Chapter 3

TRADITION AND MODERNITY IN

INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

Chapter 3

TRADITION AND MODERNITY IN INDIAN WRITING IN ENGLISH

(1) Nature and Scope of Indian English Literature :-

Indian English literature is the by-product of East West encounter. England,
English Language and western culture influenced Indian life greatly and created the
situation which are responsible for the advent of Indian English literature. “Indian
English literature began as an interesting by-product of an eventful encounter in the
late eighteenth century between a vigorous and enterprising Britain and a stagnant
and Chaotic India.”1
 “Anglo English literature has no racial significance at all, it means merely that
this literature is a product of Indo English literary relation.”2 India did not come in
the contact of England willingly but she had been accidentally thrown together. “It
was the consequence of their intimacy. Whether legitimate or illegitimate had come
this singular offspring that is Anglo-Indian literature.”3
There are few writers who consider both British and Indian writers as Anglo-
Indian writers who chose Indian subjects. But few of them include only the works
of Indian writers in English under the terms Indo-English literature.
V.K. Gokak comprises in Anglo-Indian literature, “The works of Indian
writers in English and Indo-English literature as consisting of translation by Indians
from Indian literature into English.”4 John B Alphonso also considers only Indian
writers to be counted as Indo-Anglian writers. He uses the term “Indo-English
literature to mean ‘Literature produced by Indians in English.”5
The literature under the influence of British culture was given different names.
That is ‘Indo-Anglian’ literature and Indian English literature. K.R.S. Iyengar agrees
that “Indo-Anglian strikes many as a not altogether happy expression.6 He rejects
the term Indo-English saying that it can not be used as adjective and as substantive.
According to Alphonso Karkala the term Indo-Anglian does not suggest the relation
between two countries. One may call the Indian English literature by any name but
it requires serious scrutiny.
On the last day of the last month of the last year of the sixteenth century,
Queen Elizabeth I granted East India Company which decided India’s relation with
Britain for two centuries. The East India Company was “a new era in the East-West
relationship with the dawn of the new centurey.”7
After spreading its empire in India, the British government began to introduce
us European literature and science. They wanted to impress the whole nation with
western culture and manner and it was possible only by spreading European
literature and science. English was the language by which this goal might be
obtained. Sir Charles Wood, a member of the ‘Selection Committee of the British
Parliament’ emphasized the need to extend European knowledge among the citizen
of our country. He pointed out that “this object must be effected by means of
English language in higher branches of instruction and by the great mass of the
people.”8 Lord Bentinck, the Governor General, seems very enthusiastic to promote
European literature and science in India when he declares, “All funds appropriated
for the purpose of education would be best employed on English education along.”9
To acknowledge and aquaint the new ideas and thoughts, powerful thoughts and
effective language is essential. The ideas and thoughts must be published to increase
the knowledge and change the hypocritical beliefs found among the people. The new
thing which is contrary to tradition and custom of the society is criticised at first. But
later on when its reality is realized, people adopt themselves according to that.
Rammohun Roy argues, “Every good ruler, who is convinced ... secure this
important object, the unrestrained liberty of publication is the only effectual means
that can not be employed.”10
Indo-Anglian literature belongs to the literature of two countries. It should
have an appeal to Indians as well as to Englishmen. We may think that Indo-Anglian
literature is not as good as Bengali or Marathi or Tamil literature. “An Indian writing
in English is rather like one animal imitating the steps of another. Some have even
gone to the extent of calling this literature a ‘parasitic’ literature.”11 An Englishman
may think that Indo-Anglian literature is not and could never be as good as English
literature. The time between 1857 to 1900 was much favorable for the flowering of
English education. The creative English genius gave new life to English literature.
During the next twenty years, we also find the spread of English education. After
1920-1947 Mahatma Gandhi led a unique revolution against the British bureaucracy
in India. After independence, we are passing through the orders and trails of
reconstruction. “By 1920 at any rate, English education and the use of English by
Indians have come in for some considerable criticism and Hindi has been set up as
a possible substitute for English”12 The foreign influence in our literature leads us
towards modernity to be more civilized in every respect. “As a result of their
encounter, as F.W. Bain puts it, India a withered trunk ... suddenly shot out with
foreign foliage.”13 English is pouring as a tool, a connecting force and an channel
which is suitable for all India administration. It is also useful for inter-state
communication, pursuit of knowledge at the higher level and promoting
international contact. “Neither the conscious English man nor the patriotic Indian
need new. Be apologetic about the introduction and continuation of English
education in India.”14 English is proving to enable us to be modern, to think of the
future as well as the present. With the help of English, people of India may rise to a
level of cultural and economic self-sufficiency.
“Rammohan Roy, Keshub Chunder Sen, Vivekananda, Tagore, Sri
Aurobindo, Gandhi and Radhakrishan have got fame at international level. All of
them are makers of modern India and what they said and wrote must be our national
languages and Indo-Anglian literature too is one of our national literature.”15 English
is like Suez canal for intellectual intercourse between England and India and traffic
is from both the sides.
India came in the contact of Britain in the beginning of seventeenth century.
“The discovery of the sea-route to India by Vasco-da-Gama in 1498 brought the
Portaguese and the Dutch of India long before the British.” According to a petition
addressed to king Henry VII in 1511—“The Indies are discovered and vast treasures
brought from thence everyday. Let us, therefore, bend our endeavours
thitherwards.”16
(2) Beginning of Social and Cultural Change (Chief Social Reformers):-
 The seeds of modernization were planted in eighteenth century which started
burgeoning in the nineteenth century. According to Sri Aurobindo, Indian
Renaissance was “the attempt of a reawakened national spirit to find a new impulse
of self expression which shall give us the spiritual force for a great reshaping or a
rebuilding.”17 According to Jawahar Lal, for the awakening in India she had to look
to the west and the same time at herself and at her past. “She looked to the west and
her own past.”18
Different missionaries established in India had belief that western education
will be helpful to spoil Indian culture. It was thought that English education will lead
us to assimilate western culture. “The missionaries believed that in providing
western education to Indians, every teacher was “breaking to pieces with a rod of
iron the earthware vessels of Hinduism.”19 By absorbing the foreign language, we
were on the way of absorbing foreign culture in our country. The British were
conqueror. Charles Grant argued: “To introduce the language of conquerors seems
to be an obvious means of assimilating a conquered people to them.”
Taking the development of English language and western culture in our
country, we find two contradictory opinion. Few of us consider it against Hinduism
and few consider it beneficial for the progress of the nation. Conservative minded
people did not agree to accept the western culture. They seem clinging to the
convention and tradition. The scholars in a large number consider western culture
and language helpful for us. All the superstitions found in the society and so many
obstacles which check India’s progress must be removed. Although Indian culture
is influenced with so many foreign cultures, it is our own Indian culture in the best
form.
When English language as well as western culture were receiving strong
support, the orientalists were seriously alarmed. According to them, English
language is not necessary for the enlightenment of Indian people. They warned us to
realize the dangers of foreign Language and to be cautious of it. “It is not only
English language... English cotton into India and bringing it into universal use must
at once be felt by every reasonable mind as chimerical and ridiculous.”20 We find
much prejudice against English language by conservative minded orientalists. It was
on record that the office of the Inspector General of Schools at Patna was at one time
popularly known as “Saitan Ka Daftar Khana.”21 Apart from the conventional
beliefs, we find many of us who seem anxious to impart education to their children
in liberal manner. A Calcutta Brahmin named Baidyanath Mukhopadhyay told the
chief justice of the supreme court that “Many of the leading Hindus were desirous
of forming an establishment for the manner, meaning obviously English
education.”22 Most of the Indians don’t consider English Language a devil’s wine.
They seem much enthusiastic to learn English. The younger generation in India has
fashion to bath in western language and culture. Trevelyan has noted that on the
opening of the Hugli College in August 1836 “there were 1200 applications for
admission within three days.”23 Rajaram Mohan Roy seems reluctant to establish
Sanskrit Schools in preference to one providing English education. “In the same
manner, the Sanskrit system of education would be the best calculated to keep this
country in darkness.24
Henry Derozio taught English and suggested not to ask questions. He was
highly influenced by the poetry of great English Romantics. He forced his pupils to
change old orders in India. Hindu beliefs and customs were ridiculed. The orthodoxy
seemed to disappear from the Indian surface. The new Christian converts started
ceaseless movements which were against Hinduism. They were becoming more and
more westernised in every way. The new western education spread rapidly in the
west and south of India. The Christianity was being assimilated by Hinduism. The
first fruit of English education were violently eager to be modern. They could not
find any fault in the civilization and culture of the west. The tradition bound people
felt refreshed amidst the western culture.
Conservative missionaries thought that Christianity was established in south
at first due to historic reasons. “On the whole Madras was more conservative than
Calcutta.”25 Maharshi Debendranath, the father of Rabindranath Tagore, went from
house to house to prevent the spread of English school. He was trying to persuade
Hindu parents to sent their children to native schools. People seemed to accept
Christianity and when they could not do it, they declared that they did not have faith
in Hindu Superstitions and “tried to westernize their lives and even their outlook.” 26
Rajaram Mohun Roy, the first reformist of Asia, held council with his selected
friends and tried to seek the perennial truths of all religions. In 1828, he founded
‘Brahmo Samaj.’ His ‘Brahmo Samaj’ “played a vital role in Bengal’s (and India’s)
cultural history during the 19th century.”27 Rammohun Roy started the task of nation
construction at a large scale. People in a large number followed the principles
prescribed by him because he made an attempt to reorganize Hinduism along the
lines of monothiesm and repudiation of idol worship and superstitions.”28
Dwarakanath Tagore continued and strengthened the movement after Rammohun
Roy. After Rammohun Roy, we can name Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar as a social
reformer. He was a scholar and a controversialist of eminence. Kesub Chandra Sen
also took the task of religious regeneration and the reform. “Movement assumed on
all India character, leading to the establishment of similar organizations like the
‘Prarthana Samaj’ by M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar in Bombey in 1867.”29 He
sincerely felt that an understanding can be formed between Christianity and
Hinduism. He got fame in India and in England with the help of his oratory.
According to him India and England both should learn something. The ‘Prarthna
Samaj’ also played very influencive role like Brahma Samaj and Arya Samaj, at first
in Bombay and later on in different cities of India. During the second half of the 19th
century, there was the atmosphere of religious reform by Prarthana Samaj. The
different reforms, social, educational or religious, had to go together so that we might
proceed forward towards expected progress.
The next name is of Dayanand Saraswati (1824-1983), a Hindu leader from
Punjab who founded the ‘Arya Samaj’. Rajaram Mohan Roy wanted to construct a
bridge between Hindu spirituality and Christian thoughts. Dayanand Saraswati
wanted to recognise the importance of Vedic simplicity, clarity and spirituality “To
purify and to preserve Hinduism were Dayanand’s cardinal objectives and to achieve
these ends, he organized ‘Arya Samaj’ in 1875.”30 The ‘Arya Samaj’ was an attempt
to revive Hinduism in the pristine purity of the Vedic age.”31
The chief doctrine of ‘Arya Samaj’ was to check the wrong explanation of
religion, to reject the hereditary caste system and revival of proselytization. The
‘Arya Samaj’ continued its mission under the leadership of swami Shraddha Nand
and Lala Lajpat Rai latter on. In the educational institutions established by ‘Arya
Samaj’, they imparted both oriental and occidental knowledge. The ‘Theosophical
Society’ and ‘Ram Krishna Mission’ also did a lot to bring social and religious
reform in our country. According to Ranade, the “Varied races of India could really
fuse into a nation... India should be roused from the... of centuries, so that it might
become a great and living nation.”32
The ‘Theosophical Society’ was based on ancient Hindu religious and
philosophical thought. Inspite of being a western movement, it was intended to give
“The teaching of Hinduism, Buddhism, Pythagoras and Plato, ancient Egyptian
thought and early Christianity.”33 Due to new education Punjab, Bengal, Bombay
and Madras could be provided able lawyers, jurists, teachers, journalists and
administrators. According to Muthuswami Ayyar, a great judge, India should adopt
western culture, science and institutions and should try to modernise themselves.
‘Brahma Samaj’ was an Indian effort to establish link between Indian and western
culture but the “ ‘Theosophical Society’ was a western attempt to fuse with the
springs of Indian spirituality.”34 Annie Besant was the President of the
‘Theosophical Society’ and she gathered many prominent Indians around her.
All these movements started by social reformers could not answer the
challenges from the west. The arrival of Ram Krishna Paramhansa on the surface of
modern India made a new foundation. Swami Ramkrishna (1836-86) was genuine
Hindu saint and mystic who proved that ancient Hindu tradition is still vigorous
enough and it is capable to produce a fresh living mode. He became successful to
“cast a spell on the youth of modern Bengal.”35 Ramakrishna did not give absolute
turning to the west. He advised the Indian intellectuals to adopt the best which West
had to give them. He does not seem to be ready to ignore our cultural heritage.
“When Ramkrishna passed away, his disciple Vivekananda established ‘Ram
Krishna Mission’, a spirited and humanitarian movement that has been doing notable
work.”36
The message of ancient Hinduism was spread through the world in a very
effective way by Swami Vivekananda. The eloquence of Swami Vivekananda got
high praise and wide admiration in the world. Our cultural heritage can be the subject
of pride for every Indian. Its unique qualities give it supreme position. “Warren
Hastings, who established the ‘Calcutta Madarassa’ in 1781, Sir William Jones who
organized the ‘Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal’ in 1784 and Sir Thomas Munro at
Madras were rather impressed by the culture of the Hindus.”37 Munro and Jones
criticised the idea of westernization of the Indian culture and they came to be called
Brahmanised. The East India Company was a trading corporation. India had to face
betrayal due to its own weakness that was its self division. Although English
language is required in India, it is suggested that children should be taught in their
mother tongue. As the result of East–West encounter, we were highly influenced by
western ways. Our manners and customs, dress, eating, salutation and others were
changed in the contact of western culture. We were introduced modern European
scientific techniques leading us towards modernism. The young men who received
new education, always behaved like a Englishmen. Indian traditional life received a
violent jolt with the introduction of western culture. The study of English, the
adoption of western scientific technique, all were the factors which influenced our
life and literature. In the reawakening Indian atmosphere we were forced to meet
with the violent challenge of the values of modern science and civilization of the
west. “It is an extra-ordinary story of endurance, assimilation and integral
transformation.”38 The west proved like a new rich fertilizer for the native soul. This
union of East and West produced a new literature. Rajram Mohan Roy’s essay on ‘A
Defense of Hindu Thiesm’ (1817) is very significant in the history of Indian English
literature. Rabindranath Tagor described him “as the inaugurator of the modern age
in India.”39 He made efforts to bring reform in religion, education, society and
politics. “A pioneer in religious, educational, social and political reform, he was a
man cast in the mould of the ‘Humanists of the European Renaissance’.”40
Ram Moham Roy was extremely stirred by so many problems pertaining to
social and religious field, “The plight of the widows, the darkness of superstitions,
the miasma of ignorance, the general backwardness of the country, all stirred him
to action.”41 His main concern was shifted towards social reform. In the superstitious
Hindu society, the miserable condition of women prompted him to fight against
traditional beliefs. “The plight of women in orthodox Hindu society became his
special concern.”42 He attacked the polygamy and argued that woman should have
equal position to man in the society. “Ram Mohan Roy’s famous letter on English
Education (11 December 1823) which... the manifesto of the Indian renaissance.”43
Ram Mohan Roy waged battle against unjust and partial custom of Sati and he got
expected success in his efforts. When Lord William Bentinck abolished the custom.
He fought for the rights of women, freedom of the press, the peasantry, English
education, the revenue and judicial system and religious toleration. He wanted India
to be a modern country. He did not want to cut India off our past heritage. He wanted
only to achieve new integration of our traditional strength. For it, he suggested to
borrow new scientific discipline from the west. In his petition for the freedom of the
press, he argues, “therefore the existence of a free press is equally necessary for the
sake of Governor and the governed.” According to him the exploitation of peasantry
by landlords can not be justified and tolerated. He was also against economic drain
under East India Company. He started “protest against the economic drain in India
and the East India Company rule and the exploitation of the peasantry by the rich
landlords.”44 Ram Mohan Roy is known as the first of Indian Master of English
prose. His greatness depends upon the fact that he belonged to mere Indo-Anglian
literary history. He started a new fashion of Indian leaders that is to write
autobiography. Modern autobiographers like Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru, Surendra
Nath Benerji, Rajendra Prasad and M.R. Jayakar followed the unique tradition of
writing autobiographies. During the mid and later nineteenth century, we don’t find
prose writing which was, apart from that of Ram Mohan Roy, in the metropolitan
centers like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. All of the writers were intended to chose
the theme for religious, social, historical and political subjects. In Bengal, Krishna
Mohan Benerji (1813-85), who was pupil of Henry Derozio, tried to trace out flaw
in Hinduism. “He wrote strong articles exposing the errors and inconsistencies of
Hinduism in ‘The Enquirer’ in 1831.”45
In the Bombay presidency, we find Shastri Jambhekar (1812-46) who proved
to be a great poineer of the new awakening. He is well known for founding the first
English-cum-Marathi journal in Maharastra. He encouraged his countrymen to
follow English literature and to bring opportunities for the improvements. The
contemporary of Jambhekar, Do doba Pandurang also was a scholar, educationalist,
religious and social reformer. In 1844 Gazulu Lakshmi Nar su Chetty tried to trace
out virtues and flaws of Hinduism. “He started. ‘The Crescent’, a newspaper
dedicated to the amelioration of the condition of the Hindoos.”46 Madras presidency
could not show enough enthusiasm to have interest in Indian writing in English.
Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809-31) is known as the first Indian English poet.
When he joined Hindu college, Calcutta as a lecturer, he seemed to have spirit of
inquiry, passion for ideas, reformistic idealism and romantic enthusiasm. He started
a debating club and a magazine to discuss different subjects. There was deep
argument about Hindu religious practices, the rights of women and political issues.
Consequently, orthodox Hindu society was seriously warned. People began to
blame him for these burning ideas. They accused Derozio for “cutting their way
through ham and beef and wading to liberation through tumblers of beer.”47 He was
charged of corrupting the minds of youth and was dismissed by college authorities.
Being educated under his principles, the students were required to repeat lines from
Illiad at prayers. A student asked to bow down before the Goddess Kali and greeted
the image with a “Good morning, Madam.”48 In the poetry of Derozio, we find
nationalistic feeling as its chief feature. F.E. Oaten seems very generous when he
calls Derozio ‘the National bard of Modern India.”49 Michael Madhusudan Dutt
(1824-73) is famous and epochmaking writer in Bengali but he began his career as
an Indian English poet. His poem ‘Captive Ladie’ (1849) comprises the historical
theme. It “narrates the story of Rajput king, ‘Prithviraj’ his Lochinvar like abduction
of the Kanouj King’s daughter and his unsuccessful battle with the Muslim invader
ending in his own death and that of his queen.”50
(3) Literary Efforts to Bring Change: (1857-1920) (Nationalism):-
Upto 1857, British rule was accepted as a great boon. Our traditional beliefs
were being affected by the winds of change. During the period of 1857 to 1920 winds
of change began to blow furiously. The Queen’s proclamation of November 1858
announced the birth of a new age. In the changing circumstances many of company’s
servants were filled with the “spirit of youthful adventure and curiosity. Some of
them thought no flaw in taking Indian mistress. A British resident named Col.
Kilpatrick used to dye his beard, married a Muslim lady and was known as “Hindu
Stewart on account of his passion for Hindu culture.”51 In the early days, the British
patronised both the religions, Hindu and Islam in India. They respected the Hindu
festivals and offices were closed on Indian holidays. “Troops were paraded in
honour of Hindu deities ... British official assisted in the management of Hindu
religious trustes.”52 The start of competitive examination for the services changed
the attitude of hereditary service from generation to generation. In 1909 W.S. Blunt
announced, “The Anglo-India official of company days loved India... better than
now and was better loved in return.”53 But during the last thirty years, Englishmen
seemed to create bitter feeling between different races specially Hindu and Muslims.
W.S. Blunt argued, “It is her constantly increasing influence now that widen the gulf
of ill feeling and makes amalgamation daily more impossible.”54 The revolt of 1857
and many other incidents afterwards created such scar which was unable to be
healed. The Englishmen began to create ditch between Hindus and Muslims. The
ditch was so deep and wide that it could not be removed upto now. Both the races
had the feeling of hatred and terror for each other. A series of unfortunate events in
the history of India began to occur which was the consequence of “The new spirit
which the mutiny encouraged amongst Europeans.”55 Indian were looked upon as
creatures, half gorilla, half negro. They were being humiliated at various places by
Englishmen. Accoring to Garrat. “They were usually depicted standing over a
murdered woman... praying to God of Battles to steel our soldiers’ hearts.”56 British
officials in India had the realization of living in a strange land where they were
absolutely surrounded by envious and unfriendly people, “Here we stand on the face
of the broad earth, a scanty, a pale-faced band in the midst of 300 millions of
unfriendly vassals.”57 The attitude of Englishmen as well of Indians was changing
similarly. Due to modern development in various fields, Indian were being united
rapidly.
The seeds of modern India began to sprout quickly and movement for different
reforms began to come into the existence. The new spirit of our countrymen
encourages them to remove various flaws found in our religion and society.
Although we find a gulf between conservatives and reformers, “but the movement
continued to be vigorous, specially in Bengal, and influenced, in some measure, the
thought of men like Swami Vivekananda and Rabindra Nath Tagore.”58
In comparison to Hindus, the Muslims are more firmly rooted to the
orthodoxy. But the climate of resurgence influenced them deeply, Syed Ahmad
Khan (1817-98) founded ‘Anglo-Arbic College’ at Aligarh (1875) and decided the
chief mission of his life to introduce the western ideas and education to the Muslims.
Later on this ‘Anglo-Arabic college’ was named as ‘Aligarh Muslim University’ and
it became the main centre of Islamic thought in India. According to a friend of Syed
Ahmad, “Other men have written books and founded colleges, but to arrest, as with
a wall, the degeneration of a whole people, that is the work of a prophet.”59
The new reformistic zeal prepared the foundation of national unity. In 1876,
Surendra Nath Beerji founded the Indian Association to be the centre of All-India
movement based on “the conception of a united India, derived from the inspiration
of Mazzini.”60 Later on so many agitations started taking the lowering of the age
limit for civil service examinations, the ‘Arms Act’, the ‘Vernacular Press Act’ and
the ‘Ilbert Bill’. In 1885 Sir William Wedderburn and Sir David Yule supported
A.D. Hume to establish the ‘Indian National Congress.’ Having faith in British sense
of Justice, it requested the government to bring political and social reform. At first
the British administrators did not take it seriously calling it “Babu parliament
supported by a microcosmic minority and the hysterical assembly in which the more
violent and silly of their members rule the root.”61 Although the Congress
increasingly became militant body, Lord Curzon, responsible for the partition of
Bengal, forecasted the Congress. ‘tottering to its fall’ and mentioned its aim only “to
assist to peaceful demise.”62 The partition of Bengal was intended to weaken the
nationalistic movement, not as administrative necessity.
During the period between 1857-1920, we find expected change in poetry
also. The first notable work of this period is ‘The Dutt Family Albun 1870’ but there
is no trace of change in it. All the three brothers related to the book preferred
Christianity to Hinduism. “These poets hardly, therefore, be expected to write with
India in their bones.”63 They chose the theme of the poetry from the Christian
sentiment, nature and Indian history and legends. In the verses of Ram Sharma
(1837-1918), one can find the first glimpses of mystical flame which was visible is
Sri Aurobindo and Tagore later. He poured his mystic experience into poetic form.
He was compelled to express his experience through conventional western myth. He
describes his Hindu yogic experience as “a very sabbath of the soul.”64
Due to the poetic efforts of Toru Dutt 1856-77 Indian English poetry got
authenticity. Along with other members of the family, she was baptized in 1862.
During the closing years of her life, she studied Sanskrit and came nearer to her own
culture. The Indian legend seemed to her very sublime, grand and pathetic. A poetry
should enable us to speculate and to be fascinated and depressed. Toru Dutt is
capable to create such phenomenon. She was attracted by the glamour of the west
and the gospel of Christ that was why she embraced Christianity. She was also
charmed in the interesting and ever new stories of the Indian classics such as the
‘Ramayana’, the Mahabharata’, the Vishn Purana’ and the ‘Bhagavata Purana’. In
spite of having deep faith in Hindu epics, she maintained the Christian belief as the
same. In her childhood, she used to hear the stories of Hindu epic, Puranas, miracles
and local tradition from her mother. The study of sanskrit literature brought her
closed to the Hindu stories and legends. She was introduced to the living past of
India and narrated the connecting stories in her works. Toru was chiefly interested
in telling the ancient tales. ‘Savitri’ deals with the love marriage and fighting against
death with the power of her love. Lakshmana left Sita alone to be the prey of Ravana.
Butto (Ekalavya), was rejected by Drona Charya but he was intended to get teaching
sitting before the idol of his guru. On demand, he offered his thumb as fee
(gurudakshina). Prahlad chose God who is omnipresent and neglected his demon
father. All these narrations are not tales, they are the part of the consciousness of
Hindu race. “It was thus with a very instinct that Toru sought, in these deathless
stories, the right material for the expression of her own maturing poetic powers.” 65
In ‘Savitri’, we find traditional belief that human beings take birth again and
again and death can be avoided with the power of love. At the death of Satyavan ,
Savitri is holding vigil. The confrontation of Yama shows the existence of some
supernatural power which is rejected in the modern age of science. Yama, the God
of death is described as the lord of Dharma. Inspite of offering detail description of
Lord Yama, Toru Dutt failed to create expected feeling of awe and terror. At last
Savitri succeeded to obtain the soul of Satyavan no bigger than a man’s thumb and
runs to the dead body of her husband. According to a description from Bhagavata,
Prahlad is not afraid of any danger. He is capable to confront any danger. When his
demon father kicks the pillar, the narasimha comes out. According to the narration
in Sita, the phenomenon of Valmiki’s hermitage attracts the poetess but she is more
attracted towards Sita, weeping with the three children. In this way “Toru Dutt is the
first Indian English poetess to make an extensive use of Indian myth and legend.”66
After Toru Dutt Behramji Merwanji Malabari (1853-1912) showed his
interest choosing the reformistic theme. ‘The Stage of a Hindu Female life’ and
‘Nature Triumphs over Caste’ possessed conventional sentiment. His ‘The Folly of
War and Defence of Time’ show his pitiful effort by which he seems to follow the
Neo-classical principles. ‘The Angel of Misfortune’ by Nagesh Wishwanath Pai
narrates the legend of kind Vikramaditya. It depicts the relentless persecution by the
god Shani, the Angel of misfortune.
Michael Madhusudan and Bankim Chandra Chatterjee had opened new
avenues of development to Bengali literature and Romesh Chunder Dutt too turned
to creative writing. He decided to reduce the 4800 lines of the Ramayana and the
200000 lines of the Mahabharaata into 4000 lines each or 8000 lines in all. The war
in Mahabharata is different from that of Ramayana. In it, we find fighting “brother
against brother, fathers against sons, men against women, many against one, the
living fury against the unborn... every modern war is a Mahabharata, a re-enacted
with new names and in new places—Truth is its first casualty.”67 The story of Karna
in Mahabharata is the cruelest irony and such kind of tragedy is rare to find in any
literature.
Romesh Chunder Dutt’s translations of Rig Veda, the Mahabharata 1895 and
the Ramayana (1899) are successful effort to create interest in our epics and legends.
Manmohan Ghose (1869-1924) was highly shocked by his mother’s insanity
and his father’s sternness. According to him “His father would vivisect him if he
thought that he was highest good.”68 According to a description of his childhood he
accepts, “Nobody ever took a liking to me…as a boy I often perceive with Jealousy
that my brothers were always preferred to me.”69 Serving as a professor of English
in a Government College in Bengal, he was absolutely frustrated and wrote Binyon,
“Green things are indeed wonderful here but the brown things (that is man) is
absurdly out of sympathy with me.”70 He felt so stranger in India that he lamented,
“For years not a friendly step has crossed my threshold,” 71 Having been away in
England for too long, he was capable to write only for western theme. “In his best
work, the culture of Europe…and not alone the culture of modern
England…awareness of India met and fused into a harmony.”72
 Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950) was deeply interested in Indian culture on his
return from Cambridge. When he ascended on Indian surface, “a feeling of the
infinite pervading material space and the immanent inhating material objects and
bodies”73 surround him. The sensation of “a vast calm descended upon him and
surrounded him and remained with him for long months afterwards.”74 On 24
November 1926. Sri Aurobindo was lost into absolute seclusion for some time. “He
continued his spiritual quest and his literary work comprising poetry, drama,
philosophical, religious, cultural and critical writing unceasingly till his death on 5
December 1950.”75 His ‘Urvasie’ finds its theme from Indian legend of King
Pururavas and his love for celestial damsel Urvasie. The same theme was chosen by
Kalidas in his play ‘Vikramorvasia’. His ‘Love and Death’ is also based on an
ancient Hindu legend having the story of Ruru, the son of the Rishi Bhrigu and
Pramadvara (Priyamvada) the daughter of the celestial nymph, Menaka. In a letter
he observes for the poem : “For full success it should have had a more faithfully
Hindu colouring.”76 His ‘Baji Prabhu’ is based on military heroism. Sri Aurobindo
points out, “This poem is founded on the historical incident of the heroic self-
sacrifice of Baji Prabhou Deshpande.”77 Sri Aurobindo chose the theme of Savitri
from well known legend of Satyavan and Savitri. It is the story of pure love which
conquers death. The most striking thing in Savitri is its amazing modernity, its
mystical quality and its singular poetic power. Savitri is the most powerful artistic
work which expands man’s mind towards the absolute. Sri Autobindo’s ‘Savitri’
speculates on human experiences and knowledge prevailing from the vedic age to
modern scientific discoveries and inventions. The modernity of ‘Savitri’ is related
to physical, biological, philosophical and psychological sciences. “Savitri is neither
an overflow of tradition nor an eruption of modernism …ultimate destiny set in the
background of cosmic time.”78 According to Sri Aurobindo, ‘Savitri’ was an attempt
to catch something of Upanishadic and Kalidasian movement. The poet describes
his work “as a sort of poetic philosophy of the spirit and of life”79 and “an experiment
in mystic poetry, spiritual poetry cast into a symbolic figure.”80 After the penance of
eighteen year Aswapathy, Savitri’s father, became capable to rise form the mortal to
the immortal land. According to Aurobindo, “Savitri’ is ‘The Divine Word’,
daughter of sun, goddess of the supreme Truth who comes down and is born to save
Styavan.”81
Sri Aurobindo’s mother was the daughter of Rishi Rajnarain Bose, the great
man of the Indian renaissance in the nineteenth century. We find the personality of
the politician, the poet, the philosopher and the yogi in Aurobindo. His poetry is as
a bridge between present and future.
In his prose work Sri Aurobindo came under the influence of Swami
Vivekananda and offered writing on religious, metaphysical, social, political,
cultural and literary subjects. Through his unique prose work ‘The life Divine’, he
affirms the divine life on earth. It suggests that man’s highest aim is “the
manifestation of the divine in himself and the realization of God within and
without.”82 “The Life Divine is treatise on metaphysics and it is also a work of prose
art.”83 Sri Autobindo’s ‘The Life Divine’ was described as a vast philosophical prose
epic by an Indian critic D.S. Sharma. S.K. Mitra describes the book as the last arch
in the bridge of thoughts that extends to the history of Aryan culture. Sri Aurobindo’s
thoughts and attitude represent an intellectual bridge which connects the Vedic
culture to modern progressive realities of life. The book includes the insight of the
East and that of the West. It provides the view of idealism and the significance of
spirituality. It acts as a synthesis of the wisdom of the East and the knowledge of the
West. Sri Aurobindo tells us the difference between western metaphysics and the
yoga of the Indian saints. Showing the difference between philosophical system of
East and West, he says, “In the west at least since the time of Plato, intellect, reason,
logic has been regarded as the supreme instrument of knowledge.”84 While in India,
metaphysical thinkers have tried to make approach to ultimate Reality through the
intellect. In India Yagyavalkya, Shankar, Ramanuja have always been a Yogi and
Rishi. Martin Heidegger calls Thinking as the most obstinate adversary of thinking.
Thinking suggests that reason is glorified for centuries. Indian and Chinese sages
insist that “Man does not attain the truth so long as he remains locked up in his
intellect.”85 According to Sri Aurobindo a man can advance in the evolutionary race
and reach the Supramental being if he is cautions of Maya. He seems to present
seemingly opposite attitude in his work. His foundation of Indian cultural introduces
traditional theme while his “The Renaissance in India’ is the description of Indian
resurgence in the nineteenth century. He has special interest for British poetry and
reads it particularly and all the other poetry in general. While studying European
tradition, he feels at home but Indian culture also appeals him deeply. He seems to
be unaware of the contemporary poetry and declares that “English poetry has not yet
produced anything very decisive, great or successful.”86
Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941), the Nobel Prize winner and founder of
‘Vishwabharati’ at Shantiniketan, is the most outstanding personality in modern
Bengali literature. Although he belongs to Bengali literature, he has close relation
with Indo-Anglian literature too. Actually he belongs to whole India and the world.
Rabinadra Nath Tagore is considered as ‘The Great Sentinel’ personality of his age
who enriched modern Indian life at several points. In nearly all the poetry of
Rabindranath Tagore, we find metaphysical elements. The chief theme of them was
“the relation between the finite and the infinite.”87 The theme of semi-mystical
thoughts, he received from divine sources. At the age of twenty one, once he was
watching the sunrise. “All of a sudden a covering seemed to fall away from my eyes
and I found the world bathed in wonderful radiance, with waves of beauty and joy
swelling on every side.”88 He was a poet, dramatist, actor, producer, musician,
painter, educationalist and a practical idealist. He was reformer, philosopher, prophet
and critic of life and literature. He was Rishi and Gurudev. Tagore was the
inspiration to millions in modern India. The nationalists were angry with him
because he was a nationalist in the extreme measure. In some of his plays and poems,
orthodoxy and parochialism seems to tremble with ferocity. His ‘Shantiniketan’ was
an ashram for cultural and spiritual realization. The ‘Shantiniketan’ was the place to
bring the Eastern and Western culture together. The cultures of East and West were
brought together to find its own soul to help the world. Tagore once declared that
the East is not a beggar and is responsible to contribute to make the history of
civilization. Rabindranath Tagore reflects his view for his English verses that they
are the result of spontaneous thinking. He writes to his niece. “I simply felt an urge
to recapture feast of joy within me in past days.”89
While speculating complicated matters his head was ruled by his heart. He
never seemed to follow the restrictive formulas of creed, caste and custom. He
declares that he has no feeling of Hindu, Muslim or Christianity. “Today every caste
is my cast, the food of all is my food.”90 In ‘Gora’, we find love in conflict with
orthodoxy and in ‘The Home and the World’, it is with politics. Nikhil has faith in
traditional beliefs. Sandeep is presented to be attracted towards fashionable world
of the West. He justifies any means to get the end.
‘Gitanjali’ is the finest achievement of Rabindra Nath Tagore. It is deeply
associated with ancient Indian culture. In it, we find wide personal quest for the
Divine. Tagore considers God as unbroken perfection. According to him
renunciation is not necessary to make approach to God. For him morality is not a
tragedy because Death is the servant of God. He argues: “When I go from here, let
this be my parting world, that what I have seen is unsurpassable.”91 There are
hundred odd pieces in ‘Gitanjali’ which have central thread of devotional quest.
Accordingly Jawaharlal Nehru points out that Tagore “was in the line with the rishis,
the great sages of India, drawing from the wisdom of the ancient past and giving it
a practical garb and meaning in the present.”92 In Nehru’s view ‘he gave India’s own
message in a new language in keeping with the yugadhara, the spirit of the times.”93
In a lecture, delivered at Harvard University in the year in which he won the Nobel
Prize for literature, he observes: “Thou dwellest in me and I in Thee.”94 Prabhat
Kumar Mukharji argues, “Most of the Sadhana lectures were either adaptation or
elaboration or his earlier Bengali work, Dharma and the Santiniketan sermons.” 95 In
his essay, Tagore expresses his view on East West relationship. He argues that the
west has only sent his machine to the East. It should have “sent its humanity to meet
the man in the East. Tagore’s prose in English remarks him as an internationalist
and a humanist preaching the gospel of Universal harmony between man and man,
man and nature and man and the Divine.”96 His thoughts are derived from the
Upanishads, The Gita, Buddhism and Vaishnavism.
In his work ‘Sanyasi’, we find the ascetic running away from the orphaned
girl in the fear that she will ensnare him. It shows the discriminatory untouchability
found in the society. In ‘The King and the Queen’, we find Sumitra who stands
against the King, being lost in pleasure, neglects his subjects. She has a brother, a
neighbouring monarch, who helps her in the pursuit. In ‘Karna and Kunti’, we find
Kunti revealing the secret of Karna’s mother to him in order to persuade him to fight
in the favour of Pandavas. But Karna neglects the proposal because he possesses the
high soul and is rigid on his principles of life. All this was the consequence of Kunti’s
heart-breaking deeds of throwing away Karna on water. In the ‘Mother’s Prayer’,
we find Gandhari requesting her husband to renounce their wicked son. “Gandhari
is a great character. She has a clear vision of the doom to come.”97
In the play ‘Mukta Dhara’ (1922), we find Tagore having the feeling contrary
to Gandhiji. To improve the economic maladies of India, he did not approve the
spinning wheel. He was frightened with technological power. But technology is not
much praiseworthy if it makes the humanity uncivilized. Satyavrata Mukerji points
out, “Tagore articulated in ‘Mukta Dhara’ an eloquent protest against the onslaught
of machinery on the ancient ramparts of man’s individual freedom.”98 According to
Tagore, progress is a double-edged sword. When steel plants and hydel schemes
were being launched in our country, they were like new temples to awaken the
nationhood. With the development schemes, sometimes, human values are
sacrificed. According to the intention of ‘Mukta Dhara’ “Human values are
paramount and to ignore this truth is to canter towards self destruction.”99
Sarojini Naidu (1879-1949) was more than a poetess. She was precocious
child and started writing poetry at a very early age. Edmund Gosse advised her “to
be a genuine Indian poet of the Deccan, not a clever, machine made imitator of
English classics.”100 Her marriage with Dr. Govindarajulu Naidu was a inter-caste
and inter-provincial one which was opposed by their parents. His poetry was widely
influenced by social reform movement in the contemporary society. The folk songs
mostly take the form of dramatic lyrics in which the speakers present groups of
Indian folk playing their traditional occupation.”101 In her work ‘Indian Folk Songs’,
we find songs celebrating Indian mythology, legends and history. A Hindu Brahmin
seems to have faith both in Krishna and Allah with equal enthusiasm. She was well
known orator. Admiring her oratory, Harindranath Chattopadhyaya declares, “Her
extraordinary oratory... powered through her like music, silver shot with gold,
cataracting from summits of sheer inspiration.”102 In his analysis of Sarojini Naidu’s
works, Mr. Gosse remarks: “I implore her to consider that from an Indian of extreme
sensibility, who had mastered not merely the language but the prosody of the west...
stirred the soul of the East long before the West had began to dream that it had a
soul.”103According to him, a poet should indent on his own experience . One had to
make compromise with the conventions found in the society. In India, Sarojini Naidu
is hailed as Nightingale of Indian songs. Seeing the plight of a Hindu widow at the
occasion of Vasant Panchami, she laments for being away of the festival. Her ‘Flute
Player’ and ‘To a Buddha Seated on a Lotus’ reveals high veneration for Lord
Krishna and Buddha. Buddha proves to be ceaseless inspiration for artist in the caves
at Ajanta.
Harindranath Chattopadhyaya began his career as a dramatist with Abu
Hassan (1918). In his ‘Poems and Plays’ (1927) we find the lives of Indian saints.
His ‘Sentry’s Lantern’ represents the “hope of dawn of a new era for the poor.”104
In Indian renaissance of the nineteenth century we find prose writing of
chiefly two types, that is historical—political and religious and cultural. “The prose
was prompted by two fold impulse of the rediscovery of the Indian past and a strong
awareness of the problems of the day.”105
Mahadev Goving Ranade (1842-1901) was a patriot, a social and religious
reformer and a thinker who was deeply rooted to the intellectual life of his age.
Deeply grounded in Hindu tradition, Ranade’s mind was encircled by the study of
modern western thoughts. He made his effort to make a synthesis between East and
West.
Kashinath Trimbuck Telang also made his contribution to bring social reform
in India. He was a founder member of the ‘Indian National Congress’ and the first
Vice-Chancellor of the University of Bombay. Praising his speech, the editor of the
‘Bombay Gazette’ commented, “No Englishman can appreciate the flexibility of the
English language till he had heard it spoken by an educated and naturally clever
native of India.”106
Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) was the ablest disciple of Ranade and
Gandhiji acknowledged him as the political guru of Tilak. He was absolutely
dedicated to his country’s cause and has very gentle and cultured soul. Gokhale
always believed in negotiation and adjustment. After the death of Gokhale, Lord
Curzon declared, “The Indian statesman would have obtained a position of
distinction in any parliament in the world, even in the house of commons.” 107
 Romesh Chunder Dutt (1848-1909) powered his experience in his works. He
contemplates on the political and economic problems of India. His ‘Economic
History of India’ contains “in essence, a preview of what comes later to be called the
economics of colonialism.108 His ‘The Literature of Bengal’ shows his effort to point
out the impact of western ideas on Indian life and thoughts. He often quotes, “Life
is not a game, once lost, we play again”109
Surendranath Benerji (1848-1925) was known as powerful orator in English.
He decided to uplift the Indian people in the field of politics. He considered his
expellsion from Civil Service as the result of his disorganized community.
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902) was firmly rooted in Indian ethos. He was
blessed and trained by Ram Krishna. After the three days meditation on a rock at
Kanya-Kumari, he had spiritual experience. He delivered his extempore speech
beginning with ‘sisters and brothers of America’ on Monday 11 September 1893.
The influence of his speech “was like a tongue flame. Among the grey wastes of
cold dissertation if fired the souls of the listening strong110 Americans were highly
influenced with his unique oratory and called him Hindu Hurricane. He spread
Hinduism throughout the world and established in 1898 the well known Ram
Krishna Math at Belur. Vivekananda was a man with two fold missions. He wished
to bring home to the West the true nature of Hinduism and he aspired to work for
the uplift of India. “He finds this universal faith in ‘Adwait Vedanta’ which for him
is the most scientific religion and the fairest flower of philosophy and religion in the
world.”111 He has sincerity of his utterance and earnestness in delivery to make his
words impressive. His voice was as ‘rich as a bronze bell’ and it filled both hall and
hearts.”112 The source of Vivekananda was Hindu religion and philosophical
tradition.
 Lala Lajpat Rai one of the 9th grates leaders of Punjab, picked up his socialist
ideas from U.S.A. He is Known as political, religious, social and educational
reformer.
Ameer Ali (1840-1928) was first Indian Muslim who became a High Court
Judge. He had faith in basic principles of Islsam and its former glory.
Among the southern moderate leaders, we are acquainted with the name of
V.S. Srinivasa Sastri (1869-1946). We know him as the silver tongued orator of the
empire. His speeches represent that he has faith in British connection. “In a speech
in London in 1921, he even called the British empire ‘the greatest temple of freedom
on this planet... equal partners in glory of the empire and the service of humanity.”113
He does not consider Hindu epic as a religion but an essential human document.
Ananda Kentish Coomara Swamy (1877-1947) created a place in Indian
English prose writing. At first he was a critic of oriental art. But later studied the
Hindu religion, metaphysics, culture and tradition. He removed several
misconceptions pertaining to the nature, aim and technique of oriental art and proved
that Hindu and Buddhist art was the fruitful expression of the Indian ethos. “He
ascribed the degradation of modern India to its neglect of its own ancient art, culture
and tradition.”114 According to him, if we want to have India, we should become
Indians. He advocated a world civilization which is based on mutual understanding
and cooperation. He wanted to mix the virility of the West with the serenity of the
East so that one can be the citizen of the world. “His trenchant criticism of modern
life and civilization and his passionate concern for abiding values make him a
prophet whose words are of urgent relevance to the human condition today.”115 The
personality of a social reformer in Malabari is visible when “he admires the self
reliance and the spirit of English women, though he is shocked by their generally
bad teeth and refusal to nurse their babies.”116 Harendra Coomar Mukhupadhaya
earned first Ph.D. in English for his thesis on ‘The Origins of the English Novel’ in
1918.
In Indian English drama Krishna Mohan Banerji wrote the ‘Persecuted or
Dramatic Scenes’ which presents the errors found in Hindu community. People are
shown being cautious against Brahmins. It depicts the conflict found in the minds of
youth in Calcutta. The conflict is between orthodoxy and new western ideas and this
conflict seemed to be found from generation to generation. Sri Aurovindo’s ‘The
Viziers of Bassora’ is based on a story from ‘The Arabian Night’. It narrates the
reunion of two lovers through the benevolence of caliph of Bagdad. The ‘Perseus
and the Deliverer’ is a romantic story of human temperment. “The two
characteristics of Aurobindoean theme in the plays are the idea of human evolution
and “love as a benevolent force destroying evil and conflict and making for harmony
and peace.”117
Romesh Chaunder Dutt translated two of his own Bengali novels into English.
‘The Lake of Palm : A story of ‘Indian Domestic Life’ is closely related to social
reform having the theme of widow remarriage. ‘The New Krishna’ (London 1909)
is related to an enlightened Rajput prince of later nineteenth century dealing with
East-West relationship.
In a ‘Posthumous Autobiography’ editted by Pamba (1908), has the traces of
autobiography of the author presenting the “mental development of a contemporary
south Indian Brahmin youth.”118 He was deeply influenced by western education and
lost his faith in his own culture but afterwards regains with the help of Gita.
‘Clarinda’ (Madras, 1995) is the work of the same author which depicts the
historical romance dealing with the carrer of woman, Christian convert of Tanjore.
‘Padmini’ (London 1903) is a love story. In which we find the heroine, a village
maiden, preferring a lover who possesses high soul. ‘Nurjahan: ‘The Romance of an
Indian Queen’ (1909) is a historical one and ‘Kamla’ (1925) and ‘Kamini’ (1931)
are social fictions. In 1920 the star of Tilak set and the sun of Gandhi rose on the
Indian horizon. The movements for Indian resurgence began to be violent and
impressive.
We find inferiority in modern Indian drama taking the quality and quantity.
In 1928, Vasudeva Rao introduced ‘Nala and Damayanti’ which have five acts and
27 scenes. Following the Flizabethan tradition, it is interspersed with songs and
prose scenes. It is the Mahabharata story and is capable to thrill a modern reader.
Like Romeo and Juliet, Nal and Damayanti meet in a garden. ‘Two women’ of
Bharati Sarabhai is in prose and it is packed with thoughts. In the play, we notice
opposing pulls of tradition and revolt which is the soul of the play. Bharati Sarabhai
“was mainly a master of social comedy, delighting in the incongruous, ludicrous and
droll elements in the lives of the sophisticated middle class people most frequently
encountered in cities like Madras, Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi.”119 In the play Vichu
prefers to marry a girl who is under sixteen, tall, with loving eyes and handsome. He
does not care for horoscopes. A.S.P. Ayyar, in his play ‘Slaves of Ideas’ and other
plays, narrates the theme from different fields. we find the dramatist as a vigorous
critic of contemporary life. His ‘Family Cage’ shows the plight of widowed sister in
a joint family. Currimbhoy in his play ‘Om’ presents Guru and disciple stand alike
nakedly exposed. In order to give the play a spiritual trend, he chose the theme from
Vedas and Upanishadas.
(4) Extreme of Nationalism (1920-1947) (Gandhian Age):-
Mahaatma Gandhi had no interest in the art of writing but he had to write
widely specially in English “The period between the two World Wars and
comprising them both was the Gandhian Age in India, our modern Heroic Age.”120
“The winds of change blew steadily across the Indian sub-continent during more
than a half century after the great revolt of 1857 had left tell-tale marks on the
political and social geography of the country.”121 New and refreshing ideas began to
shake Indian life in several ways. According to Pt. Nehru, “Gandhi... was like a
powerful current of fresh air that made us stretch ourselves and take deep breathe.122
Gandhiji began to influence our political economical, educational, religious and
social life, language and literature in two ways. Through his writing in English and
Gujrati and through various revolutionary movements, he affected Indian life. With
the help of Satyagrah, Gandhiji fought at various places. In 1919 agitation against
the Rowlatt Bill resulted in Jallianwala Bagh slaughter. Consequently “a scar was
drawn across Indo British relations deeper than any which had been inflicted since
the munity.123 The Non-Co-operation Movement started by Gandhiji proved to be
very effective. It was “a baptism of fire which initiated the people into a new faith
and new hope, and inspired them with a new confidence in their power to fight for
freedom”124 In 1930 Gandhiji launched revolutionary Civil Disobedience Movement
to attain his goal. The movement was “sought to paralyse the government by mass
performance of specific illegal acts.”125 Gandhian movement brought surprising
awakening among the women in the contemporary society. Second world war
encouraged growth of industries in India and industrialization played a revolutionary
role in the life of Indian people. According to social historian, industrialization
“brought into existence modern cities which became the centres of modern culture
and increasing democratic social life and from which all progressive movement,
social, political and cultural emanated.”126
Indian English literature was extremely influenced by contemporary social
disorder, political agitations and movements and industrialization. “In fact, it was
during this age that Indian English fiction discovered some of its most compelling
themes : The ordeal of the freedom struggle, East West relationship, the communal
problem and the plight of the untouchables, the landless poor, the downtrodden, the
economically exploited and the opporessed.”127 The factors which were responsible
for his upbringing were the example of his father, the influence of his mother and
the impact of Hindu legends on his sensitive mind. In England he made an
unsuccessful effort to be English gentleman and his view on diet was influenced in
the association of London vegetarian Society. In 1909, Gandhiji’s first major work
“Hind Swaraj’ appeared in Gujrati and it was translated into English by the author
himself. John Middleton admired it calling it as “one of the spiritual classics of the
world” and the “greatest book that has been written in modern time.”128 In the book,
Gandhiji argues that in order to gain the freedom, only political emancipation is not
essential. We would get rid of the bondage of the modern Western machine
civilization because it has damaged the frame of Indian culture. Analysing the book
Gerald Heard argues that it “is one of those books about which may be said that they
are not so much books as great natural phenomena.”129 His work ‘Constructive
Programme : Its Meaning and Place,’ narrates the comprehensive political, social
economical and cultural programmes. In India G.K. Gokhale considers ‘Hind
Swaraj’ hastily conceived book due to its criticism of railway system, lawyers,
doctors and British parliamentary democracy. According to him Gandhiji would
withdraw the weaker part of his argument after he had spent a year in his homeland.
“Today the present state of both Western civilization and Indian culture underscores
the essentially prophetic nature of Hind Swaraj”130 In Gandhiji’s writing, we find the
shower of political, social, economic, cultural and spiritual issues. In his writings,
we also find him deeply rooted in ancient Indian tradition but he was also grounded
in modern Western thoughts.
According to Gandhiji political subjection, economic degradation, social
inequalities, untouchability, caste arrogance and occupational prejudices must be
removed to gain national realization. He gave the principle of simple living and high
thinking. Although there is great importance of technological civilization, he insisted
on village industry. According to him. British educational system created the middle
class educated people who were away from the hard actualities of life in the country.
They began to avert themselves from manual work. Education should enable the
people to participate in creative life, craft, industries and occupation and to have the
understanding of environment. Gandhian ethic was grounded on Indian tradition.
Gandhiji took the help of Satyagrah and Civil Disobedience and bonfire of foreign
clothes to oppose the Englishmen. According to him true swaraj can be obtained by
bringing social reform in India. He made tireless effort to bring equality of status
and to abolish class discrimination. He fought for the women’s freedom, denounced
the child marriage and dowry system. When Gandhiji was in British Jail in Indian,
he made a number of translation of Indian lyrics into English. They were published
with the title “Songs from the Prison (1934)”. “The pieces are from the Veda and the
Upanishads, from Mukundamala and from Bhaktas like Tulsidas, Soordas, Kabir,
Nanak, Mirabi and Tukaram.”131
For Gandhiji truth was like polestar and all his efforts of literature and various
movements are deeply related with Truth and his Karma Yoga. He always made
efforts to make the full use of the Knowledge of West. With the revolution in our
political life, we also find the revolution in our writing.
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1968) was the only son of Motilal Nehru. He
remained Prime Minister of India for seventeen years. He was political heir of
Gandhiji. “A study of Nehru, the writer, thus becomes, by necessary implication, a
study also of the man, and of the modern India awakening from the stupor of the
centuries and taking the first firm steps in direction of future.”132 In his first book
‘Soviet Russia’ (1928), we find sketches and impression of Russia after his visit there
in 1927. ‘Letters from a Father to his Daughter’ (1930) includes the early history of
the world from creation of the earth to the writing of the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. ‘Glimpses of the World History’ (1934) comprises letters written to
his daughter from prison during 1930-33. This book narrates the history from
beginning of civilization to the nineteen thirties. According to him history teaches
us of growth and progress. “The book gives ample evidence of Nehru’s secularism,
his scientific temper and his socialist sympathies.”133 ‘An autobiography’ (1936) is
the best achievement of Nehru. In it Nehru reveals his scientific outlook, his aversion
to organized religion, his admiration for Marxism and nationalism. In the jail, when
he nurses a sick puppy, we are aware of his sympathetic nature. His Autobiography
seems to strike the generation striving hard to negotiate the difficult passage from
the dying old world to new world that was struggling to be born. In the subject
matter, he included interesting anecdotes and the mixture of irony and sympathy.
In ‘The Discovery of India’ (1946), he represents the relation between the past
and the present day thoughts and activities. It depicts the survey of annals of his
country from the Indus Valley Civilization to the nineteen forties. “He concludes by
telling his countrymen that their pride in their ancient culture and tradition should
not be for a romanticized past to which we want to cling.”134 He advises his
countrymen to remain true Indians and at the same time to be good internationalist.
He dreamt of a secular, democratic and socialist society in India and was influenced
with science, rationalism, the British liberal tradition Fabian socialism, Marxism and
Gandhism. He placed his country on the high road of modernity to lead towards
progress having socio-political ideals. In the view of Nehru, all the regional
languages (Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Bengali etc.) are ancient languages and spoken
by many millions of people. He was in the favour of having English as an official
language for inter-state purposes”135 Nehru was, of course, a prophet of modernity.
He was a votary of science and an admirer of the Jet age but he had deep faith in his
ancient tradition and culture. In his ‘The Discovery of India,’ he argues that he does
not want to cut himself completely from his past. He only wants to remove the
shackles that check India’s free development.
“A prominent Congress leader who rebelled against Gandhi and Gandhism
was Subhash Chandra Bosh (1897-1945); whose tireless attempt to achieve Indian
independence through armed struggle by organizing the ‘Indian National Army’ in
East Asia in 1943-45 in one of the brightest chapter in history of modern India” 136
The first volume of Subhash’s work was published in 1980. Manvendra Nath Roy
introduced us ‘New Humanism: A Manifesto’ (1947) which shows how a man is
capable of building a free, harmonious and just social order. B.R. Ambedkar (1889-
1956) wrote what Congress and Gandhi have done to the untouchable (1945). He
wrote on political, economic and religious subjects. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
(1883-1966) wrote ‘Hindu Rashtra Darshan’ (1949) which presents Hindu religion,
cultural values and human values. Muhammad Eqbal (1873-1938) who was poet and
religious philosopher depicts ancient Islamic thought and tries to demonstrate its
universality and essential modernity. “Maulana Maudoodi, founder of ‘Jamat-e-
Islami’ and author of ‘Nationalism and India’ (1958), offered the medieval ideal of
the Islamic State as an alternative to political nationalism.”137
Dr. Radha Krishnan (1888-1975) was well known writer of religious and
philosophical prose. He was born in an orthodox south Indian Brahmin family. He
was firmly grounded in Hindu faith and the impact of Vivekananda increased his
faith. ‘The Reign of Religion in Contemporary Philosophy’ (1920) includes the
thought of western thinkers. This book is a searching examination in the light of the
absolutist thought of Upnishads.”138 In his ‘The Ethics of Vedanta’ (1908), he gives
vigorous reply to the Western Charge that in Vedanta one can not find the room for
ethics. In the ‘Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore’ (1918) he seeks support of
Tagore to express his view on Hindu Ethics. In ‘The Reign of Religion in the
Contemporary Philosophy (1920), he argues that many modern western
philosophers accept the influence of religion in philosophy. Indian Philosophy
describes Indian philosophical thought. The ‘Hindu View of Life’ (1926) neglects
the notion that Hinduism is only a rigid set of outmoded doctrines and hoary
superstitions.”139 ‘Kalki or the Future of Civilization’ (1929) suggests for a world
order based on harmony of the spirit. ‘In an Idealist view of Life’ (1932), he reflects
his view on his religious experience. In the book, we find Radha Krishnan’s valuable
contribution to constructive philosophy for in it East and West meet creatively and
achieve a voice of articulation intelligible to all.”140 ‘East and West in Religion’
(1933) is a contrastive expression of Easter Religion and Western Thought. He was
an effective interpreter of Indian thought to the west like Vivekananda. He has faith
both in God and man and it was rational and tolerant. He had been accused of
providing wrong interpretation of Buddhist thought. He proved to be a “major bridge
builder between two cultures… problems of modern civilization and a distinguished
Indian master of English.”142
Radha Krishnan was bold enough to rethink the ends and means of human life
in the wider perspective of traditional Hinduism and modern thought. 141 In every
religion there are mystical elements which can not be weakened by age but there are
roads of ritual and custom which can be changed with the passage of time.
During the period between 1920 to 1947, we find several seeds of tradition
and modernity widely sown by poets. J. Krishnamurti has introduced us the literary
work which is related to religious and political field. Swami Paramanand gave us
‘The Vigil’ (1923), Swami Ram Tirtha provided ‘Poems of Rama’ (1924), T.L.
Vaswani wrote ‘Quest’ (1928), Brajendra Nath Soal composed ‘The Quest Eternal’
(1936). All these works are attempt to express philosophical ideas. V.N. Bhushan’s
“Silhousettes (1928), and ‘The Far Ascent’ (1948) are inspite of their bustling
enthusiasm, uniformly marred by romantic clichés and Victorian
moralizing…Humayun Kabir’s Poems (1932) and Mahatma and other Poems (1944)
are consistently marred by conventional imagery and faded diction.143
In the field of drama we can mention A.S.P. Ayyar (1899-1963) in whose
works we find the theme of social reform. In ‘Sita’s Choice’ we notice a young
widow who marries a reformist youth. In ‘Slave of Ideas’ we find the description of
young lawyer who possesses spiritual spirit and his wife who is intended towards
materialism. Finally lawyer murders her for her infidelity. In ‘Clutch of the Devi’
we are introduced superstitious spirit and ritualistic murder spreading in the rural
South India. In ‘Little lays and plays’ (1933) by Thyagaraja Kailasam (1885-1946)
presents Bharata’s reaction to the sudden news of his father’s death. It also tells
Ram’s exilement and his kingship in the absence of Ram. In ‘Fulfilment’ by
Kailasam we notice Krishna as mysterious divine figure in whose hands foe and
friends alike are only puppets.”144 ‘A Monologue: Don’t Cry’ reveals the
conventional spirit where women are forced to face widowhood throughout their
whole life. ‘Karna or The Brahmin’s Curse’ (1946) reminds us the ancient day when
Karna had to face the curse of his Guru. ‘Keechak’ (1949) by Kailasam narrates the
legend of keechaka who is in love with Draupadi. Kailasam’s rendering of Puranic
characters like Bharata, Krishna, Ekalovya, Karna, Droupadi, Kunti and others has
a touch of iconoclasm but actually the idealism is deeper than the iconoclasm.145
‘The Well of the Peeple’ by Bharati Sarabhai narrates the story of a widow
who is handicapped and prefers to dig a well for the untouchables. ‘The Two women’
(1952) expresses the story of two women who finally are influenced by the teaching
of Gita. ‘Ape in the Parlour’ by Joseph Mathias Lobo-Prabhu narrates the story of
theft in a temple. In ‘Dogs Ghost’ we are introduced the protagonist confessing the
guilt of his sister which was perhaps committed by his brother-in-law. K.R.S.
Iyengar calls sarabhai “a master of social comedy, delighting in the incongruous,
ludicrous and droll elements in the lives of the sophisticated middle class people
most frequently encountered in cities like madras, Bombay, Calcutta and Delhi.”146
The wide scrutiny of the novels during the period (1920-1947) tells that
Gandhian movement influenced them deeply in the description of social, political
and ideological subjects. K.S. Venkataramani (1891-1951) introduced us ‘Kandan,
the Patriot : A Novel of New India in the Making, (1932) which narrates the story of
Kandan who resigns from the Indian Civil Service to jump into the freedom struggle
and becomes a prey of police bullet. ‘Three Men of Destiny’ by A.S.P. Ayyar
represents how Eastern and Western ideas were stirring the people into various fields
of life. ‘Baladitya’ (1930) is Ayyar’s first novel which narrates author’s effort to
remove the evils of caste system and pseudo-religiosity. It draws our attention
towards social reform. Krishnaswamy Nagarajan gave us ‘Athavar House’ (1937)
which presents vicissitude in the life a joint family, and clash between orthodoxy
and new ideas. ‘Chronicles of Kedaram’ (1961) depicts how social reform can be
brought in a conservative society. “The most significant event in the history of Indian
English fiction in the nineteen thirties was the appearance on the scene of its major
trio : Mulk Raj Anand, A.K. Narayan and Raji Rao.”147 Mulk Raj Anand, in his
autobiographical work ‘Apology for Heroism’ (1946) confesses, “I grew up like the
most of my contemporaries, a very superficial, ill educated young man without any
bearings.”148 Since the education of those days glorified western culture at the
expense of the Indian tradition.”149
Mulk Raj Anand’s father was a traditional coppersmith but with the advance
of modern science and technology people were migrating to the city to obtain
permanent employment. His early book ‘Curries’ is India’s greatest contribution to
civilization. “Some of the old power of creation, the old energy of narration... it must
prove a colossus indeed in modern fiction.150 The designation of Anand’s fiction
was like a double burden on his shoulders “The Alps of the European tradition and
the Himalaya of Indian past.”151 Anand’s first novel ‘Untouchable’ (1935)
describes an eventful day in the life of Bakha, a young sweeper from the outcaste
colony of a north Indian cantonment town.”152 Bakha, a boy of twentieth century,
wishes to look like white foreigner but at the day dawn, his work of latrine-cleaning
also begins. His sister, Sohini, is also dexterous after her fashion. In the end, Bakha
finds three chance to solve his problems. “A missionary tries to persuade him to
embrace Christianity. He listens to Gandhiji, who advocates social reform and he
also hears of mechanized sanitation as the only answer possible.”153 His novel
‘Coolie’ (1936) shows how Munoo and his fellow coolies are exploited by the forces
of industrialism, communalism and colonialism. His novel untouchable narrating,
“the problems of cast and poverty, squalor and backwardness, ignorance and
superstitions, admits of no easy solution.”154 Gandhiji considers untouchability the
greatest blot on Hinduism. His ‘Two Leaves and a Bud’ (1937) narrates Gangu’s
story whose daughter is raped by a British officer and he himself is shot dead by
bullet. In ‘The Big Heart’ (1945) he describes how Ananta, a coppersmith becomes
champion of machine and modernity in the traditional society and finally losses his
life. ‘The Old Woman and the Cow’ (1960) narrates the story of peasant girl who is
forsaken by her husband and sold to a rich merchant by her mother. ‘The Road’
(1963) possesses an untouchable theme. So we see that Anand’s novels come fresh
from contact with the flesh and blood of everyday existence.”155
Unlike Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan chose different kind of theme for his
novels. “Narayan’s little dramas of middle class life are enacted in Malgudi, an
imaginary small town in South India.”156 In his novel ‘The Bachelor of Arts’ (1937),
he narrates the story of Chandran who is caught in a conflict between western ideas
and traditional social set up in which he lives. ‘His Dark Room’ (1938) depicts the
story of Savitri who leaves her husband and she realizes a traditional middle class
Hindu wife’s helpless cut off from home. ‘The Guide’ (1958) is Narayan’s finest
novel in which we find traditional activities such as fasting to bring rainfall to a
drought stricken village. In the reference of ‘The Guide’ K.R.S. Iyengar argues, “The
disappointed lover of Bachelor of Arts becames a Sadhu for a change... Sadhu,
Sanyasi, Swami and Mahtma are names that can cover many sins and describe many
virtues.”157 In ‘The Man-eater of Malgudi’ (1962), we find the narration of ancient
Hindu fable of Bhasmasura who was blessed to burn to ashes to anyone whom he
touched.
Raja Rao comes from an ancient South Indian Brahmin family. In
‘Kanthapura’, he narrates the story of small south Indian village caught in the storm
of freedom struggle. To plough the field at the first rain shows has traditional belief.
The theme of kanthapura may be summed up as Gandhi and our village but the style
of narration makes the book more a Gandhi Purana than a piece of mere fiction.” 158
After Kanthapura, Raja Rao did not write till 1960. It is believed that after a long
silence “the novelist was now an extinct volcano.”159 His ‘The Serpent and the Rope’
(1960) is perhaps the greatest of Indian English novels. The novel represents the
story of a marriage of minds, the spiritual auto-biography of a scholar, modern Indian
intellectual quest for self fulfillment, the relation of East and West and image of truly
Indian novel rooted in native tradition. To compare Raja Rao’s two books, it can be
said, “if Kanthapura’ is Raja Rao’s Ramayana then the ‘Serpent and the Rope’ is his
Mahabharata.”160 ‘The Cat and Shakespeare’ (1965) narrates the philosophical
attitude of the novelist. It is metaphysical comedy and author calls it a prayer. His
‘Comrade Kirillov (1976) describes opinion on communalism, the British, the war
and the Indian freedom struggle.
‘Twilight in Delhi’ (1940) by Ahmad Ali depicts our national phase and decay
of our culture. Amir Ali’s novel ‘Conflict’ (1947) tells the story of a Hindu family
presenting how Shankar gets caught in the agitation of 1942.
In the field of short story A.S.P. Ayyar narrates the story of social reform and
plight of women in the traditional Hindu society. K.S. Venkataraman, K.
Nagarjun and Manjeri Insvaran, contributed to bring reform in various field of life.
Many of Anand’s stories can be counted as complex social forces at work in modern
India. “Though Narayan’s stories are always readable, they are perhaps not as
significant an achievement as his major novels.”161 Raja Rao wrote two metaphysical
stories—‘India: A Fable’ and ‘The Policeman and the Rose.’ The symbolism found
in the stories make them brief but memorable.
5- Post Independence Indian English Literature and Tradition &
Modernity :
Our Independence in 1947 brought us a new era of challenge and change in
Indian life. Facing the challenges, India got progress in many areas. Social inequality
was disappearing by progressive measures such as untouchability Act 1955 and
several efforts to improve the status of backward caste and tribes. “As a total result
of these developments important gains were registered especially in fiction, poetry
and criticism.”162 The poetry during the post Independence period began to pour
modernistic elements derived from T.S. Eliot and others. The first modernist
anthology was ‘Modern Indo-Anglian Poetry’ (1958) which was edited by P. Lal
and K. Raghavendra Rao. Nissim Ezekiel was one of the most notable post
Independence Indian English writer of verse. He learnt his poetic craft from Eliot
and Auden. His poetry reveals technical skill of a high order. When he writes below
his best, he sometimes lapses into faded romanticism. Dom Moraes won recognition
in England and got the Hawthernden Prize in 1958. He declares, “English was my
outlook, I found, I could not fit in India. When eventually I came to England. I fitted
in at once.”163 He had been told, “you are a very English person. Your reactions are
not Indian.”164 ‘The Man of Dharma and the Rasa of Silence’ by P. Lal reveals
Yudhishthira’s passage through the spectrum of eight rasas. ‘Rough Passage’ by R.
Parthasarathy deals with the theme of identity which exposes the two cultures.
Arvind Krishna Mehrotra (1947) introduced us social background in his poems. He
declares, that he is a poet “writing a universal language of poetry, of feeling, of love,
and hate and sex.”165 Nandy in his verse writings reveals his imagination obsessed
with urban violence and horror, death and sex. Keki N. Daruwalla (1937) was one
of the most prolific modern Indian English poet. In Jayanta Mahapatra’s poetry, we
find the notes of love, sex and sensuality and social and political scene.
The women poets construct a sizable modern Indian English literature. The
poetry of Kamala Das (1934) conveys us about sex, referring to the musk of sweat
between the breasts, the warm shock of menstrual blood. Kamala Das’s poetry tears
the conventional attitudes and reveals the quintessential woman within ‘Tribute to
Papa’ (1970) and Poem (1978) by Mamta Kalia narrate about love, marriage, family
life and society.
So we find that post Independence poetry is amazing. It seems to loss its
authenticity and imitate the romanticism of the earlier period. “Fortunately from this
versified chaos the work of more than dozen poets stands out by virtue of its
unmistakable authenticity, significance and power.”166
Gandhian age dropped its influence on the post Independence Indian English
fiction. Babhani Bhattacharya, M. Malgonkar and Khushwant Singh fulfilled the
principles established by Mulk Raj Anand. Babhani Bhattacharya argues that “Art
must preach, but only by virtue of its being a vehicle of truth.”167 He was highly
influenced by Gandhiji and Tagore. The Sahitya Akademi award to him in 1967 was
a fitting recognition of his standing and achievement in the field of Indian fiction in
English.”168 ‘Music for Mohini’ (1952) by Bhattacharya narrates the story of Mohini
who is city-bred and village-wed. The narrative makes effort to connect two different
cultures. ‘He Who Rides a Tiger’ (1952) by Bhattacharya presents an intricate mixed
theme. It narrates the appearance and reality, the haves and have not and religious
hypocrisy. ‘A Dream in Hawai’ (1978) by Bhattacharya depicts the theme of East-
West encounter.
Contrary to Bhattacharya, Manohar Malgonkar (1913) believes that the aim
of art must be pure entertainment. He declares, “I feel a special allegiance to the
particular sub-caste among those whose caste mark I have affected, the entertainers,
the tellers of stories.”169 Malgonkar belongs to male dominated world who considers
women as a instrument of masculine pleasure. Mr Manohar Malgonkar has
published four novels in the course of five years. The first, ‘Distant Drum’ appeared
in 1960 and the fourth ‘A Bend in the Ganges’ in 1964.”170 ‘Combat of Shadow’
(1962) has its title and epigraph from Bhagavad Gita. Khushwant Singh (1918) is
rooted in dunghill of a tiny Indian village and his novels are associated with it.
According to a character “it was not possible to keep Indians off the subject of sex
for long. It obsessed their minds.”171 ‘I Shall Not Hear the Nightingale (1959) by
Khushwant Singh represents the narration of a Sikh joint family. His ‘Wound of
Spring’ (1960) by S. Menon Marath contemplates the disintegration of traditional
Nayyar family in Kerala. ‘The Dark Dancer’ (1959) by Balachandra Rajan narrates
the story of a south Indian youth who finds himself in love with British Cynthia and
his loyality to his wife. ‘Too long in the West’ (1961) by Rajan describes the story
of Nalini, a south Indian girl who returned from American University, invites several
suitors to her in the Swayamvara. In ‘Cradle of the Clouds’ (1951) by Sudhindra
Nath Ghose describes the story of Balarama who has traditional faith and participates
in ritualistic ploughing ceremony to bring rainfall. The tales of S.N. Ghose are
derived from “diverse sources such as the ancient epics and puranas, legend and
folk-lore and even history.”172 Govindas Vishnoodas Desani returned to Indian from
England, spent several years of his life in seclusion, practising yoga and studying
Buddhism. In his writings, he poured triumphant experiment mixing western and
Indian narrative form. “Both Sudhin Ghose and G.V. Desani tried to blend western
and oriental modes of narration in telling tales with a modern setting.” 173 In his
novels Arun Joshi (1939) makes effort to establish harmony between problems of
post-Independence Indian society and East-West ecnounter. ‘Azadi’ (1975) by
Chaman Nahal narrates the migration of Lala Kanshi Ram with his family to India
at the time of Indian partition in 1947. In ‘Into Another Dawn’ (1977) Nahal
describes the theme of East-West encounter. In the novel Ravi Sharma who is from
an orthodox Brahmin family elopes with an American woman but dies due to cancer.
In ‘English Queen’ (1979) Nahal narrates the love story of Rekha, an army officer’s
daughter with a musician, from an adjoing slum which is a social satire on Anglicised
fashion.
“There are five or six women writers who usually made, year after year, some
of the most significant contribution to the English novel.”174 The name of Ruth
Prawer Jhabvala is very prominent in Indian English writing in fiction. She confesses
that “She should not be considered as Indian writer but as one of those European
writers who have written about India.”175 She married an Indian and made access to
Indian society deeply and widely. Being an outsider, she is considered as an in-sider.
She describes middle class urban Indian life as well as East-West encounter. “When
she describes the domestic scene, she is equally-or even more successful in
portraying the foreigners in India.”176 ‘The Householder’ (1960) describes at first
middle class Indian life and afterwards East-West encounter. A Backward Place’
(1965) is the narration of contrasted western responses to India. In ‘To Whom She
Will’ we find a young man and woman enjoying the romantic love before arranged
marriage. ‘A New Dominion’ (1973) describes the story of three European girls who
became prey of a fake swami. “The most distinctive features of Jhabvala’s novels is
the thread of intricate human relationship, specially among the women in the Hindu
joint family.”177
Jhabvala is an outsider-insider while Kamala Markandaya is an insider-
outsider. ‘Nectar in a sieve’ (1954) describes the story of Rukmani, a rustic woman,
who migrates to a city with her husband. ‘In Some Inner Fury’ (1955) by
Markandaya, we find East-West relationship. ‘Some Inner Fury’ is a tragedy
engineered by politics, even as ‘Nectar in a Sieve’ is a tragedy engineered by
economics.”178 ‘A silence of Desire’ (1960) portrays clash between two opposite
ideas. Dendekar wants her wife, who has deep faith in traditional religion, to get
operated but Sarojini relies on the faith healing of the Swami. In ‘The Coffer Dams’
(1969) Markandaya provided the most comprehensive picture of the Indo-British
encounter. In ‘The Golden Honeycomb’ (1977) the description of ‘Delhi Durbar’ of
1903 makes it conventional historical fiction. In it, we find the incidents like Prince
Rabi’s affair with a slum girl in Bombay which is supposed as fantasy.
Nayantara Sahgal usually introduces political novels. She admits that each of
her novels more or less reflects the political era we are passing through.179 His novels
“are also preoccupied with modern Indian woman’s search for sexual freedom and
self realization.”180 ‘A Time to be Happy’ (1958) possesses political theme but it
exhibits Maya’s traditional upbringing by her marriage to anglicized Harish. ‘Storm
in Chandigarh’ (1969) represents Vishal who “develops a deeper attachment to
Saroj, wife of Inder, who has an affair with Mara, wife of Jit—Inder and Jit both
being in business.”181
Anita Desai writing “is an effort to discover and then to underline, and finally
to convey the true significance of things.”182 ‘Cry, the Peacock’ (1963) presents
Maya who is puzzled with astrological forecasting that her marriage will go to end
in its fourth year. K.R.S. Iyengar describes, “The prophecy acts upon Maya with the
same force of inevitability as the prophecy of witches acts upon Macbeth.” 183 ‘Bye-
Bye Blackbird’(1971) contains social, political theme. In it, we find the narration of
East-West encounter. ‘Remember the House’ (1956) by Rama Rai shows the picture
of East-West encounter.
In the field of story writing Khushwant Singh is known for satire on several
aspects of modern Indian life. Ruskin Bond in his stories seems highly responsive to
nature. He shows great affinity between trees and men. ‘A search For Home’ (1975)
by Sasthi Brata reflects on Indian culture and East-West encounter. ‘A Doll for the
Child Prostitute’ (1977) by Kamala Das usually chooses the sex theme.
 During the post-Independence period drama has obtained notable
achievements. G.V. Desani introduced us ‘Hali’ (1950) which “was originally a
work of nearly 300 pages and written and planned as an epic.” 184 “As a child, Hali
was named after a Muslim saint but has long hair like a girl, wears bangles and
anklets and given a girl’s name. Girija”185 ‘Murder At the Prayer Meeting’ (1976)
by Lakhan Deb describes the murder of Mahatma Gandhi.
Asif Currimbhoy is a prolific playwright who chose the theme from politics
and social-economic problems, East West encounter, psychology, religion and
philosophy. ‘The Tourist Mecca’ (1959). ‘The Hungry Ones’ (1965-77) and
‘Darjeeling Tea?’ (1971) possesses the theme of East-West encounter mainly. The
‘Professor has a War Cry’ (1970) by Pratap Sharma describes the theme of sex. In
it, Virendra found out that his mother was deserted by her lover, a Hindu professor,
and raped by a Muslim and a English man and so he was a illegitimate child.
In the field of prose writing, during the post-Independence period we notice
‘The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian’ (1951) by Nirad C. Chaudhari in which
a middle class Bengali boy is drawn towards England and Western civilization. We
find Chaudhari having the unorthodox view of Indian history and civilization.
According to Chaudhari “the Hindu is the European distorted corrupted and made
degenerate by the cruel, torrid environment of India”186 Chaundari’s scrutiny reveals
that Hindu social life is gregarious, disturbing and destructive. He finds joint family
troubling and arranged marriage disappointing.
According to the prophecy of a recent historian of Indian English fiction,
“Indian English literature is leading to its death. Buddhadev Bose calls Indian
English poetry as “a blind alley lined with curioshops, leading nowhere.” 187
According to M. Chalapati, Indian English literature “is at the best of it is
translation... and write, not compose in, the language.”188 Kailaspathy and Anantha
Murthy contemplates that English is only official language. They do not use English
to think and feel, bless and curse, quarrel and kiss.”189 Sri Aurobindo argues that “It
is not true in all cases that one can not write first class thing in a learnt language. 190
Professor Paul Christophersen made distinction between foreign language and the
second language. One may have good knowledge of foreign language : A foreign
language is used for absorbing the culture of another nation, a second language is
used as an alternative way of expression of the culture of one’s own.”191
We can conclude that “the educated Indian wrote his letters in English, used
English at work and play, and acquired it so perfectly that it often became a verbal
skin, rather than a coat.”192 Nothing can be said about the future of Indian English
writing because literary forecasting is the same as weather forecasting.
 References
1- M.K. Naik : A History of Indian English Literature, P.-1.
2- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-2.
3- Ibid,
4- V.K. Gokak : English in India, Its Present and Future, P.-161.
5- J.B. Alphonso – Karkala, Indo-English Literature in The Nineteenth Century,
P.-2
6- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-3.
7- M.K. Naik : A History of Indian English Literature, P.-7.
8- Henry Sharp, Selections from Educational Records, Vol-II, 1840-1859, P.-
392.
9- Henry Sharp, Selections from Educational Records, Vol-I, 1789-1839, P.-130.
10- Ram Mohan Roy : Selected works of Ram Mohun Roy, P.-97.
11- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-6.
12- Ibid, P.-10.
13- F.W. Bain, An Incarnation of the Snow Preface X.V.
14- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-14.
15- Ibid, P.-15.
16- Quoted by R.P. Masani, Britain in India, P.-3.
17- Contenary Library Vol. XIV, P.-397.
18- Jawahar Lal Nehru, The Discovery of India, P.-330-31.
19- J.A. Sharrock, South Indian Missions, P.-22.
20- Quoted by P.N. Chopra A Social, Cultural and Economic History of India, P.-
248.
21- Minute of Lt. Governer of Bengal (19-11-1858) Quoted by Tara Chand,
History of the Freedom Movement in India, P.-202.
22- Quoted by Sisir Kumar Mitra, Resurgent India, P.-48.
23- Quoted by Jadunath Sarkar, India Through the Ages, P.-103.
24- Rammohun Roy, Selected works of Ram Mohun Roy, P.-302.
25- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in Engish, P.-41.
26- Ibid, P.-42.
27- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-43.
28- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-31.
29- Ibid,
30- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-45.
31- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-31.
32- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-49.
33- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-32.
34- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-51.
35- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-32.
36- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-52.
37- Ibid, P.-24.
38- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-29.
39- Quoted by Amal Home, Rommohun Roy, The Man and His work, P.-3.
40- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-14.
41- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-31.
42- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-16.
43- Ibid,
44- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-17.
45- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-18.
46- G. Paramaswaran Pillai, Representative Indians, P.-196.
47- Quoted by Susobhan Sarkar, Henry Derozio; Poems, Selected by P. Lal
Introduction, P.-XI.
48- Quoted by Susobhan Sarkar, Henry Derozio; Poems, Selected by P. Lal
Introduction. P.-V.
49- F.E. Oaten, A Sketch of Anglo-Indian Literature, P.-27.
50- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-25.
51- H.G. Rawlinson, The British Achievement in India, P.-44, 51.
52- G.T. Garrat, Indo-English Civilization, The Legacy of India, P.-398.
53- W.S. Blunt India Under Ripon, A Private Diary, P.-260.
54- W.S. Blunt India Under Ripon, A Private Diary, P.-261.
55- G.T. Garrat, Indo-English Civilization, The Legacy of India, P.-398.
56- Ibid, P.-115.
57- F.M. Skrine, Life of Sir W.W. Hunter, P.-68.
58- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-31.
59- Quoted by H.V. Hampton, Biographical Studies in Modern Indian Education,
P.-237.
60- R.C. Majumdar. An Advanced History of India, P.-885.
61- Quoted by Tarachand, History of the Freedom Movement in India. Vol-II, P.-
555.
62- Ibid,
63- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-36.
64- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-37.
65- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-37.
66- M.K. Naik, A History of Indian English Literature, P.-39.
67- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.P.-79-80.
68- Letters in Collected Poems, Vol.I: Early Poems and Letters ed. Lotika Ghose,
P.-173.
69- Ibid, P.-163.
70- Laurence Binyon, ‘Introductory Memoir, Collected Poems of Manmohan
Ghose. ed. Lotika Ghose Vol-I. P.-XII.
71- Lawrence Binyon, Introductory Memoir, Collected Poems of Manmohan
Ghose.ed. Lotika Ghose. Vol-I. P.-251.
72- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-93.
73- Sri Aurobindo, On Yoga. II. Tome I, P.-129.
74- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-194.
75- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature. P.-47.
76- Sri Aurobindo, Collected Poems, Sri Aurobindo Birth Centenary Library;
Vol-V. P.-288.
77- Ibid, P.-279.
78- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-205.
79- Sri Aurobindo, Letters on Savitri, Sri Aurobindo Birth Centenary Library Vol.
XXI, P.-731-732.
80- Ibid, P.-750.
81- Sri Aurobindo on Himself, Sri Aurobindo Birth Centenary Library. Vol XXVI
P.-265.
82- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature. P.-86.
83- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-169.
84- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-171.
85- Ibid, P.-172.
86- Sri Aurobindo, The Future Poetry and Letters on Poetry, Literature and Art,
British Centenary Library Vol-IX, P.-441.
87- Rabindranath Tagore, Jeebansmriti, Quoted by S.K. Ghose, The Later Poem
of Tagore, P.-161.
88- Rabindranath Tagore, Jeebansmriti, quoted by P.K. Mukherji, Life of Tagore,
trans. by S.K. Ghose P.-52.
89- Letter to his Neice, Indira-dated 6 May 1913. Quoted in Amiya Chakrawarty,
A Tagore Reader P.P.-20-21.
90- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-106.
91- Krishna Kripalani, Rabindranath Tagore : A Birography, P.-279.
92- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-65.
93- Jawaharlal Nehru, Introduction to Rabindranath Tagore, A Centenary Vol, P.-
XVI.
94- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-80.
95- Probhat Kumar Kukherji, Life of Tagore (trans. by Sisir Kumar Ghose) P.-
148.
96- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-81.
97- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-138.
98- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-135.
99- Ibid,
100- Edmund Gosse, Introduction to Broken Wing, P.-5.
101- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-67.
102- Quoted in Tara Ali Baig, Sarojini Naidu, P.-74.
103- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-209.
104- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-104.
105- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-71.
106- Quoted by G. Paramaswaran Pillai, Representative Indians. P.-271.
107- Quoted by R.P. Patwardhan and D.V. Ambkar, speeches and writing of G.K.
Gokhale, Vol-I Introduction P.-XXXV.
108- D.R. Gadgil, Quoted by R.C. Dutt in Romesh Chunder Dutt, P.-86.
109- R.C. Dutt, Romesh Chaunder Dutt, P.-138.
110- Romain Roll and The Life of Vivekanand and the Universal Gospel (trans. by
F.E. Molcolm-Smith) P.-37.
111- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-83.
112- Josephine Macleod, Quoted by Marie Louise Burke, Swami Vivekananda in
America, New Discoveries P.-536.
113- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.P.-90-91.
114- Ibid, P.-93.
115- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-93.
116- Ibid, P.-108.
117- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-100.
118- Ibid, P.-108.
119- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-241.
120- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-248.
121- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-114.
122- Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India, P.-114.
123- Sir Perceval Spear, Oxford History of Modern India 1740-1947, P.-341.
124- R.C. Majumdar (ed) History and Culture of Indian people Vol-XI, P.-368.
125- Sir Perceval Spear, Oxford History of Modern India, P.-351.
126- A.R. Desai, Social Background of Indian Nationalism. P.-124.
127- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-118.
128- The Aryan Path, September 1939, Quoted by Babhani Bhattacharya,
Mahatma Gandhi P.-178.
129- The Aryan Path, September 1939, Quoted by Babhani Bhattacharya,
Mahatma Gandhi P.-178.
130- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-121.
131- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-257.
132- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-295.
133- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-127.
134- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-129.
135- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-307.
136- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-137.
137- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-133.
138- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-574.
139- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-137.
140- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-577.
141- Ibid, P.-576.
142- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-138.
143- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-145-146.
144- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-148.
145- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-238.
146- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-241.
147- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-154-155.
148- Mulk Raj Anand, Apology for Heroism. P.-15.
149- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-155.
150- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-337.
151- Mulk Raj Anand, Apology for Heroism. P.-67.
152- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-156.
153- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-156.
154- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-338.
155- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-356.
156- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-160.
157- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-363.
158- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-391.
159- C.R. Mandy, Some Indian Authors in Candid Retrospect, Writers Workshop
Miscellany, Eight. P.-19.
160- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-397.
161- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-183.
162- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-192.
163- Dom Moraes, Shall I Paint Myself White, Impact, Asian Views of the West,
ed. Joaan White P.P.-183-83.
164- Dom Moraes, My Son’s Father. P.-162.
165- A.K. Mehrotra, Replies to the Questionnaire, in Modern India Poetry in
English ed. P. Lal Second Edition. P.-304.
166- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-212.
167- Literature and Social Reality, The Aryan Path, XXVI. No.-9, Sept. 1955,
Quoted by K.R. Chandrashekharan, Babhani Bhattacharya. P.-3.
168- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-412.
169- Manohar Malgonkar, Purdah and Caste Marks, The Times Literary
Supplement, 4 June, 1964, P.-491.
170- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-423.
171- Iqbal Singh in Train to Pakistan. P.-126.
172- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-225.
173- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-229.
174- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-435.
175- Ram Lal Agrawal, Interview with R. Prawer Jhabvala Quest, 91, Sept-
October, 1974, P.-36.
176- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-457.
177- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-235.
178- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-440.
179- Quoted by Jasbir Jain, Nayantara Sahgal, P.-143.
180- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-239.
181- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-474.
182- Anita Desai, Interview with Yashodhara Dalmia, The Times of India, 29
April, 1979.
183- K.R.S. Iyengar : Indian Writing in English, P.-466.
184- Peter Russeil and Khushwant Singh (ed) G.V. Desai, A Consideration of His
All About H. Hatterr and Hali (London and Amsterdam-c, 1952) P.-
21.
185- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-256.
186- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-267.
187- R.C. Dutt, The Literature of Bengal P.P.-185-186.
188- M. Chalapati Rau, The Indo-Anglian, The Illustrated weekly of India,
LXXXIV, 21, 26 May 1963, P.-45.
189- Kailashpathy and Anantha Murthy, Letter, The Times Literary Supplement,
Oct. 5, 1964, P.-646.
190- Sri Aurobindo, Collected works. Vol-IX, P.-454.
191- Quoted by P.E. Dustur, Sarojini Naidu, P.-50.
192- M.K. Naik. A History of Indian English Literature, P.-286.