techniques and high temperature grease for coupling, it is possible to apply TOFD at temperatures up to
200° and, where 'local' cooling is permitted, at operating temperatures in the region of 350°C.

Where TOFD scores over alternate inspection techniques is in the speed at which it can be applied and the
method by which it captures its data. One meter of 50mm thick weldment can be volumetrically covered
and all data captured for off-line analysis in less than 10 seconds. This equates to more than 10,000 high-
resolution waveforms, each of which represents every event with the body of the weld and both HAZ'S
over the full depth of interest. The composite image is immediately available for initial assessment and
each individual waveform can be retrieved and analyzed off-line in an environment more conducive to
decision making than in the glaring heat radiating from an on stream pressure vessel.

6.9.2 Materials
As with all other non-invasive techniques where the measurement of transmitted signals is used to
determine condition, TOFD is susceptible to the effects of energy dissipation through diffusion, absorption
and attenuation and, because very small changes in signal response provide the basis of detection, the
technique is arguably less suited to use on very coarse grain material than its counterparts.

6.9.3 Complex Geometry

Because of its nuclear origins, TOFD has been developed and proven for use in some very complex
geometric conditions. These include flange to vessel welds hemispherical components, nozzles (including
the detection and sizing of radial cracks propagating from the 'crotch' area) and other forms of set in and set
on penetrations.

In more recent years, this expertise has been adapted for non-nuclear applications including vessels for the
chemical/process industries, complex forging and castings (e.g. turbine discs) and nodal configurations on
tubular structures.

However, the scan procedures, calibration, data presentation and analysis processes involved are often as
complex as the geometry itself and the cost of implementation is usually proportionately high.

6.10 INTERPRETATION
One of the more subjective limitations of TOFD is the psychological barrier caused by its sensitivity. The
technique 'sees' literally everything - like an ultrasonic microscope - right down to grain structure.

This is not problematic when applied to relatively 'clean' or refined material where major anomalies are to be
reported but - in coarse material, poor fabrication or where the true extent of problems is not desirable
information - the techniques sensitivity can be construed as a hindrance and, in certain circumstances, can make
interpretation and sentencing a less than straight forward task.

However, again, this must be viewed in the context of how other available techniques would deal with such
problems. The same or even greater difficulties would be encountered under these circumstances with
reflectivity based ultrasonic testing (with arguably less reliable results), and radiographic examination would
probably prove totally ineffective save for reporting non critical defects such as porosity and slag.

One of the real advantages of TOFD, in this respect, is that because all hi-resolution position related data is
captured and stored, very detailed off-line analysis can be performed and a wide range of validated analytical
tools have been developed which aid and improve this process.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 33 of 44

6.11 Automatic Interpretation of TOFD Data for Online Weld Inspection

TOFD testing is one of the most promising NDT techniques for on-line weld inspection since the method is
virtually immune to many of the problems associated with UT testing of welds with incomplete geometry. This
is because the probe separation and angle can be altered to allow for almost full weld region coverage whilst
avoiding signals from either the open parent metal faces or the weld/metal apex. Furthermore, if the
interpretation task can be automated then in-line process control of the welding operation is a foreseeable entity.

Figure 19 – Neural Network for the Detection of Defects in TOFD Scans

In addition, TOFD scans are, by their nature, continuous and contain all information recorded in the individual
A-scans. This serves to ease the detection of defects by a human observer, since he is able to employ intuitive
two-dimensional reasoning to locate the extent of a defect area. If interpretation is to be automated, then the
manual interpretation procedure must be mimicked by computer algorithms.

The use of image processing and pattern recognition technologies in automatic ultrasonic inspection are not new
(Windsor, 1995) though the task has in most cases, proved extremely difficult as is indicated by the plethora of
different methods which have been described in the literature (Chen, 1994; McNab and Dunlop, 1995). The
majority of such works have been applied to pulse-echo testing and mostly for defect classification with
relatively little work directed at defect detection and TOFD analysis. An EC funded BRITE-EURAM project
NDT Methods for Flaw Detection During Welding is currently addressing a number of automatic defect
detection methods - including methods for TOFD inspection.

Figure 20 – Online Automatic Detection of Defects in Welds from TOFD Scans (a) Raw
TOFD Scan of 50% Complete SA Weld in 85mm Ferritic Steel Acquired at 150°
C (b) Pixel Labeling by Neural Net in Figure 19 (c) Detected Defect

The approach adopted for the analysis of TOFD images is to first detect 'interesting' areas of the scan - i.e. flaws
and component signals. The initial problem in locating these signals however lies in the removal of background
signals due to noise and small insignificant artifacts, such as air pores. General segmentation algorithms such
as edge detection, or thresholding cannot cope with the varying gray intensities typical of TOFD scans. A more
intelligent method, using texture analysis and a neural network has therefore been developed - see Fig. 19. The

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 34 of 44

effect of processing with this method is illustrated in Fig. 20b - the raw scan shown in Fig. 20a is segmented
pixel by pixel the neural network into three classes of interest - with high interest areas labeled white.
Component signals (i.e. backwall and lateral waves) are then removed by rule based methods to reveal defect
areas. These can be highlighted to aid manual inspection, as is shown in Fig. 20c, or be further analyzed to give
an indication of the defect type, size and significance. These methods have proven successful in automatically
identifying most representative defect types in welds of various stages of completion and at high temperatures.

6.12 TOFD SUMMARY

In conclusion - yes, TOFD does have its limitations - but so do all other techniques when used in isolation.

The technique is faster, more reliable, more accurate, more comprehensive in terms of coverage and more cost-
effective than any alternative available methodology for quantifying the integrity of industrial plant in
construction and in service.

It is safer and more sensitive to integrity critical defects than any form of radiography.

It has been largely misunderstood, often badly presented and has historically been over priced - but these
commercial inadequacies no longer apply.

However, in final analysis and despite these evolutionary difficulties, TOFD has now 'come-of-age'.

7 INSPECTION
7.1 Specification and Procedures
SPS works with different specifications depending on project location. Within each specification is usually a
workmanship standard that has existed for many years and is primarily setup for radiographic interpretation.
Some codes have very limited criteria for dealing with ultrasonics, especially automatic ultrasonics.

Some specifications allow for a “fitness for purpose” or “engineering critical assessment” criteria to be applied.
A Fitness for purpose criteria is project specific and a number of factors need to be taken into account. These
are the materials used, the production stress, and possibly the construction stress. Fitness for purpose criteria’s
are based upon the engineering calculations of stress, and the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD).

The line owner performs destructive tests on a proposed welding procedure sample to determine what the
CTOD values are. The CTOD is a measured value of how much a crack will grow under certain stresses. Once
the CTOD values have been determined, the calculated criteria can be established.

SPS has a written procedure that outlines all of the constraints under which the inspection is to be carried out.

7.2 Calibration Standards

A custom-designed calibration standard will be used to establish the optimum transducer positioning, primary
gain settings, and system stability and repeatability.

Prior to any project, bevel design data must be provided to SPS. The bevel design determines the configuration
of the machined reflectors within the calibration standard. SPS then determines the calibration standard design
and seeks customer approval prior to manufacturing. All calibration standards are identified by a serial number
referenced in the SPS database. The database stores the design, size and position of the ultrasonic reflectors and
the material parameters such as the diameter, the wall thickness, and manufacturing process. The database will
also include pipe number, and heat number if the information was supplied by the client.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 35 of 44

The basic Z shape of the calibration standard is used to facilitate the machining of the calibration reflectors. All
calibration standards have a center slot, which divides the upstream and downstream sides. These two sides are
mirror images of each other, thus providing the ability to calibrate the U/S and the D/S transducers in one cycle.
The calibration standard is fitted in a pipe section know as the test bed. This test bed allows the scanner to be
driven over the calibration standard duplicating an actual weld inspection.

Calibration standards may not be substituted without approval from the research and technical department.

7.3 Inspection Setup and Calibration

SPS provides the operator with a three-part package for the initial ultrasonic setup.

1. Spread Sheet Specifications: providing all of the mathematical information required for the ultrasonic
setup.
2. Graphical View: providing a drawing of the sound path for each transducer combination.
3. Comprehensive Drawings: of the test piece layout.

The calibration of the system in the field is usually a two step process:

1. Static Calibration: This is the setup of each individual transducer. The UT reference amplitude and signal
position for each transducer is setup utilizing the USIP CRT. This is most commonly utilized during the
initial setup of the scanner.
2. Dynamic Calibration: This is accomplished by the scanner passing over the entire calibration standard in a
single pass. This run confirms that all of the transducers are set up within the project tolerances. This is
the most common calibration that is done with the InFocus system and is the standard mode of calibration
during production.

A dynamic calibration will be performed within procedural limits to ensure the systems integrity.

Data points are compared with the reference calibration at this time, however the evaluation criteria method
deviates in four areas:

1. Signal Amplitude: must not deviate more that the procedural limit.
2. Over Tracing: should be a minimum of 6db down from adjacent reflectors. Amplitude of adjacent
reflectors should be within 3db of the values obtained on the reference calibration.
3. Time of Flight: must not deviate by more than ±25mm from the reference position
4. Circumferential Positional of Reflectors: must be within ±2mm of the nominal distance

Calibration charts are to be numbered sequentially to coincide with the weld identification numbers and are
included as part of the inspection record.

7.4 Weld Inspection

The weld inspection is accomplished by a series of sequential steps these are listed below:

7.4.1 Drive Band Installation

The drive band will be installed when the weld becomes available. Band alignment is determined by
referencing a scribed line on the pipe surface and a spacer tool. The scribe line is applied to the pipe prior
to welding. After the band is set it must be tightened securely and then the zero start position must be
clearly marked.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 36 of 44

7.4.2 Installation of Scanner on Drive Band

The scanner is clamped on the drive band and then moved to align the center of the root transducer to the
zero start position. The main couplant and prewet valves are now turned on.

7.4.3 Inspection
The areas to be scanned should be free of spatter, scale, rust, oil grade and other surface irregularities that
could impede the transmission of sound from the transducer to pipe interface. A customer specified weld
ID is entered into the computer. The transducers and encoder are lowered and the scanner is run at
approximately 50-100mm/sec. At the completion of the scan, the computer will stop the scanner
automatically. Before the scanner is removed, the operator will verify couplant integrity. Lifting the
transducers and the encoder signals the completion of the inspection. The scanner is then removed from the
band.

7.4.4 Evaluation
All significant indications will be evaluated according to the specification and marked up on the inspection
screen. The decision to accept or reject the weld will also be made. Once the evaluation is complete the
weld is saved to hard disc, backup disc, and a hard copy is printed.

7.4.5 Reporting
The inspection report documents the acceptability of each weld. If a weld is rejected, specific information
is to be reported. The required information consists of circumferential position, the inspection zone of
occurrence, and the nature of the flaw. Some specifications also require the vertical height and depth of the
flaw. The operator utilizes a log book in which each weld and any significant indications or occurrences
affecting the inspection are recorded. Methods of reporting are dependent upon customer requirements.
SPS is currently developing an automatic reporting system, which will help to standardize methods of
reporting.

7.5 Weld Evaluation

All indications from weld flaws that exceed code shall be identified and marked. All indications that exceed
length tolerances shall be evaluated as to their nature. Singling out one or two data details from the strip chart
may not provide the correct interpretation. Weld evaluation requires utilization of all the data provided by the
strip chart presentation to build a total picture of what is occurring within the weld. Flaw evaluation is
dependent on specification requirements.

7.5.1 Typical Flaw Evaluation

Typical Flaw Evaluation involves deciphering seven elements on the computer.

1. Amplitude: This is related to the vertical height of the defect within the weld. The calibration sample
is used to reference the amplitude / defect height relationship.
2. Time of Flight (TOF): Determines the distance that the ultrasonic wave has traveled before being
reflected and correlates where the indication is located within the weld area. Also known as the steel
path distance to the indication.
3. Mapping: Is a digitized A-scan representation of the signal from the USIPs CRT
4. Length: Defined by how many data samples are recorded at amplitude above the noise floor. All
channels are sampled at 1mm resolution
5. Height: Defined by a couple of factors. The number of channels the indication is detected in and the
associated amplitudes within the channels. For porosity, the distance from the bottom pore to the top

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 37 of 44

pore within a cluster defines the height of the cluster. For individual pores, the size of each pore is
measured. Destructive test results have demonstrated that SPS methods yield values that are within
1mm of the actual defect height.
6. Position Within the Weld: This will define what part of the inspection criteria is applied. For
example, a surface breaking defect or an embedded defect. Destructive test results have demonstrated
that SPS methods yield values that are within 1mm of the actual defect depth.
7. Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD): This is utilized in the InFocus system to aid the operator in the
identification of spurious and relevant indications.

7.6 Interpretation Rules

7.6.1 GMAW Root and CP Evaluation
The indication will consider real:
 The symmetrical indication with bevel TOF information
 The indication with a significant step in time compare to TOF of root reinforcement
 The indication with TOFD confirmation
 The indication with a signature of missed edge (straight line on mapping channel)
7.6.2 SMAW Root Evaluation
The indication will consider real:
 The indication with a significant step in time compare to TOF of root reinforcement
 The indication with TOFD confirmation
 The symmetrical indication with yellow (center line) TOF information could be consider a crack
7.6.3 GMAW HP evaluation
The indication will consider real:
 The indication with TOFD confirmation
 The indication with Volumetric 1 confirmation if TOFD is not available
 Indication that correlate with Fill1 and has late TOF information does not add any Vertical Height to
Fill1
7.6.4 GMAW Fill evaluation
The indication will consider real:
 The indication with TOFD confirmation (except CN and last Fill)
 The indication with bevel or close to bevel TOF information (red, late green or blue)
 The indication with yellow TOF information that has Volumetric or TOFD confirmation
7.6.5 SMAW Fill evaluation
The indication will consider real:
 The indication has TOFD confirmation (except CN and last Fill)
 The indication with yellow TOF information do not require Volumetric confirmation
7.6.6 Volumetric evaluation (any bevel)
The indication will consider real:
 The indication with TOFD confirmation
 The symmetrical indication with yellow TOF information
 The indication with a signature of cold lap (straight line on mapping channel)
 The indication with a signature of porosity (multi picks A-scan and map)

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 38 of 44

7.6.7 The channels sensitive for Geometry

RT, Radius, HP, V1 and Fill 1 are sensitive for Geometry in the Root.
RT - late time
HP - any time
V1 – any time
Fill1 – late time

Last Fill, second Last Fill, CN and last Volumetric are sensitive for Geometry in the Cap
Last Fill, second Last Fill, CN and last Volumetric – late time

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 39 of 44

7.7 Defect Interaction Rules and Vertical Height Evaluation

Figure 21 - Defect Interaction Rules

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 40 of 44

Figure 22 - Defect Interaction API 1104

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 41 of 44

7.7.1 Vertical Height Evaluation Rules

7.7.1.1 Indication in One Inspection Zone (Rule #1)

Strip Chart Weld

F4 Full Zone

F3

Plot the flaw in the center of the inspection zone. Take the VH from the Height Table or Strip Chart.
Check for the interaction, based on the Full Zone height.

In case of last Fill indications, plot the flaw on the Top of the inspection zone.

In case of Root indications, plot the flaw on the Bottom of the inspection zone.

Example 1:

For reference, see Figure 23 – Sample of a Height Table

Amplitude F3 = 65%
VH Flaw = 2.18mm
Good material to the OD = Good material in Zone F3 (3.76-2.18)/2 = (0.79mm)
+ F4 Full Zone (2mm) = 2.79mm

Result: Flaw is not interactive to the OD

7.7.1.2 Indications in Two Inspection Zones (Rule #2)

Strip Chart Weld

F4 Full Zone

F3 Full Zone

F2

If indication is an inter-zonal single flaw (similar echo-dynamic), plot it between inspection zones.
Subtract overtrace just from one side (F4). Always subtract overtrace from the smallest amplitude
channel. (VH Flaw = VH (F3) + (VH (F4) – Overtrace).

Check for the interaction to the OD, based on the Full Zone height.

Note: If the amplitude in the adjacent channel is less than 20% after the ovetrace was
subtracted, the additional vertical height should be considered.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 42 of 44

Example 2:

Amplitude F3 = 65%
Amplitude F4 = 45%
VH Flaw = VH (F3) + (VH (F4) – Overtrace)
VH Flaw = 65% (2.18mm) + (45%-20%) =25% (0.39mm) = 2.57mm
Good material to the OD = Full Zone F4 (2mm) – Flaw Size in F4 (0.39mm) = 1.61mm
Result: Flaw is not interactive to the OD

In case F4 and F3 indications interpret as two single flaws (different echo-dynamic). Apply rule #1, do
not subtract the overtrace and plot flaws in the center of the inspection zones or in the case of last Fill
indications, plot the flaw on the Top of the inspection zone. Check for the interaction between flaws,
based on the Full Zone height.

Example 3:

Amplitude F3 = 65%
Amplitude F4 = 45%
VH Flaw F3 = 65% (2.18mm)
VH Flaw F4 = 45% (0.71mm)
Good material between flaws = Good material in zone F3 + Good material in Zone F4.
(3.76-2.18)/2 + (2.0-0.71) = 2.08mm
Result: Flaws are not interactive

7.7.1.3 Indications in Three Inspection Zones (Rule #3)

Strip Chart Weld

F4 Full Zone

F3 Full Zone

F2

If the indication is a single flaw (similar echo-dynamic), plot it in the middle inspection zone. Subtract
overtrace from two side (F4 and F2).

VH Flaw = (VH (F2) – Overtrace) + VH (F3) Full Zone + (VH (F4) – Overtrace).

Check for the interaction to the OD, based on the Full Zone height.

Note: F3 should be evaluated as a full zone 3.76mm, not as 100% 3.35mm.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 43 of 44

Example 4:

Amplitude F2 = 65%
Amplitude F3 = 100%
Amplitude F4 = 45%
VH Flaw = (VH (F2) – Overtrace) + VH (F3) Full Zone + (VH (F4) – Overtrace)
VH Flaw = (65%-20%) (1.51mm) + Full Zone (3.76mm) + (45%-20%)
(0.39mm) = 5.66mm
Good material to the OD = Full Zone F4 (2mm) – 0.39mm = 1.61mm
Total VH Flaw = 5.66 + 1.61 = 7.27mm

Result: Flaw is interactive to the OD

In case F4, F3 and F2 indications interpret as two or three single flaws, apply Rule #1 or Rule #2.

Revision 4 January, 2001

 Introduction to InFocus
AUT Girth Weld Inspection System
Page 44 of 44

Figure 23 - Sample of a Height Table

Description RT Defec Fill1 Defec Fill2 Defec Fill3 Defec Fill4 Defect
t t t t
% Heig % Heigh % Heigh % Heigh % Height
ht t t t
Plane Height
1.00 3.76 3.76 3.76 2.00
(mm)
20 0.20 20 0.67 20 0.67 20 0.67 20 0.31

25 0.25 25 0.84 25 0.84 25 0.84 25 0.39

30 0.30 30 1.01 30 1.01 30 1.01 30 0.47

35 0.35 35 1.17 35 1.17 35 1.17 35 0.55

40 0.40 40 1.34 40 1.34 40 1.34 40 0.63

45 0.45 45 1.51 45 1.51 45 1.51 45 0.71

50 0.50 50 1.68 50 1.68 50 1.68 50 0.79

55 0.55 55 1.85 55 1.85 55 1.85 55 0.86

60 0.60 60 2.01 60 2.01 60 2.01 60 0.94

65 0.65 65 2.18 65 2.18 65 2.18 65 1.02

70 0.70 70 2.35 70 2.35 70 2.35 70 1.10

75 0.75 75 2.52 75 2.52 75 2.52 75 1.18

80 0.80 80 2.68 80 2.68 80 2.68 80 1.26

85 0.85 85 2.85 85 2.85 85 2.85 85 1.34

90 0.90 90 3.02 90 3.02 90 3.02 90 1.41

95 0.95 95 3.19 95 3.19 95 3.19 95 1.49

100 1.00 100 3.35 100 3.35 100 3.35 100 1.57

Overlap Tolerance 20% 20% 20%

20% 20% 20%

Revision 4 January, 2001