Isentropic

 flow  
 
 
Wikepedia  
 
In  thermodynamics,  an  isentropic  process  or  isoentropic  process  (ισον  =  "equal"  
(Greek);  εντροπία  entropy  =  "disorder"(Greek))  is  one  in  which  for  purposes  of  
engineering  analysis  and  calculation,  one  may  assume  that  the  process  takes  place  
from  initiation  to  completion  without  an  increase  or  decrease  in  the  entropy  of  the  
system,  i.e.,  the  entropy  of  the  system  remains  constant.[1][2]  It  can  be  proven  that  
any  reversible  adiabatic  process  is  an  isentropic  process.  A  simple  more  common  
definition  of  isentropic  would  be  "  No  change  in  entropy".  
An isentropic flow is a flow that is both adiabatic and reversible. That is, no heat is
added to the flow, and no energy transformations occur due to friction or dissipative
effects. For an isentropic flow of a perfect gas, several relations can be derived to define
the pressure, density and temperature along a streamline.
Note that energy can be exchanged with the flow in an isentropic transformation, as long
as it doesn't happen as heat exchange. An example of such an exchange would be an
isentropic expansion or compression that entails work done on or by the flow.
 
The  Free  Dictionary  by  Farlex  (encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com)  
Compressible  flow  in  which  entropy  remains  constant  throughout  the  flowfield.  A  
slight  distinction  is  sometimes  made,  especially  in  Europe,  as  follows.  If  the  entropy  
of  a  fluid  element  moving  along  a  streamline  in  a  flow  remains  constant,  the  flow  is  
isentropic  along  a  streamline.  However,  the  value  of  the  entropy  may  be  different  
along  different  streamlines,  thus  allowing  entropy  changes  normal  to  the  
streamlines.  An  example  is  the  flowfield  behind  a  curved  shock  wave;  here,  
streamlines  that  pass  through  different  locations  along  the  curved  shock  wave  
experience  different  increases  in  entropy.  Hence,  downstream  from  this  shock,  the  
entropy  can  be  constant  along  a  given  streamline  but  differs  from  one  streamline  to  
another.  This  type  of  flow,  with  entropy  constant  along  streamlines,  is  sometimes  
defined  as  isentropic.  Flow  with  entropy  constant  everywhere  is  then  called  
homentropic.  See  Compressible  flow,  Entropy,  Isentropic  process  
 
Because  of  the  second  law  of  thermodynamics,  an  isentropic  flow  does  not  strictly  
exist.  From  the  definition  of  entropy,  an  isentropic  flow  is  both  adiabatic  and  
reversible.  However,  all  real  flows  experience  to  some  extent  the  irreversible  
phenomena  of  friction,  thermal  conduction,  and  diffusion.  Any  nonequilibrium,  
chemically  reacting  flow  is  also  irreversible.  However,  there  are  a  large  number  of  
gas  dynamic  problems  with  entropy  increase  negligibly  slight,  which  for  the  purpose  
of  analysis  are  assumed  to  be  isentropic.  Examples  are  flow  through  subsonic  and  
supersonic  nozzles,  as  in  wind  tunnels  and  rocket  engines;  and  shock-­‐free  flow  over  
a  wing,  fuselage,  or  other  aerodynamic  shape.  For  these  flows,  except  for  the  thin  
boundary-­‐layer  region  adjacent  to  the  surface  where  friction  and  thermal  
conduction  effects  can  be  strong,  the  outer  inviscid  flow  can  be  considered  
isentropic.  If  shock  waves  exist  in  the  flow,  the  entropy  increase  across  these  shocks  
destroys  the  assumption  of  isentropic  flow,  although  the  flow  along  streamlines  
between  shocks  may  be  isentropic.  See  Adiabatic  process,  Boundary-­‐layer  flow,  
Shock  wave,  Thermodynamic  principles,  Thermodynamic  processes  
 
 
1st  law  of  thermodynamics  (Wikepedia)  
The first law of thermodynamics is a version of the law of conservation of energy,
specialized for thermodynamical systems. It is usually formulated by stating that the
change in the internal energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to
the system, minus the amount of work done by the system on its surroundings. The law of
conservation of energy can be stated: The energy of an isolated system is constant.
The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics, by Rudolf Clausius in
1850, referred to cyclic thermodynamic processes.

"In  all  cases  in  which  work  is  produced  by  the  agency  of  heat,  a  quantity  of  heat  
is  consumed  which  is  proportional  to  the  work  done;  and  conversely,  by  the  
expenditure  of  an  equal  quantity  of  work  an  equal  quantity  of  heat  is  
produced."[1]  

Clausius stated the law also in another form, this time referring to the existence of a
function of state of the system called the internal energy, and expressing himself in terms
of a differential equation for the increments of a thermodynamic process. This equation
may be translated into words as follows:
 
In  a  thermodynamic  process  of  a  closed  system,  the  increment  in  the  internal  
energy  is  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  increment  of  heat  accumulated  by  
the  system  and  the  increment  of  work  done  by  it.[2]  
 
 
2nd  law  of  thermodynamics  (Wikepedia)  
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system never
decreases, because isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermodynamic
equilibrium—the state of maximum entropy. Equivalently, perpetual motion machines of
the second kind are impossible.

The second law is a postulate of thermodynamics, but it can be understood and proven
using the underlying quantum statistical mechanics. It is an expression of the fact that
over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential decrease in an
isolated physical system, leading eventually to a state of thermodynamic equilibrium. In
the language of statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the number of microscopic
configurations corresponding to a macroscopic state. Because equilibrium corresponds to
a vastly greater number of microscopic configurations than any non-equilibrium state, it
has the maximum entropy, and the second law follows because random chance alone
almost guarantees that the system will evolve towards equilibrium.

Entropy (Wikepedia)
 
Entropy  was  originally  defined  by  Rudolf  Clausius  in  1865  as  an  extensive  
thermodynamic  function  of  state  that  is  the  measure  of  a  system’s  thermal  energy  
per  unit  temperature  that  is  unavailable  for  doing  mechanical  work.  Unlike  most  
other  functions  of  state,  entropy  cannot  be  directly  measured  but  must  be  
calculated.  The  need  for  an  entropy  function  emerges  from  the  fundamental  
thermodynamic  relation.  Entropy  has  the  dimension  of  energy  divided  by  
temperature,  which  has  a  unit  of  joules  per  kelvin  (J/K)  in  the  International  System  
of  Units.  The  term  entropy  was  Clausius  based  on  the  Greek  εντροπία  [entropía],  a  
turning  toward,  from  εν-­‐  [en-­‐]  (in)  and  τροπή  [tropē]  (turn,  conversion).[2][note  2]  The  
infinitesimal  change  in  the  entropy  (dS)  of  a  system  is  the  infinitesimal  transfer  of  
heat  energy  (δQ)  to  a  closed  system  driving  a  reversible  process,  divided  by  the  
equilibrium  temperature  (T)  of  the  system.  
 
 
Enthalpy  (Wikepedia)  
Enthalpy is a measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system. It includes the
internal energy, which is the energy required to create a system, and the amount of
energy required to make room for it by displacing its environment and establishing its
volume and pressure.

Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential. It is a state function and an extensive quantity.

The unit of measurement for enthalpy in the International System of Units (SI) is the
joule, but other historical, conventional units are still in use, such as the British thermal
unit and the calorie.

The enthalpy is the preferred expression of system energy changes in many chemical,
biological, and physical measurements, because it simplifies certain descriptions of
energy transfer. This is because a change in enthalpy takes account of energy transferred
to the environment through the expansion of the system under study.
The total enthalpy, H, of a system cannot be measured directly. Thus, change in enthalpy,
ΔH, is a more useful quantity than its absolute value. The change ΔH is positive in
endothermic reactions, and negative in heat-releasing exothermic processes. ΔH of a
system is equal to the sum of non-mechanical work done on it and the heat supplied to it.
For processes under constant pressure, ΔH is equal to the change in the internal energy of
the system, plus the work that the system has done on its surroundings.[1] This means that
the change in enthalpy under such conditions is the heat absorbed (or released) by a
chemical reaction. Enthalpies for chemical substances at constant pressure assume
standard state: most commonly 1 bar pressure. Standard state does not, strictly speaking,
specify a temperature (see standard state), but expressions for enthalpy generally
reference the standard heat of formation at 25 °C.

The word enthalpy is based on the Greek word enthalpos (ἔνθαλπος), which means to put
heat into. It comes from the Classical Greek prefix ἐν-, en-, meaning to put into, and the
verb θάλπειν, thalpein, meaning "to heat". The word enthalpy is often incorrectly
attributed[citation needed] to Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron and Rudolf Clausius through the
1850 publication of their Clausius-Clapeyron relation. This misconception was
popularized by the 1927 publication of The Mollier Steam Tables and Diagrams.
However, neither the concept, the word, nor the symbol for enthalpy existed until well
after Clapeyron's death.

The earliest writings to contain the concept of enthalpy did not appear until 1875,[2] when
Josiah Willard Gibbs introduced "a heat function for constant pressure". However, Gibbs
did not use the word "enthalpy" in his writings.[note 1] Instead, the word "enthalpy" first
appears in the scientific literature in a 1909 publication by J. P. Dalton. According to that
publication, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853-1926) actually coined the word.[3]
Over the years, many different symbols were used to denote enthalpy. It was not until
1922 that Alfred W. Porter proposed the symbol "H" as the accepted standard,[4] thus
finalizing the terminology still in use today.

Streamline
Fluid flow is characterized by a velocity vector field in three-dimensional space, within
the framework of continuum mechanics. Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines are
field lines resulting from this vector field description of the flow. They differ only when
the flow changes with time: that is, when the flow is not steady.[1] [2]

• Streamlines  are  a  family  of  curves  that  are  instantaneously  tangent  to  the  
velocity  vector  of  the  flow.  These  show  the  direction  a  fluid  element  will  
travel  in  at  any  point  in  time.  

By definition, different streamlines at the same instant in a flow do not intersect, because
a fluid particle cannot have two different velocities at the same point. Similarly,
streaklines cannot intersect themselves or other streaklines, because two particles cannot
be present at the same location at the same instant of time; unless the origin point of one
of the streaklines also belongs to the streakline of the other origin point. However,
pathlines are allowed to intersect themselves or other pathlines (except the starting and
end points of the different pathlines, which need to be distinct).

Streamlines and timelines provide a snapshot of some flowfield characteristics, whereas

streaklines and pathlines depend on the full time-history of the flow. However, often
sequences of timelines (and streaklines) at different instants—being presented either in a
single image or with a video stream—may be used to provide insight in the flow and its
history.
If a line, curve or closed curve is used as start point for a continuous set of streamlines,
the result is a stream surface. In the case of a closed curve in a steady flow, fluid that is
inside a stream surface must remain forever within that same stream surface, because the
streamlines are tangent to the flow velocity. A scalar function whose contour lines define
the streamlines is known as the stream function.