El Origen de La Tierra

Geoscience Frontiers 8 (2017) 253e274
H O S T E D BY Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
China University of Geosciences (Beijing)
Geoscience Frontiers
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gsf
Research paper
Origin of the Earth: A proposal of new model called ABEL

Shigenori Maruyama a, b, *, Toshikazu Ebisuzaki c
a
Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 IE-16 Ookayama, Merugo-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
b
Institute for Study of the Earth’s Interior, Okayama University, 827 Yamada, Misasa, Tottori, 682-0193, Japan
c
RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama, 351-0198, Japan
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The Earth was born as a dry planet without atmosphere and ocean components at 4.56 Ga, with sub-
Received 30 March 2016 sequent secondary accretion of bio-elements, such as carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen
Received in revised form (N) which peaked at 4.37e4.20 Ga. This two-step formation model of the Earth we refer to as the advent
13 October 2016
of bio-elements model (ABEL Model) and the event of the advent of bio-elements (water component) as
Accepted 18 October 2016
Available online 1 November 2016
ABEL Bombardment. It is clear that the solid Earth originated from enstatite chondrite-like dry material
based on the similarity in oxygen isotopic composition and among other isotopes. On the other hand,
Earth’s water derives primarily from carbonaceous chondrite material based on the hydrogen isotopic
Keywords:
Origin of Earth and life
ratio. We present our ABEL model to explain this enigma between solid Earth and water, as well as
Advent of bio-elements (ABEL) secondary accretion of oxidizing bio-elements, which became a precursor to initiate metabolism to
Origin of water on the Earth emerge life on a highly reductive planet. If ABEL Bombardment had not occurred, life never would have
ABEL Bombardment emerged on the Earth. Therefore, ABEL Bombardment is one of the most important events for this planet
Habitable Trinity planet to evolve into a habitable planet. The chronology of ABEL Bombardment is informed through previous
Initiation of plate tectonics researches of the late heavy bombardment and the late veneer model. ABEL Bombardment is considered
to have occurred during 4.37e4.20 Ga, which is the concept to redefine the standard late heavy
bombardment and the late veneer models. Also, ABEL Bombardment is the trigger of the transition from
stagnant lid tectonics to plate tectonics on this planet because of the injection of volatiles into the initial
dry Earth.
Ó 2016, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by
Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction Earth system including superplume and three-layer model of conti-

nents of solid Earth (e.g. Maruyama et al., 2007; Kawai et al., 2009), it
What is the origin of Earth’s water? From ancient times, people has become clear that the water component has come from the
have considered that water comes from the Earth’s interior based Earth’s interior until about 1.0 Ga dominated by decompressional
on the observation that magma erupted from volcanoes comprises melting by an upwelling mantle (Maruyama et al., 2014), while sur-
a water component. There is little doubt that the water component face water has been carried into the deep mantle down to 660 km in
originates from Earth’s modern interior, in the form of hydrous depth as hydrous minerals along subduction zones only since 600 Ma
minerals in the mantle rather than liquid water like an ocean. Based (Maruyama, 1994; Maruyama and Liou, 2005). However, the original
on such observation or empirical rule, people have generally source of water component has remained unknown.
considered the water component to have been originally stored in In the science community with particular focus on planetary-
the Earth’s interior, and spouted out through time to be accumu- formation theory, it has been vaguely considered that the Earth
lated on the surface of the Earth in the form of oceans. had an atmosphere and ocean from the beginning of the formation
Since the proposal of plate tectonics (e.g., Le Pichon,1968; Morgan, of the Earth. Classic models of planetary formation theory were
1968; McKenzie, 1969) and a more recently revealed dynamic whole provided by Safronov (1969, 1972) and Hayashi et al. (1985), the
latter being the so-called Kyoto model (Fig. 1). These models were
followed by studies based on numerical calculation by a special
* Corresponding author. Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, purpose computer focusing on N-body simulation (e.g. Kokubo and
2-12-1 IE-16 Ookayama, Merugo-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan. Ida, 1995; Ida et al., 2001). More recently the Grand Tack model
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Maruyama). (Walsh et al., 2011) was proposed, which explains Jupiter migrating
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2016.10.005
1674-9871/Ó 2016, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-
ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
254 S. Maruyama, T. Ebisuzaki / Geoscience Frontiers 8 (2017) 253e274
Figure 1. Planetary formation process. Simplified cartoon showing the step-wise formation of a primordial planetary system from the rotating gas nebula (top), through fine-
grained mineral dust particles with chemical differentiation (middle), formation of planetesimals and their accretion to become asteroids within a gas envelope or free gas
(middle bottom), and the final formation of three groups of planets (rocky, gas Giants with ice-rock planetary core, and Icy planets), as a function of distance (AU). The timing of gas
dispersion is debated. Note the difference between the figure on the right vs. the figure on the left at the bottom. Figure was modified after Abe (1995).
inward from far beyond Jupiter to deliver asteroids or icy plane- inhomogeneous accretion model mainly devised by Ringwood and
tesimals and then return to its present position after the formation Wänke strengthened the late veneer model that could not explain
of the rocky planets including the Earth. Following this model, the Earth’s formation process with regards to CI chondritic Earth’s
O’Brien et al. (2014) suggested that water was transferred to the composition such as siderophile elements. Recently, Albarède
Earth through this process. However, these new models are not (2009) provided chronological data based on I-Xe and U-Pb chro-
consistent with evidences given from material science, such as nometers, suggesting that the late veneer event occurred at
chemical zoning seen in the present asteroid belt and solar system 100 50 Ma after the T-Tauri phase.
(DeMeo and Carry, 2014). However, apart from the varieties of Due to the technological advancement of equipment that could
interpretation of formation processes of the solar system or a be used to analyze isotopic ratios, Clayton and his colleagues
planetary body, one point in common among their models is that revealed that the solid Earth has an isotopic composition equivalent
the Earth has maintained its atmosphere and ocean since its birth to that of enstatite chondrites regarding oxygen (Clayton et al.,
(Fig. 2; Fanale, 1971; Matsui and Abe, 1986; Zahnle et al., 1988, 1984; Clayton and Mayeda, 1996). Subsequently, the origin of the
2007; Ikoma and Genda, 2006). All of the models explain that the Earth began to be discussed based on isotopic data. Such analytical
atmospheric and oceanic components were provided by a degass- data has been accumulated gradually, which includes Pb isotopic
ing process as secondary products of the accretion of solid Earth. analysis by Albarède (2009), Ti isotopes by Zhang et al. (2012), Sr
On the other hand, Astrolithology has a long history as a isotopes by Moynier et al. (2012), S isotopes by Labidi et al. (2013),
research subject in the field of astronomy since the works by pio- Pd-Ag systematics by Schönbächler et al. (2010), Hf-W systematics
neers such as Urey (1952), Anders (1964), and Ringwood (1959, by Willbold et al. (2011), Touboul et al. (2007, 2012, 2015), Kruijer
1966). Such research began from the classification of meteorites et al. (2015), and Ru-Mo isotopes by Dauphas et al. (2004) and
based on the existence of chondrule (e.g. Urey and Craig, 1953). Fischer-Gödde et al. (2015).
Basically, a meteorite is a “conglomerate” signifying the aggrega- With continued technological advancement, sample return
tion of condensates from the solar nebula under a non-equilibrium missions became available to capture particles of solar wind,
process including calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions (CAI) and comets, or other materials by using spacecraft such as the Genesis
chondrules formed at temperatures over 1000 C and matrix mission for solar atmosphere and the Deep Impact for cometary
minerals formed far below 100 C. Such meteorite material mixed debris by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
with chondrules is thus classified as chondrite, which is sub- (NASA). These missions brought actual samples from the Universe
classified as oxidized chondrite and dry (reductive) chondrite. which have been analyzed. Examples include samples from comets
The most reductive one is enstatite chondrite, while the most Halley (Balsiger et al., 1995; Eberhardt et al., 1995), Hyakutake
oxidized one is CI chondrite. The asteroid belt is divided into inner (Bockelée-Morvan et al., 1998), Hale-Bopp (Meier et al., 1998), and
part (mainly reductive enstatite chondrite) and an outer part Garradd (Bockélee-Morvan et al., 2012). Analyses of the D/H ratio of
(water-rich carbonaceous chondrite), which indicates the temper- hydrogen isotope from the returned samples, on the other hand,
ature of the matrix of the meteorite as a function of distance from indicate that Earth’s water originates from meteorites from the
the Sun. In other words, the further the distance from the Sun, the asteroid belt (Eberhardt et al., 1995; Geiss and Gloeckler, 1998;
more hydrated the chondrites becomes. Based on this, researchers Lécuyer et al., 1998; Robert, 2001), contradicting the oxygen iso-
suggested that the accretion of the Earth began with highly reduced topic compositions that show the Earth being made from enstatite
material without volatile elements, with oxidized elements chondrite. Therefore, the formational process of the Earth has thus
enriched in volatiles being accreted at a subsequent stage far remained unknown and controversial.
(Ringwood, 1977, 1979; Ringwood and Kesson, 1977; Wänke, 1981; Previously proposed inhomogeneous accretion by a series of
Wänke and Dreibus, 1988), which evolved from the so-called late papers by Ringwood (1977, 1979), Ringwood and Kesson (1977),
veneer model that was first proposed by Anders (1968). The Wänke (1981), Wänke and Dreibus (1988), for example, and
S. Maruyama, T. Ebisuzaki / Geoscience Frontiers 8 (2017) 253e274 255
Figure 2. Formation process of the Earth. Schematic illustration of the successive formation of the layered Earth, from asteroid to the fully-layered Earth with atmosphere and ocean
at 4.53 Ga. Note the step-wise differentiation at 0.3 MRE (mean radius of the Earth) (keeping atmosphere), 0.5 MRE (Mars) (initiation of magma ocean on the surface), and 0.7 MRE
(segregation of core), giant impact at 4.53 Ga, and the re-emergence of ocean shortly thereafter. Figure was modified after Abe (1995).
chronological data by Albarède (2009) have yielded significant in- the D/H of hydrogen of the solar atmosphere at 4.5 Ga is estimated
formation concerning the formation process of the Earth. However, to be (21 5) 106 (Geiss and Gloeckler, 1998), while D/H of a
their models fall short of explicitly explaining the formation pro- comet is over 300 106 (Eberhardt et al., 1995). Through this kind
cess such as in the case of the Ringwood and Wänke model which of analysis of carbonaceous chondrites, the value of D/H of Earth’s
explains the gradual transition of mother meteorites of the Earth hydrogen ranges between 130 106 and 150 106. Therefore, it
from enstatite chondrite-like material to carbonaceous chondrites, is clear that Earth’s hydrogen is almost the same value as carbo-
or the chronological evidence by Albarède (2009) for the late naceous chondrites (Fig. 4). Although, some samples from carbo-
veneer event which remains undiscussed in terms of the meaning naceous chondrites exceptionally show values exceeding 300
of the late veneer through the history of the Earth. thought to be derived from outside the Oort cloud with unknown
In this paper, we integrate these previously proposed models to reason (Eberhardt et al., 1995). However, judging from the overall
provide a solution to the dilemma between enstatite chondrite and D/H, there is little doubt that Earth’s water predominantly origi-
carbonaceous chondrite as the primary source materials of the nated from carbonaceous chondrite comparable to the composition
Earth. Also, we show the meaning of the accretion of carbonaceous of the outer part of the asteroid belt (Robert, 2001). This is in
chondrites to evolve into life-sustaining planet. Our 2-step forma- contrast to the hydrogen in the ocean being H2 gas from the pri-
tional model of the Earth (Fig. 3C), which we refer to as the advent mordial nebula, in which case the primordial ocean would have
of bio-elements (ABEL) model, provides an overarching explanation formed when the magma ocean solidified through the extensive
of the whole process of the Earth from its formation to its eventual reaction between H2 gas with oxygen from the rocky planet or
habitable state supported by both material science and chrono- magma ocean. This latter explanation for Earth’s water, however, is
logical consideration. not supported by the above D/H information.
2. Facts given through previous research 2.2. Oxygen isotopic signature of an enstatite-chondrite marking
the origin of the solid Earth
2.1. D/H signature of a carbonaceous-chondrite marking the origin
of Earth’s water Carbonaceous chondrites have long been considered to be the
source material of the Earth (e.g. Latimer, 1950; Urey, 1952), mainly
Water of Earth’s ocean, fresh water from lakes, crustal water, because they reasonably explain the origin of its atmospheric and
and mantle-derived water all have a deuterium/hydrogen (D/H) oceanic components. However, if the Earth was formed from only
value of (149 3) 106 (Lécuyer et al., 1998). On the other hand, carbonaceous chondrite, then the Earth should have a greater
Figure 3. Models for the Hadean Earth-Moon system: (A) the presence of anorthositic primordial continents and ocean on the Earth, but neither an ocean nor atmosphere on the
Moon immediately following the giant impact; (B) komatiitic and basaltic (not anorthositic) primordial crusts on the Earth covered by an ocean, while the Moon comprising an
anorthositic primordial continent, believed by most geologists; and (C) our newly proposed 2-step formation ABEL model of the Earth-Moon system, with Earth being completely
dry during its initial formation at 4.53 Ga, with subsequent accretion of the atmospheric and oceanic components at 4.4 Ga.
amount of ocean on its surface. Even though the water content of research. In a recent study, Herwartz et al. (2014) showed a subtle
carbonaceous chondrite can vary from 2% to 20%, theoretical cal- difference of D17O between the Moon and the Earth:
culations show that the Earth would have a 400 km-deep ocean if D17OMoon D17OEarth ¼ 0.012&. Also, enstatite chondrites and the
formed by the former minimum. If it is in the case of the latter Earth have different D17O values: D17OEC D17OEarth ¼ 0.050&. It is
maximum, then the ocean’s depth would reach 4000 km. Even if highly likely that the formation process of the Earth and Moon is
the bulk silicate Earth (BSE) can be explained by carbonaceous the cause. Both planetary bodies cannot follow an exact formation
chondrites in a general sense, volatile elements of the Earth are pathway because while the source material is the same, accreted
inconsistent with carbonaceous chondrite. materials introduced during a subsequent stage will lead to
Crucial binding requirement is provided from the oxygen iso- compositional variance. Even though there is such difference in
topic composition. According to the ratio of dO and d18O of oxygen resulting planetary composition, it does not deny that the source
isotope, that of the Earth plots on the line called terrestrial frac- material of the Earth and Moon is enstatite chondrite-like material.
tionation (TF), whereas carbonaceous chondrite, ordinary chon- Moreover, other elemental isotopic compositions have been
drite, and R chondrite plot away from TF. This indicates that the investigated, which include nitrogen (Javoy and Pineau, 1983, 1991;
origin of solid Earth is enstatite chondrite-like material rather than Javoy et al., 1984, 1986; Cartigny et al., 1997), molybdenum and
carbonaceous chondrite material (Fig. 5) (Clayton et al., 1984; Javoy, ruthenium (Dauphas et al., 2004), osmium (Meisel et al., 1996), and
1995; Clayton and Mayeda, 1999; Javoy et al., 2010). Additionally, radiogenic 53Cr and non-radiogenic 54Cr (Birck et al., 1999;
considering the oxygen isotopic composition of the Earth, EH Trinquier et al., 2007). The details of these investigations, which
chondrite is the most likely origin of solid Earth due to the differ- are summarized in Javoy et al. (2010), support that the solid Earth
ence in iron content (Urey and Craig, 1953; Clayton and Mayeda, formed dominantly by enstatite chondrite material.
1996; Javoy, 1998). Enstatite chondrite is distributed to the inner One of the most important considerations in the analyses of
most area of the asteroid belt, which is around 2 AU, according to elemental isotopes is that they can only be used to evaluate the
spectroscopic observation (e.g. Kallemeyn and Wasson, 1986). The model explaining how the Earth or Moon was formed. In other
Earth locates at 1 AU from the Sun. Therefore, there is no doubt that words, elemental isotope information cannot provide the story of
the original material of Earth was completely dry, although the planetary formation through time, because such information is only
proof of the bulk chemical composition will be a subject for further a “snapshot” of the planetary conditions at that specific time. For
Figure 4. The origin of water on the Earth. The D/H of Earth’s ocean approximates the value of carbonaceous chondrite, while distinct from the analyzed D/H of either the solar
atmosphere at 4.5 Ga or of a comet (Robert, 2001).
example, Dauphas et al. (2004) performed a mass balance calcula- hypothesis is necessary to test and verify. So far, a number of re-
tion and concluded that the terrestrial isotopic composition was well searchers have approached this enigmatic question using varied
reproduced by a mixture of 91% enstatite, 7% ordinary, and 2% analytical data, as mentioned in the introduction part. These data are
carbonaceous chondrites. His estimate is regarded as reasonable in undoubtedly critical to validate the model, and all of them are
terms of the mixing ratio of source meteorites of the Earth, but it consistent with the ABEL model (described later).
does not indicate the accretion process. On the other hand, the
composition of the Earth has been changing through time. Even if 2.3. Earth and Moon have the same origin
the collected sample for analysis had undoubtedly originated from
the Earth, whether the sample reflects the composition of the source Oxygen isotopic compositions of both the Earth and the Moon
rock of the primitive Earth or more recent rocks generated from the plot on the TF line (Clayton and Mayeda, 1996; Newton et al., 2000),
mantle material, which are well mixed by convection, remains un- suggesting that both have the same origin (Fig. 5). This fact does not
known. As such, the process of sample collection is critical to discuss fit with the giant impact theory, which explains that the Moon was
the history of the Earth. Also, reproducing a combination of varied made by the collision between a Mars-sized impactor recently
types of chondrites shows that analysis of only one example cannot named Theia (Halliday, 2000) and proto-earth (Hartmann and Davis,
determine the accretion process of planetary bodies. Therefore, to 1975; Cameron and Ward, 1976; Wetherill, 1986). Ringwood (1989a)
reveal the origin of the Earth and its accretion process followed by rejected this model based on three reasons separately from oxygen
the Moon-forming event, as a long-standing mystery, a working isotopic composition. They are: (1) a low intrinsic dynamical
Figure 5. Oxygen isotopic composition. (A) Plots of isotopic compositions of oxygen, in which case enstatite chondrite plots on the terrestrial fractionation (TF) line, while ordinary
and carbonaceous chondrites do not. (B) Plots of isotopic compositions of oxygen for Mars, the Moon, and Vesta. The Moon plots on TF line corresponding to the Earth. Figure was
modified after and Clayton (2003) and Krot et al. (2005) (courtesy by Yoshinori Tange).
Figure 6. Geochronology of the Solar System, asteroid belt, the Moon, and Earth during the Hadean. The gas envelope dispersed within the first 3 million years after the CAI
formation, and presumably rocky planets had formed by 4.55 Ga, which is the solidification age of the Moon’s magma ocean. The LHB event dominantly occurred at 4.20e4.37 Ga.
probability, (2) a giant impact, which would cause the geochemical of the surface of the Moon should be representative of the early
signature to be quite different from that of current Earth, and (3) the stage of planetary evolution of the Earth.
collision mechanics causing the Moon to be derived mainly from the According to the research using lunar rocks returned to Earth
impactor’s mantle, which is contrary to the geochemical evidences during the Apollo program, the lunar surface is revealed to be
that suggest protolunar material was derived from the Earth’s covered by anorthosite (PAN, MAN, FAN), KREEP basalt, komatiite,
mantle. A reasonable alternative to the giant impact theory is the Fe-Ti basalts, and also a unique mineral, schreibersite (highly
impact-induced fission model in which case a small planetary body reduced phosphorous mineral) (Wood et al., 1970; Taylor and Jakes,
brushed the magma ocean of the Earth’ mantle to form the Moon 1974; Snyder et al.,1992; Krotev, 2005; Boyet and Carlson, 2007). The
(Hartmann and Davis, 1975; Ringwood, 1989b). Or, a glancing uranium (U), lead (Pb), and phosphorus (P) are known to be left in
planetary body would be able to give a similar effect to eject Earth’s final residue of the magma ocean through crystal fractionation (Borg
mantle into orbit (Wänke and Dreibus, 1988; O’Neill, 1991). Clearly, et al., 2004; Pasek, 2015). Therefore, after the consolidation of the
the consistency of the oxygen isotopic composition does not satis- magma ocean, the lunar surface was enriched in these elements, as
factorily support the giant impact hypothesis. observed. In other words, the surface of the early Earth (in Hadean)
Accepting the fact that the origin of the Earth and Moon was the also had similar conditions that resulted in the geology of the Moon.
same, the cooling ratio and evolutional speed of each planetary
body is clearly different due to the size. However, both planetary 2.4. Hadean geochronology of the Earth, Moon, asteroid belt, and
bodies must follow the same mechanism of planetary evolution, solar system
from viewpoints of physics and geochemistry. The Moon had
cooled down quickly due to its small size by 1.5 billion years after its The Hadean rocks are now absent on the Earth while such
formation, with activity mostly terminated at this time, except for “Hadean” rocks are exposed dominantly on the lunar surface, as a
mainly minor gas extraction. In other words, the geological record result of the contrasting size of the two planetary bodies. The mass
Figure 7. The process of planetary formation. The meteorite parent body grows through time, and its body becomes differentiated. Once the parent body is destructed, its fragments
with varying rock characteristics and geochemistry appear. This is the origin of a variety of meteorites with different alteration.
of the Earth is ca. 80 times larger than Moon. Therefore, the smaller earliest history of the Earth while growing from a nebula gas through
Moon quickly cooled to form primordial continents on the surface, to the Earth-Moon system. A summary of the Hadean history of the
whereas the larger Earth continues to have a hot mantle, which Solar System to elucidate the history of Earth is shown in Fig. 6,
activates mantle convection to drive plate tectonics and generate depicting the early evolution of the Solar System soon after its birth;
extensive magmatism at both plate boundaries and hotspots. On this includes the formation of calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions
the Moon, however, silicate magmatism stopped at ca. 3.0 Ga. To (CAI) initiating at 4567 0.6 Ma, which was slightly earlier than
argue what kind of rocks were present on the Hadean Earth (e.g. chondrules (Amelin et al., 2002, 2010).
komatiite, fractionated basalts (Elkins-Tanton, 2008), primordial The formation of planetesimals must be earlier than the growth of
continental crust such as anorthosite (pure anorthosite, mafic and asteroids such as Vesta-like planetary bodies ca. 500 km in diameter.
ferroan anorthosite), KREEP basalts (gabbros) and others (Santosh An assumed parental body of HED meteorites, and those equivalents
et al., 2017)), experimental, petrologic, and geophysical consider- have been dated by Pb isotopes (Hopkins et al., 2015). The formation
ations are crucial for determining lunar geology, petrology, and and eruption of basaltic melt on asteroids can be dated 3e5 millions
geochronology. years after CAI formation (Fig. 7) (Lugmair and Marti, 1977; Steiger
Nevertheless, the early Hadean records on the Moon are poorly and Jäger, 1977; Smoliar et al., 1996), which strongly constrain the
preserved because of Late Heavy Bombardments (LHB) (Mottmann, age of the planetary formation. In spite of the relatively small size of
1977). This is due to the excavation of the lunar surface at mantle the planetary bodies (radius being less than 100 km), their deep
depths up to more than 100 km by bombardment followed by mantle can be heated up to 1200 C through the decay of 26Al to
shock metamorphism under a hydrous condition to cause ultra- generate basaltic melting. Moreover, the fragmentation of asteroids to
high temperature metamorphic recrystallization (e.g. Hopkins expose the metallic core, which results in iron meteorites, and deep
and Mojzsis, 2015). The LHB event, thus, caused the obliteration mantle in differentiated asteroids would give a quench timing at 4 K in
of the earliest records on the Moon including the solidification of the Universe; the result gives an earliest age to be less than 8 million
the magma ocean; therefore, the solidification age of the Moon is years after the formation of CAI (Fig. 7). Assuming the initiation of
still controversial, while it is presumably at 4.46 0.04 Ga (Norman fragmentation, instead of continuous growth to a much larger
et al., 2003) but remaining indeterminate (Borg et al., 2015) (Fig. 6). asteroid, reflects the dispersion of enveloping H2 nebular gas out-
Hence, geology, petrology, and geochemistry of the asteroid belt wards in the Solar System; the youngest age 3e4 Myr would give the
and the geochronology of meteorites will help to understand the minimum age of hydrogen gas escape at the asteroid belt. The Earth-
Moon system at 1.0 AU must have been stripped of the gas envelope solidification age of the Moon’s magma ocean. The LHB event
less than 3e4 million years after CAI formation (Fig. 7). occurred dominantly in an estimated period of time ranging from
The LHB event has been well measured through analyses of the 4.37 to 4.20 Ga, long after the consolidation of the magma ocean at
Apollo samples, not only by Ar/Ar dating, but also zircon U-Pb 4.53 Ga. Such a picture of planetary formation is generally consis-
dating. Fig. 8 is a summary of zircon dating by U-Pb isotope system tent with the Tandem Planet Formation model (Ebisuzaki and
compiled by Borg et al. (2015) and Hopkins and Mojzsis (2015). Imaeda, submitted), which describes planets being rapidly
Landing sites are also shown in the index map in Fig. 8. The zircon formed within the first 106 years at two distinct sites where the
dates largely range between 4.20 Ga and 4.37 Ga with minor age boundaries of a magnetorotational instability suppressed regions of
peaks up to 3.9e3.8 Ga. Some grains clearly indicate crystallization the proto-planetary disk. Since the rocky planets were theorized to
from impact melt, thus demonstrating precise impact ages (i.e., have formed at the inner site (less than 1e1.5 AU), the temperature
4.37 Ga as the oldest). Several ages of the Apollo samples dating would have been as high as 1000e1300 K, and the volatiles
back to 4.53 Ga do not satisfy multiple isotope systematics, prob- completely liberated. The icy material accumulated at the outer
ably due to the ultra-high temperature (UHT) heating by shocked formation site (5e30 AU), on the other hand, would have been
impact heating over 1600 C, which exceeds the zircon melting impeded from entering the inner Solar System within 1 AU until the
temperature (Hopkins and Mojzsis, 2015). Noteworthy is the rela- velocity dispersion of the planetesimals had sufficiently increased
tively long lasting LHB over 170 million years (Fig. 7). due to gravitational interaction after gas dispersion.
Summarizing the history of the Solar System, the gas envelop The Earth has nearly completely lost its record of the earlier
dispersed within the first 3 million years after the CAI formation, events, with only zircon ages remaining which yield information
and presumably the rocky planets (i.e., Mercury, Venus, Earth, and consistent with that of the Moon dating back to 4.37 Ga. For this
Mars) had grown by 4.55 Ga, which is assumed based on the reason, the Early Hadean events are extrapolated from information
Figure 8. Lunar events documented by zircon ages derived from Apollo samples (after Borg et al., 2015) acquired during the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Apollo program at the various landing sites. (A) Histogram of ages derived from the lunar samples (Borg et al., 2015). (B) Plot of isochron ages of rocks from the lunar highlands
versus a reliability index of age determination (see Borg et al., 2015 in details). (C) Landing sites of the Apollo missions. (Credit: NASA).
remaining in the asteroid belt (meteorites), LHB records on the Additionally, the important concept hidden in the background is
Moon, and detrital Hadean zircons from Western Australia’s Jack Habitable Trinity (Dohm and Maruyama, 2015). To emerge life on
Hills metasedimentary rocks dated at 3.0 Ga (e.g. Borg et al., 2015). the Earth, there is no doubt that the Earth must have water, but the
Tarduno et al. (2015) has reported the oldest yet observed rela- presence of water itself does not mean the birth of life, as has long
tively strong geomagnetic field recorded within 4.2 Ga zircons from been the view since the 1950s (e.g., Strughold, 1953; Huang, 1959,
Jack Hills. In addition, 4.1 Ga organic carbons within magmatic zircons 1960; Dole, 1964; Shklovski and Sagan, 1966; Kasting et al., 1993).
give the oldest recorded presence of primitive life (Bell et al., 2015). To synthesize the building blocks of life (amino acid, protein, and
Mineral inclusions within Hadean zircons suggest the presence of any other organic compounds), it is necessary to have atmospheric
TTG (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite) melts (Wilde et al., 2001; and landmass components in addition to a water component. At the
Valley et al., 2002), probably reflects the operation of plate tec- same time, these three components (atmosphere, ocean, and
tonics, including the presence of liquid water, back to 4.37 Ga. landmass), interacting through hydrological cycling driven by the
Sun, need to continue numerous steps of chemical reactions to
3. The proposal of the ABEL model produce more complex organic compounds. This is the pass to
reach the birth of life. Here, we emphasize that the initial ocean
Here, we propose a self-consistent and comprehensive model mass must be very limited to enable landmass to appear over the
explaining the formation of the Earth since its early evolution that ocean to source nutrient for life and to initiate plate tectonics
can fit all observational results delivered from material science. (Maruyama et al., 2013). The concept of Habitable Trinity will be the
most significant index for the exploration of life in the Universe,
3.1. Formation of dry Earth at 4.56 Ga which will be replacing the habitable zone concept.
As the Earth’s orbit was far inside the snowline (2.7 AU) when it 4. Evidences to support the ABEL model
formed, the main constituent material of the Earth must be
enstatite chondrite-like, and thus the Earth-Moon system which 4.1. Late veneer or late heavy bombardment (LHB) and its
formed at 4.56 Ga had no atmosphere and ocean components, but chronology
rather a completely reductive environment (Maruyama et al., 2013)
(Fig. 9). P and U are left in a final residue through the consolidation Platinum group elements (PGEs) strongly correlate with the
of a magma ocean, so that the surface of the Earth had schreibersite presence of iron, therefore almost all of the PGEs were moved to the
(Fe3P) and U deposits universally at its surface, which is similar to core in the very first stage of the segregation of the Earth’s core,
the observed lunar surface even though being severely modified by theoretically (e.g. Ringwood, 1966; Ringwood and Kesson, 1977).
bombardment. However, the abundance of PGEs in the modern upper mantle
derived from lamproite magma is high; for example, a mean Ir
3.2. Birth of a Habitable Trinity planet by ABEL Bombardment abundance is 3.5 0.5 and Ir abundance is 0.0009*CI
chondrites (Becker et al., 2006). This suggests that the highly
At 4.37 Ga, a large amount of carbonaceous chondrite bombarded siderophile elements were delivered secondarily after the Earth’s
the solid reductive Earth due to gravitational scattering by three gas core had been segregated. Thus the “late veneer” model appeared
giants including Jupiter and Saturn (Nesvorný, 2011; Cloutier et al., to explain the relatively high PGEs in the primitive mantle peri-
2015), and this event delivered atmospheric and oceanic compo- dotite. One of the most remarkable points of this idea is to be able to
nents to the dry Earth for the first time (Albarède, 2009; Maruyama also explain that the terrestrial water originated from the “late
et al., 2013). Following the delivery of oxidized components onto the veneer” event as well as the PGEs, because meteorites should have
reductive Earth, the explosive chemical reaction had begun (Pasek contained both volatiles including water components and PGEs.
et al., 2007), which initiated the prebiotic chemical evolution lead- The original proposal of the late veneer scenario was by Anders
ing to the emergence of life (Fig. 10). Due to the delivery of the life- (1968). This event was discussed by Wänke (1981) who suggested
constituent elements on the Earth, we name this model the advent that the Earth’s accretion started with highly reductive material
of bio-elements (ABEL) model, with the bombardment event that which gradually transitioned into more oxidized material, based on
delivered the bio-elements being named ABEL Bombardment. If this the model by Ringwood (1960, 1966, 1977, 1979). Their model, as
event had not occurred, life would not have emerged on the Earth. inhomogeneous accretion with two end-member materials, was
Therefore, ABEL Bombardment is the most important event for this furthermore improved by Ringwood (1984), Wänke and Dreibus
planet to evolve into a habitable planet. (1988), Carr and Wänke (1992) and Ringwood (1992), but the
The most significant point of our ABEL model is the formation of model was not chronologically well-constrained in addition to vague
a completely dry Earth as the first step. The completely reductive processes during the gradual accretion of reductive and oxidized
Earth is followed by secondary accretion of oxidized elements such materials as two end-members. Recently, Albarède (2009) concluded
as C, H, O, and N, which created an atmosphere and ocean following that the late veneer occurred at 4.4 Ga based on both U-Pb and I-Xe
the ABEL Bombardment. Previous works suggested inhomogeneous ages. He explained that the planetary formation process started at the
accretion by two end members of reductive and oxidizing materials T-Tauri phase of the Sun based on U-Pb dating, suggesting 4.56 Ga as
(Wänke and Dreibus, 1988). But they theorized a gradual shift of the oldest age of CAI. The timing of segregation of the Earth’s core
materials from dry to being oxidized, which is in stark contrast to should have been 4.53 Ga by Hf-W dating. This is 30 million years after
our newly proposed ABEL model, which clearly indicates two the T-Tauri phase, equivalent to the time of the consolidation of the
distinct steps with the first step being the formation of a completely lunar magma ocean (see a summary by Borg et al. (2015)).
dry Earth followed by the accretion of volatiles through ABEL On the other hand, the chronology of LHB has also long been dis-
Bombardment to form a second-step oxidized Earth enveloped by cussed. Schaffer and Schaeffer (1977) provided the peak age of bom-
ocean and atmosphere. Moreover, the mixing of both reductive and bardments, called cataclysm, as 4.0e3.9 Ga based on K-Ar dating using
oxidizing materials on the surface of the Earth was critical to samples from the landing sites of Apollo missions 14, 16, and 17. Also,
initiating prebiotic chemical evolution. In other words, life would other recent chronological studies are summarized in Fig. 11, sug-
not have emerged if the dry reductive Earth had not formed during gesting (1) an exponential decay model (Neukum and Ivanov, 1994;
the first step. Neukum et al., 2001), (2) multiple cataclysms as several distinct
Figure 9. Progressive chemical zonation of the Solar System at ca. 4.56 Ga. Progressive chemical zoning of proto-planetary mineral dusts in the nebula disc is seen as a function of
distance from the Sun (AU). Organic matters at 2.1 AU (Kouchi et al., 2002), snowline at 2.7 AU (170 K) (Hayashi, 1981), CO2 at 10 AU, and CO at 40 AU are shown (Öberg et al., 2011;
Schwarz and Bergin, 2014), with a clay mineral line assumed to occur at 1.9 AU. Note that the inner stability limit of the hydrous phase is at 1.8e1.9 AU, quite far from AU ¼ 1 where
Earth was formed under a completely dry condition. The major rock type of proto-Earth was enstatite chondrite-like, as inferred from the oxygen isotope ratio, but in reality plus Ca-
and Al- and Mg-components are also necessary (Javoy et al., 2010). The inner part of icy planet evolved to gas giants which have grown to icy planets larger than 10 MRE (mean
radius of the Earth) to keep nebular gas around the seed not to escape H2 gas (Ebisuzaki and Imaeda, submitted). These gas giants are Jupiter and Saturn, and presumably one more
at least to cause three-planet resonance. This caused heavy bombardment (ABEL Bombardment; mentioned in Section 4.2) at 4.37 Ga, which continued for more than 170 million
years (Fig. 6). Presence of a series of volatile isograds suggests the progressive chemical zonation of planets even in the Kuiper belt.
bombardment episodes (Tera et al., 1974), (3) sawtooth cataclysm LHB occurred at about 4.10 Ga, but it is more likely that the LHB period
having peak bombardment at 4100 Ma (Morbidelli et al., 2012), and was 4.37e4.20 Ga with minor additional peaks until 3.90 Ga based on
(4) the unimodal cataclysm known as LHB (Ryder, 1990, 2002) (refer zircon dating utilizing Apollo samples by Borg et al. (2015) and
to Zahnle et al., 2007). Recently, Hopkins and Mojzsis (2015) analyzed Hopkins and Mojzsis (2015).
a large number of zircons from lunar samples and showed (6) cu- Based on these two evidences listed above for late veneer and
mulative age-frequency plots of Apollo 14’s zircon 207Pb/206Pb, LHB, which were recently delivered from more accurate isotopic
comparing to (5) previously determined zircon ages by Nemchin et al. analysis, it can be said that the late veneer and LHB are actually the
(2009, 2010) and Taylor et al. (2009). 207Pb/206Pb ages can yield highly same event, which delivered water components as well as PGEs. In
accurate chronological results, therefore a frequency and peak age this paper, to clarify the chronology of the event and to emphasize
based from 207Pb/206Pb gives an almost exact timing of the LHB. This the nature of the bombardment to deliver oceanic and atmospheric
age also represents the recrystallized age of zircons by bombardment, components for the emergence of life, we redefine this bombard-
as the surface rocks had melted due to intense bombardment and ment event as ABEL Bombardment, which occurred during
recrystallized with the temperature above 1600 C. According to Borg 4.37e4.20 Ga in the middle of Hadean time (Fig. 11). The ABEL event
et al. (2015) and Hopkins and Mojzsis (2015), the accurate period of is proposed as an unifying model to explain the LHB/late veneer,
the LHB is now concluded to be 4.37e4.20 Ga, which is the middle of which includes the abundance of PGEs in the mantle and the supply
the Hadean, with a minor peak appearing until 3.9 Ga. Therefore, the of water on the Earth to lead the pathway to the emergence of life.
LHB event was much older than the previously proposed 3.8e4.0 Ga. From this aspect, ABEL Bombardment is the most critical event
In other words, this bombardment event is not “late” in the early through the Earth’s history to be a habitable planet.
Archean, rather “middle” in the Hadean time. This result is almost
coincident with the result delivered by Albarède (2009). Also taking 4.2. Oxidized mantle by the ABEL event derived from the redox state
into consideration that there is general tendency for K-Ar dating to of zircon
show younger ages than actual ones, estimated to be about 200
million years, as well as this method no longer being regarded as the Another observational fact supporting our ABEL model is given
best method to indicate the age, a doubt about LHB timing has risen. by the graph by Yang et al. (2014) for the redox condition of zircon
Schaffer and Schaeffer (1977) determined that the LHB period was (Fig. 12). By analyzing the redox condition of zircon, which was
4.0e3.9 Ga, but this is consistent with a general tendency for K-Ar crystallized from the host magma after the formation of the Earth
dating to show a younger age. Marchi et al. (2014) proposed that the until now through utilizing the difference between Ce3þ and Ce4þ
Figure 10. Origin of the Earth formed through two steps of our newly proposed ABEL model. The Earth was formed first as dry planet dominated by enstatite chondrite-like source
materials, followed by accretion by carbonaceous chondrite material during ABEL Bombardment events during 4.37 Ga to 4.20 Ga. The ABEL Bombardment event delivered bio-
elements to the Earth.
(Fig. 12), they showed the redox ratio of the host magma between An inhomogeneous density of crater distribution causes an
4.4 Ga and modern day. Their results indicated that a value between inhomogeneous distribution of temperature due to heating by the
10 and 900 for the past 3.5 Ga, while the Hadean ratio between 2 underlying mantle, which causes more accelerated mantle con-
and 20 on average, showing that there was a gradual transition of vection. In Fig. 13, the right side of the Earth is meant to be heated
the redox ratio between 4.4 Ga and 3.5 Ga from 2 to 100. Fig. 12A selectively due to bombardments. At this stage, the primordial
shows the texture of the oldest (4.4 Ga) zircon. The age of this Earth was accreted to the size of the current Earth, which had
oldest zircon may be incorrect, possibly as old as 4.37 Ga, in part already had a thick primordial continent consisting of anorthosite
judging from the textural evidence that a single zircon crystal is and KREEP basalt and Komatiite. The underlying lower mantle is
dominated by heterogeneous domains, and a single 4.4 Ga spot thought to have been anhydrous during this period, with the region
never indicates the oldest core of a zoned crystal. Fig. 12B clearly underlying the lower mantle where basal magma ocean might have
shows that the older zircon records a more reductive compositional existed or had already solidified.
magma in Hadean time which gradually oxidized through time.
This also indicates that volatiles as oxidizing agents, in particular 5. Discussion
water components, were delivered and added to the mantle since
4.4 Ga. Robert et al. (1992) also explained internal mixing between 5.1. Advantages of the ABEL model and overcoming the difficulties
surface and mantle had well progressed to be homogeneous from a of previously proposed models
particular viewpoint of oxygen isotopic compositions, which is
consistent with the oxidation event that we have suggested above. The formation of an ocean and atmosphere has long been
Fig. 13 shows the image of a cross section of the Hadean Earth considered to be contemporaneous with the primary accretion of
when vasts amount of carbonaceous chondrites from the outer planetesimals, such as the primary accretion of the Earth, while the
asteroid belt bombarded the Earth during 4.37e4.20 Ga due to subsequent Moon-forming giant impact would have likely changed
gravitational scattering by gas-giant triplets further discussed the total amount of volatile (e.g. Safronov (1969, 1972), Kyoto model
below. When asteroids or small planetary bodies enriched in vol- by Hayashi et al. (1985), improved Kyoto models by Abe and Matsui
atiles bombarded the Earth, projectile material and target material (1986, 1988), and more recently advanced N-body simulation
were instantaneously converted to gas to be part of a primordial models by Kokubo and Ida (1995) or Ida et al. (2001)). All of them
atmosphere in the impact-induced “fire event”, along with the deemed the formation process of the Earth as a synchronous event
formation of a few to 1000 km-diameter craters on the Earth’s of the solid Earth and its ocean.
surface. Upon cooling, micrometer- to millimeter-sized, fine- Recognizing the presence and meaning of the snowline at 2.7 AU,
grained particles solidified from the gas to eventually descend to far outside of 1 AU of the Earth’s orbit, Oka et al. (2011) interpreted
and accumulate on the Earth’s surface. The heat energy induced by that the snowline migrated through time so as to deliver small
the impact in the mantle or shallower parts of the crust would then amounts of water to the Earth at 1 AU based on several assumptions.
be absorbed into the solid Earth. If intense bombardment had However, if so, then what about Mars which exists nearer to snow-
occurred, the upper mantle would heat up to melt through sub- line than the Earth? Mars must have been exposed to the accretion of
sequent mantle rebound. This process is consistent with the icy components during a much longer time to have accumulated
observation that most impact craters have central peaks, which more water components on its surface. However, the observed
mark the rebound of a ductile deep interior with or without mag- Martian surface from the Noachian period to modern-day does not
matism (e.g. Jahn and Riller, 2009; Spray et al., 2010). support the idea of a migrating snowline. Instead, relatively small
Figure 11. The newly proposed ABEL Bombardment model occurring roughly between 4.4e4.2 Ga. According to recent analysis by Hopkins and Mojzsis (2015), the actual age of the
LHB is 4.4e4.2 Ga, rather than the commonly cited age of 3.8e4.0 Ga.
amounts of water have been reported for Mars, generally referred to contradiction as in the case of the migrating snowline by Oka et al.
as Oceanus Borealis (Baker et al., 1991), and Carr and Wänke (1992) (2011).
also estimated only ca. 400 m-deep ocean could have formed if ice or Contrary to the above models, the ABEL model can overcome
water between the grain boundaries in surface sediments less than a these difficulties, including the supply of a very limited amount of
10 km depth was squeezed out to Martian surface, which is a water and other volatiles observed on the terrestrial planets. It was
significantly small amount comparing to the ocean mass of the Albarède (2009) who first pointed out that there must have been a
Earth. Moreover, the migration of the snowline from 2.7 to 1 AU delivery of volatile components completely after the consolidation
seems to be too unrealistic to have occurred during the final stage of of the Earth’s magma ocean based on isotopic measurements of U-
planet formation. Therefore, migration of the snowline does not Pb and I-Xe. Nevertheless, he did not stress the significance of the
yield a rational explanation for other planets or the distribution late arrival of volatiles in terms of the ocean’s birth. The ABEL model
pattern of the asteroid belt. not only gives a satisfactory explanation for the formation process
Since the first discovery of exoplanets in 1995, observational of the solid Earth, ocean, and atmosphere, but also informs on the
research has rapidly progressed, with more than 4700 exoplanets origin of the parent bodies that yielded the Earth’s composition. Yet
including candidates having been found as of 2016 (http:// another advantage is that the ABEL model has no conflicts with
exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu/docs/counts_detail.html). Perhaps other observational facts. Finally and most critically, the ABEL
what has been the most surprising is the presence of Super-Earths and model provides the means for the initiation of the prebiotic
Hot Jupiters, which have been observed to be common in the Uni- chemical evolution which led to the emergence of life on the Earth,
verse. In particular, the discovery of a Hot Jupiter orbiting around because of the mixing of reductive material and oxidized material
0.3 AU from the central star (nearly Mercury’s orbit of our solar sys- during the theorized ABEL event.
tem) had not been envisioned. Some researchers assume that these
observational facts should indicate the migration of planets following 5.2. ABEL Bombardment and accreted water component
their formation. For example, Walsh et al. (2011) proposed the Grand
Tack model, suggesting that all volatiles were transported from Through productive discussions of the abundance of PGEs in the
5e10 AU with both Jupiter and Saturn to within Mars’s orbit (i.e., mantle, the amount of accreted PGEs which accumulated during
1.5 AU) along with their driven migration of both planetesimals and late veneer event (equivalent to ABEL Bombardment as detailed
asteroids. However, this model contains a serious contradiction in that above) has been calculated. Fig. 14 shows three estimates of the
too much water must have been accumulated on the terrestrial rocky total mass of accreted materials (CI chondrite), derived from
planets, such as the Earth-Moon system and Mars. On the contrary, the respective assumptions. Morgan et al. (2001) estimated an accreted
Earth has only 0.023 wt.% of water against the whole Earth. Moreover, mass of meteorites (totaling 0.5 1022 kg) based on: (1) the pro-
the remaining original chemical zonation in the asteroid belt from 1.9 portion that accounts for gravitational focusing of impactors
to 5.0 AU never supported such extensive disturbance by the inward (Earth:Moon ¼ w50:1); (2) the amount of impactor mass that
migration of the gas giants from 5e10 AU to 1.5 AU, with subsequent created the lunar impact basins with ca. 1 1020 kg; and (3) an
return back to 5e10 AU. Likewise, the Grand Tack model has a similar average geocentric impact velocity (6 km/s) of the impactors which
Figure 12. (A) Cathodoluminescence image of zircon by Wilde et al. (2001). (B) Chondrite-normalized Ce-anomalies of zircons by Yang et al. (2014). Left picture shows a part of a
zircon dated to be 4.40 4 million years old, while other parts show younger ages some of which near 4.20 Ga. The right figure indicates the redox state of the mantle of the Earth,
which had gradually oxidized through time (as indicated by the red circle).
created impact basins (Bandermann and Singer, 1973) with size water is present, as shown by both the Tagish Lake and Murchison
estimates of the major impact basins on the Moon. chondrites.
If accreted materials were of average carbonaceous-chondrite When comparing these three estimations, the amounts of
composition with 20 wt.% water, then the total mass of accreted accreted materials through the bombardment have an order of
water (0.1 1022 kg) approximates the mass of the Hadean ocean magnitude difference. However, we are able to say conversely that
(0.16 1022 kg) estimated by Maruyama and Liou (2005) and the estimation is only an order of magnitude difference, and it is not
Maruyama et al. (2013). The latter Hadean-ocean estimate was too far from the assumption based on researches of the whole
calculated based on geological constraints from the 3.9 Ga Isua, Earth history.
3.5 Ga Pilbara, and Barberton terrains by Maruyama et al. (2013). If
0.16 1022 kg of ocean mass was given by Morgan’s estimated
amount of chondrite, the water content of carbonaceous chondrite 5.3. The clue for the origin of Earth’s water: the chemical zoning in
would be 32 wt.%. the asteroid belt, formation of asteroids, and its destruction by
If ABEL Bombardment lasted 170 million years, we estimate that collision
an increasing rate of the sea-level would have been 17 mm/
1000 year. In addition, if the density of chondrite is assumed to be Chemically inhomogeneous distribution of asteroids in the Solar
3.44 g/cm3 (Macke et al., 2011), we reckon that the rock powder System has been already described in various papers, based on
made by accreted chondrite would have accumulated at a rate of planetary formation theory starting from solar nebula (e.g., sum-
17 mm/1000 year. Furthermore, by simply comparing to the sedi- mary given by Smith (1982)). Roughly speaking, the inner part of
mentation rate of deep sea sediments like chert at 1 mm/ the Solar System is occupied by reductive material, while oxidizing
1000 year. We calculate that the accretion rate of rock powder of material increase towards the outer margin. This can be explained
chondrite is about 20 times faster than the general sedimentation as the function of the temperature depending on the distance from
which has been occurring on the surface of the Earth during the the Sun (Fig. 9).
Phanerozoic. Our future strategy is to reveal planetary formation mechanism,
Likewise, two other estimations by Becker et al. (2006) and with the key being to understand the remaining unknown chemical
Walker (2009) are described below. Becker et al. (2006) estimated a zoning in the Solar System. Such unknown zones are not where
total accreted mass of meteorites (0.3e0.5) 1022 kg, based on the planets had formed, but rather the asteroid belt where huge planets
systematics given by impact crater diameter, impactor mass, and could not form. As related knowledge, the existence of the snowline
impact velocity, which require the value between 30 and 50 as an at 2.7 AU under 170 K (phase change boundary from H2O gas to H2O
Earth/Moon mass influx ratio. Becker et al. (2006) finally concluded ice) is already known, originally estimated by calculation (Hayashi,
that the total mass accreted to the Moon was about 1 1020 kg and 1981) and is regarded as the function of the distance from the Sun.
that to Earth about (0.3e0.5) 1022 kg, which is equivalent to the Likewise, an organic line has been estimated to occur at 2.1 AU
0.1% total mass of the Earth. On the other hand, Walker (2009) (Kouchi et al., 2002) and a clay mineral line at 1.9 AU. Additionally,
utilized more specific elemental data, such as Ir and Os, to esti- for any elemental compound such as NH3 at 5 AU under 57 K, CO2 at
mate the accreted total amount of highly siderophile elements 10 AU under 42e52 K, HCN at 17 AU under 38 K, and CO at 40 AU
(HSE). According to his estimation, if volatile-rich carbonaceous under 18e22 K (Öberg et al., 2011; Schwarz and Bergin, 2014)
chondrites bombarded the Earth, the total mass could be as much (Fig. 9), there are chemical-compound boundary lines within the
as 3 1022 kg. If the Hadean ocean mass is given by this amount of Solar System. Such boundary lines for each compound define the
chondrite, the water content of CI chondrite is reckoned to be chemical composition of planet where planetary bodies form, as a
19 wt.%. These estimates seem to be consistent with progressive function of temperature. This method is backed by the concept of
zonation of a hydrous phase in the modern asteroid belt which is regional metamorphism, which is a common concept for geologists,
dry at 2.0 AU, relatively limited amounts of water up to 2.7 AU, and and it can explain metasomatic-metamorphic recrystallization of
increasing water to the outer margin at 5.0 AU where ca. 20 wt.% rocks as a function of increasing pressure and temperature.
Figure 13. Hydration of the upper mantle and accretion of PGEs. The underlying mantle being hydrated due to large asteroid impacts. Following the bombardment, hydration
occurs at local to regional scales, hence the hydrous upper mantle is distributed heterogeneously (stippled part of figure). Whereas mantle upwelling of the hydrous mantle delivers
the hydrous melt, in other non-hydrated parts of the globe, dry melt is produced. This is due to the local heterogeneity of the oxidized mantle, where the broad band tendency of
oxidizing occurs through time until 3.5 Ga. Through mantle convection, the whole mantle is oxidized, as shown by zircon analysis (Fig. 12).
5.4. Trigger of ABEL Bombardment; the presence of a hypothetical which reaches 3200 km across (Fig. 16A) and likely generated ten-
“Black Sheep” gas giant next to Jupiter meter-thick regolith layers emplaced as ejecta deposits. Because of
the impact, the zircons would have been recrystallized due to shock
The ABEL Bombardment occurred at 4.37e4.20 Ga, more than metamorphism and thus resetting the zircon age. After the series of
200 million years later than the T-tauri stage, therefore, this event is bombardments continued for 170 million years, surface materials,
regarded to be unrelated to the main part of the planetary forma- which include primordial crustal basement rocks and regolith
tion process. If so, there should be another trigger for the ABEL layers, were well mixed, particularly in the case of the bombard-
Bombardment to deliver appropriate amount of volatiles including ment of giant impacts such as the hypothesized Procellarum event.
water to the terrestrial rocky planets. Therefore, zircon ages from the lunar surface should have varied
One possible scenario is as follows. Three gas-giant triplets; from the oldest (w4.53 Ga) to quite younger (e.g., 3.90 Ga) ones.
Jupiter, Saturn, and a theorized planet “Black Sheep” were formed However, there are no zircons dated between 4.53 and 4.37 Ga as
first. Gravitational scattering among these three kicked out the “Black noted above (Fig. 16B). This fact strongly indicates that there were
Sheep” and triggered the ABEL Bombardment of the Earth. The “Black not heavy bombardments on the Moon before 4.37 Ga, after the
Sheep” is thought to be in the Kuiper Belt (Nesvorný, 2011), or maybe solidification of the lunar magma ocean at 4.53 Ga, and this situa-
forced out of the Solar System. Presumably, the Kuiper Belt contains tion being counterpart to that of the Earth.
old icy bodies which had existed in inner part of the Solar System like As shown in Fig. 16B and C, age distribution and frequency of
“Black Sheep” (Fig. 15). As such, the Kuiper Belt contains the set of zircon crystals can indicate the timing of heavy bombardment
significant clues for the research in planetary science to further un- semi-quantitatively. For example, from the view point of age dis-
ravel the evolutional history of the Solar System. tribution, bombardment during 4.37e4.20 Ga is an order of
magnitude greater than the later bombardment during
5.5. Zircon interpretable portrait of the ABEL Bombardment 4.20e3.90 Ga. This indicates that bombardments were much more
frequent earlier than later. Or, impacts by bigger asteroids occurred
The modern Earth has no Hadean rocks, however, highly resil- earlier. Likely, the formation age of the possibly largest impact
ient tiny crystals of zircons are all that remain. U-Pb dating in- crater, Procellarum, corresponds to the highest peak of the
dicates they formed later than 4.37 Ga, long after the solidification bombardment at 4.37 Ga. This is consistent with impact crater
of the magma ocean at 4.53 Ga. In other words, zircons appear not geology of the Moon, because a large number of younger craters
to have formed between 4.53 and 4.37 Ga. formed within the Lunar Procellarum Basin. Moreover, the rim of
On the other hand, the Moon still preserves a Hadean rock re- Procellarum is ambiguous (Fig. 16A). This indicates that it is the
cord. The lunar surface has been covered by primordial continents oldest and has been highly modified by subsequent bombardments,
composed of anorthosite and KREEP (Fig. 16) as old as 4.53 Ga by although more extensive analysis on lunar zircons is necessary to
model ages. This is because the Moon had cooled down quickly due discuss further details.
to its relatively small size. Lunar mantle convection did not have Fig. 16C shows the summary of radiometric ages of 6 types of
enough energy to change the surface by plate tectonics and sub- Apollo-returned lunar rocks. The types are: (1) mare basalt, which
sequent extensive volcanism, therefore extremely old rocks still partly infill impact crater basins, especially prevalent in impact
remain on the Moon. However, the lunar surface is in a poor state of basins contained within the Lunar Procellarum Basin (e.g.,
preservation because numerous bombardments have severely Wilhelms et al., 1987), (2) high-grade metamorphic rocks (melt-
modified it. Asteroid collisions formed impact craters of ranging bearing and melt-free granulite facies rocks), (3) alkali rocks, (4)
sizes, with possibly the largest one being referred to as the Lunar granite/felsite, (5) KREEP basalts, and (6) magnesian suite pluton
Procellarum Basin on the nearside of the Moon (Whitaker, 1981), and ferroan anorthosite (basement rocks), based on the extensive
Figure 14. Accretion rate of CI chondrite by the ABEL Bombardment. Based on the discussions for the abundance of PGEs in the mantle, the amounts of accreted PGEs accumulated
during the ABEL Bombardment have been estimated with 3 models. The upper estimation was given by Morgan et al. (2001), the middle one by Becker et al. (2006), and the lower
one by Walker (2009), respectively. An estimated ocean mass of the Hadean Earth (0.16 1022 kg) compares with the three estimates listed above. The accretion rate of meteorites is
17 mm/1000 year, which is much faster than the sedimentation rate of chert as deep sea sediment. The estimated Hadean mass of the Earth’s ocean is based on Maruyama et al.
(2013), with the sedimentation rate of deep sea sediments is based on Matsuda and Isozaki (1991).
compilation by Stöffler et al. (2006). Analytical methods include Metamorphic rocks such as melt-bearing or granulite facies
40
Ar/39Ar, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, U-Pb, and Pb-Pb. basement rocks is younger than the rock types discussed above and
Systematic differences are evident in the lunar rocks, reflecting the age ranges between 4.25e3.70 Ga with a sharp peak at
the geologically different stratigraphy expected by the mode of 3.8e3.7 Ga. Melt-bearing metamorphic rocks tend to be younger
occurrence. One of typical rock types to show systematic differ- than the granulite-facies metamorphic rocks formed over
ences is the mare basalt, which contains water-bearing melt in- 800e900 C back to 4.25 Ga (Fig. 16C). The extensive ABEL
clusions in olivine. The lunar mare basalt rock samples, which range Bombardment ages (4.37e4.20 Ga) is slightly older than the age of
in age from 3.15 to 3.85 Ga, support the presence of volatiles in the the metamorphic rocks, which experienced the shocked regional
lunar interior. The other exemplary type to discuss changing metamorphism. These 40Ar-39Ar ages may indicate the cooling age
planetary conditions is the oldest rocks referred to as basement of the rocks or the final bombardment events to be fragmented at
rocks, which are composed of anorthosite and magnesian suite the deep crust and thermally metamorphosed to be removed to the
pluton ranging 4.30e4.55 Ga, which do not contain any hydrous surface as fragmented blocks.
minerals, suggesting that there were no volatiles when the magma From the viewpoint of regional metamorphism research on the
ocean had solidified at 4.53 Ga (Albarède, 2009), and later following Earth over the past 100 years, it should be pointed out that the
solidification until 4.30 Ga. These two rock types clearly indicate presence of a catalytic agent like volatiles is critically important.
the Moon was dry and volatiles were delivered some time later, at Because, without volatiles, igneous rocks never change to granulite
least before the mare basalt was emplaced on the lunar surface. facies metamorphic mineral assemblages. For example, UHP-HP
The key observational fact is the appearance of KREEP II, gran- metamorphism associated with ancient subduction zones, seen in
ites, or alkali rocks after 4.35 Ga. Alkali rocks are speculated to be Kokchetav in Kazakhstan, Su-Lu-Dabie in central China, or the Alps
formed by partial melting of the basement rocks through volatile region, is preserved gabbroic dry rocks at 100e200 km depths and
injection, and their ages range from 4.35 to 4.0 Ga. This clearly under 700e1000 C without volatiles. On the other hand, these
indicates that the lunar volatiles were delivered by this time rocks are quickly recrystallized on the return back to the surface if
through bombardments, which is the same case for the production volatiles become available. They are recrystallized under amphib-
of granite/felsite. These geochronological data strongly support the olite facies at mid-crustal depth with a temperature range of
ABEL Bombardment event. 400e500 C (e.g., Maruyama et al., 2010).
KREEP basalts ranging in age from 4.35 to 3.80 Ga could be Importantly, the metamorphic recrystallization can occur only
formed by mantle rebound accompanying ABEL bombardment or when volatiles are present in the planetary interior. At least, lunar
larger impacts following 4.20 Ga. The eruption of magma onto the oldest rocks did not contain hydrous minerals, therefore, lunar
lunar surface would be delayed 100e200 Myr or even longer volatiles must have been delivered some time after solidification of
because of the slow upwelling of the mantle to reach to the point the lunar magma ocean, and before the production of the meta-
enabling de-compressional melting. The age of the youngest KREEP morphic rocks.
basalt is 3.80 Ga, which is the eruption age of the magma, although After the appearance of the metamorphic rocks, subsequent
even minor bombardment after ABEL Bombardment had stopped mantle convection yielded flood basalts only on the lunar nearside
by 3.9 Ga (Fig. 16B). until 3.15 Ga. Such recorded activity is much less prevalent on the
lunar farside, especially when compared to that recorded with the it is easy to imagine that the size of lunar impact craters is one order
giant Lunar Procellarum Basin. This is because the oldest and of magnitude larger, compared to the size of the craters that remain
largest Procellarum impact had the most influence on the evolution on the modern Earth. Considering the difference in planetary
of the Moon following its formation. Due to the collision that evolution between the Earth and Moon, one critical difference is
resulted in the Lunar Procellarum Basin on the nearside of the their planetary size. The Earth is ca. 50 times larger than the Moon
Moon, rebound of the lunar mantle on the nearside occurred, in mass, which would have influenced the total number of asteroids
which caused the extension of the nearside and tectonic that impacted their surfaces. The Earth must have had a more
compression on the farside causing the crustal overlapping on frequent bombardment with much larger impactors than in the
continental crust. Lunar geology clearly demonstrates lithospheric case of the Moon.
thinning on the nearside of the Moon by bombardments to The possibly largest lunar impact crater, Procellarum on near-
generate the oceanic lithosphere regionally, but failed to create a side, about 3200 km across as highlighted above, would have been
bimodal lithosphere globally. Presumably a water ocean never created by an impact projectile estimated to be 300e400 km in
appeared on the Moon, because its relatively small planetary size, diameter. If so, more gigantic asteroids likely bombard the Hadean
which fated the history of the Moon. dry Earth. Presumably, such asteroids would have approximated
Ceres (icy asteroid, 950 km in diameter and density equaling 2.1 g/
5.6. The implication to Hadean Earth cm3, orbiting at 2.8 AU) or Pallas (icy-rocky asteroid, 1100 km in
diameter and density equaling 4.2 g/cm3, orbiting at 2.9 AU). The
According to the reviewing work of lunar impact craters by collisions of such dwarf-planet size during ABEL Bombardment
Wilhelms et al. (1987) and Stöffler et al. (2006), they are classified would have resulted in remarkably huge impact craters on the
into four groups: (1) larger than 2500 km, (2) 1200e500 km, (3) Earth (e.g., 10,000 km in diameter), which corresponds to the size of
499e300 km and (4) less than 300 km in diameter. The total the Pacific Ocean (Marchi et al., 2014). If there were such huge
number of craters is 2 for (1), 28 for (2), and 15 for (3), respectively, impacts, it can be easily imagined that the target primordial con-
while (4) is innumerable. The exceptionally large-sized craters are tinental crustal materials must have been destroyed by instanta-
the theorized Procellarum (3200 km in diameter) and the South neous evaporation due to temperatures reaching over 20,000 K,
Pole-Aitken (2500 km in diameter). These huge-sized craters were depending on the size (Davies, 1972; Hiesinger and Head, 2006), in
created by impactors nearing 250e300 km across, whereas group addition to the mechanical fragmentation reaching great depths
(2) 50e120 km across, and group (3) 30e50 km across, respectively. and lateral extents away from the impact site causing resurfacing
The bombardment to make these large impact craters, assessed through shock metamorphism. The extensive bombardment would
through numerical simulation and the deep structure beneath the have resulted in the formation of magma ponds, which can be
craters, is well-demonstrated by the seismic observation for the stable over 10,000 years until solidification. Extensive deformation
Earth’s impact craters such as the Chicxulub crater in the Yucatan and related metamorphic recrystallization by the bombardment
Peninsula, Mexico, which coincides with the K/T boundary when meant that high-grade metamorphism up to the granulite facies
the dinosaurs became extinct. The size of Chicxulub crater is ca. (800e900 C) had occurred both in the primordial continental crust
180 km across, and generated by only a 10 km-sized impactor. Thus, and underlying mantle. Therefore, nearly perfect recrystallization
Figure 15. Black Sheep gas-giant planet. There are exotic planets (i.e., “Black Sheeps”), which are not consistent with suggested chemical zonation trend, and if such planets are
highly eccentric, then their history can be examined. This includes determining whether a “Black Sheep” is “kicked-out” from the inner zone to the outer part of the Solar
System (courtesy of Shintaro Azuma).
Figure 16. Picture of the newly proposed ABEL Bombardment interpreted through zircon ages of lunar rocks returned during the Apollo program. (A) Th map of the Moon based on
Clementine data (Jolliff et al., 2006). Figure shows the distribution of impact craters, and KREEP II basalts (secondary generated KREEP basalts) largely highlighted by the elevated Th
regions, with the prominent quasi-circular feature at the upper left roughly outlining the theorized Lunar Procellarum Basin first proposed by Whitaker (1981). Also shown are the
lunar landing sites, which includes those of the NASA Apollo (A) and Soviet Luna (L) programs. (B) Zircon age population diagram by Hopkins and Mojzsis (2015). (C) The summary
of radiometric ages of lunar rocks based on data compiled by Stöffler et al. (2006). Considering the occurrence of Ferroan anorthosite and magnesian suite plutons composed of
anhydrous minerals, the Moon was initially dry following its formation until 4.37 Ga. After the injection of volatiles, the Moon formed metamorphic rocks, as well as granite and
alkali rocks.
upon cooling and solidification destroyed the original igneous (primary KREEP basalt, named KREEP I). Worth mentioning, KREEP I
texture. Moreover, the extensive melting is present for the cata- crust contains ca. 400 times more abundant radiogenic elements
strophically fragmented blocks (breccias), as well as partial such as U, Th, and K. Also, it is important to understand that the lower
recrystallization for any kinds of rocks on primordial highland rocks mantle material did not melt until the event of mantle overturn at
(Stöffler et al., 2006). 2.6 Ga, which resulted in the bottom of lower crust to heat up,
The scenario given by the ABEL model for Earth history is crucial leading to A-type magmatism, as well as inactive mantle dynamics
to understand the birth of a habitable planet. The available indirect in the so-called mid-Proterozoic “Boring mid-Proterozoic”.
evidence is only from Moon summarized above and in Section 5.5. After the solidification of the magma-ocean, the surface of the
Earth should have had a silent period until 4.37 Ga due to the lack of
5.7. The Earth history through the ABEL Bombardment: stagnant lid a heavy bombardment event. As a result, the Earth formed a global
tectonics to plate tectonics rigid continental lithosphere as thick as 100e150 km, suggesting no
horizontal/vertical movement like modern plate tectonics. Yet, the
When the magma ocean on the Earth was solidified at 4.53 Ga, mantle temperature was high enough to produce basaltic melt by
the Earth must have had layered structure with both mantle and lherzolite-dominant upper mantle through the upwelling and
crust without atmosphere and ocean (Fig. 17A). The chemically downwelling of plumes (Fig. 17A). This planetary state of the Ha-
layered structure was composed of: (1) dunite-dominated lower dean Earth should have had stagnant lid tectonics as discussed by
mantle (high-temperature peridotite dominated by olivine works led by Solomatov (Solomatov and Zharkov, 1990; Moresi and
component), (2) lherzolite-dominated upper mantle (low-temper- Solomatov, 1995; Solomatov, 1995; Solomatov and Moresi, 1996).
ature peridotite enriched in basaltic component), and (3) primordial When the ABEL Bombardment by icy asteroids began, the
continental crust underplated by ca. 100 km thick KREEP lower crust asteroid materials were driven deep within the Earth’s interior
Figure 17. Schematic portrayal of the history of Earth through (A) layered structure beginning to form at 4.567 Ga (Growth tectonics), with stagnant lid tectonics operating after the
solidification of the magma-ocean from 4.53 Ga until the beginning of ABEL Bombardment at 4.37 Ga. (B) Bombardment tectonics initiating due to the ABEL Bombardment at
4.37 Ga and lasting until 4.20 Ga; this included huge-sized asteroids generating shock waves, breaking the rigid continental lithosphere, and resulting in the formation of
3000e10,000 km-diameter impact craters. (C) ABEL Bombardment leading to the formation of the oceanic lithosphere and resulting in the initiation of plate tectonics through
eclogitization. (D) Transition from stagnant lid tectonics to plate tectonics completes. Ultimately, the current style of plate tectonics was initiated by ABEL Bombardment, providing
an answer to the once enigmatic question of when and how plate tectonics was initiated.
(Fig. 17B). In some cases, they penetrated deep enough to input As explained above, the ABEL model gives coherent and
volatiles such as H2O and CO2 into the whole upper mantle consistent scenario from the formation of the Earth to series of
resulting in a decrease in both viscosity and melting temperature. prebiotic chemical evolution to lead the emergence of life.
Due to the ABEL impacts, the mantle likely rebounded closer to the
surface of the Earth over a time period of about 200 million years. 6. Conclusions
Such process could have generated a huge amount of KREEP II to fill
in the impact craters. The diameters of the asteroids are assumed to The Earth formed by two steps. First, the most reductive
range from 100 to 1000 km, as described in Section 5.6. Presumably, enstatite-like chondrite material accreted to form a completely dry
1000 km-class impactors are only a few up to five through the Earth Earth at 4.56 Ga. Therefore, the Earth did not have atmosphere and
history, and they formed impact craters 10,000 km in diameter, ocean components at that time. Second, icy asteroids composed of
which is 1/4 of the Earth’s circumference. The total number of carbonaceous chondrites subsequently bombarded the Earth,
500 km-class impactors are estimated to have been about ten or directed from the outer part of the asteroid belt due to gravitational
more, and the 300e100 km class impactors greater than 100. All of scattering by Jupiter, Saturn, and a lost “Black Sheep” gas giant at ca.
these asteroids, particularly the largest class, would have destroyed 4.4 Ga to deliver an atmosphere and ocean on to the dry Earth. This
the rigid primordial continental lithosphere whose size is esti- two-step formation model of the Earth is referred to as the ABEL
mated to approximate the Pacific Ocean. Rigid continental crust (advent of bio-elements) model. In addition, the bombardment to
was replaced by the oceanic lithosphere softened by the formation deliver water (as well as volatiles and PGEs) is called the ABEL
of a water ocean, because CO2 would have been selectively trans- Bombardment, which is the most critical event to bear and evolve
ferred into the mantle by the initiation of subduction (Azuma et al., life on this planet.
2017). Following the ABEL Bombardment, mixing between reductive
The phase transformation of the eclogitic lower crust and material and oxidized material initiated the reaction for meta-
oceanic mafic crust through infiltration of water-rich fluids along bolism, which is the first trigger to reach to the emergence of life on
the Pacific Ocean-sized crater, reaching 10,000 km across, would the Earth. In other words, a completely reductive planet must be
have created a strong slab-pull force at the outer rim of the huge formed to enable life to emerge.
impact crater, combined with mantle upwelling under the mid- Additionally, the ABEL Bombardment enabled the transition
oceanic ridge within the crater. This is the critical trigger for the from stagnant lid tectonics to plate tectonics to make a Habitable
transition from the stagnant lid tectonics to plate tectonics in Trinity planet by injection of volatiles into the dry Earth.
the Earth’s history. Thus, the ABEL model provides the answer to
the once enigmatic question of when and how plate tectonics
Acknowledgements
was initiated.
After the initiation of plate tectonics, the anorthositic primordial
This research was supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific
continents continued to be transported into the bottom of lower
Research on Innovative Areas (Grant Nos. 26106002 and
mantle along the subduction zone (Fig. 17D).
26106006). Authors thank Ms. Reiko Hattori for technical assistance
to complete this paper, and Dr. James M. Dohm for the improve-
5.8. Importance of ABEL-driven mixing between reductive
ment of the English. Creation of illustrations is supported by
substances and oxidized substances for the origin of life
Ms. Shio Watanabe, Dr. Yoshinori Tange and Dr. Shintaro Azuma.
The ABEL model explains that the Earth formed at 4.56 Ga
without components to produce an atmosphere or ocean, and thus References
initially being a highly reductive naked rocky planet. At 4.4 Ga,
Abe, Y., 1995. Earth evolution of the terrestrial planets. Journal of Physics of the
carbonaceous chondrites bombarded the Earth, being directed
Earth 43, 515e532.
from the outer asteroid belt to fall on the surface of the Earth, and Abe, Y., Matsui, T., 1986. Early evolution of the Earth: accretion, atmosphere for-
thus the planet having been given elements for the formation of mation, and thermal history. Journal of Geophysical Research 91, E291eE302.
Abe, Y., Matsui, T., 1988. Evolution of an impact-generated H2O-CO2 atmosphere and
both an atmosphere and an ocean for the first time. This two-step
formation of a hot proto-ocean on Earth. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 45,
formation of the Earth is consistent with evidences derived from 3081e3101.
material science as discussed in Section 3. Albarède, F., 2009. Volatile accretion history of the terrestrial planets and dynamic
Another significant indication given by the ABEL model is that implications. Nature 461, 1227e1233.
Amelin, Y., Kaltenbach, A., Iizuka, T., Stirling, C.H., Ireland, T.R., Petaev, M.,
secondary accretion of bio-elements should have been related to the Jacobsen, S.B., 2010. UePb chronology of the Solar System’s oldest solids with
origin of life, in particular, the initiation of metabolism. Synthetic variable 238U/235U. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 300, 343e350.
experiments of life, which originated in the Miller-Urey experiment, Amelin, Y., Krot, A.N., Hutcheon, I.D., Ulyanov, A.A., 2002. Lead isotopic ages of
chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions. Science 297, 1678e1683.
require both oxidized material (H2O) and reductive material (CH4, Anders, E., 1964. Origin, age and composition of meteorites. Space Science Reviews
NH3, H2) to produce amino acid, which is the main building blocks of 3, 583e714.
life. As this experiment shows, it is significant that chemical reaction Anders, E., 1968. Chemical processes in early solar system, as inferred from mete-
orites. Accounts of Chemical Research 1, 289.
between these conflicting materials is necessary to synthesize Azuma, S., Yamamoto, S., Ichikawa, H., Maruyama, S., 2017. Why primordial conti-
organic matters. This result indicates that this planet did not have nents were recycled to the deep: role of subduction erosion. Geoscience
atmospheric nor oceanic components at the beginning. In other Frontiers 8, 337e346.
Baker, V.R., Strom, R.G., Gulick, V.C., Kargel, J.S., Komatsu, G., Kale, V.S., 1991. Ancient
words, the highly reductive primordial Earth initiated chemical re- oceans, ice sheets and the hydrological cycle on Mars. Nature 352, 589e594.
action to emerge life only after oxidized components interacted with Balsiger, H., Altwegg, K., Geiss, J., 1995. D/H and 18O/16O ratio in the hydronium ion
reductive material of the primordial Earth. Pasek et al. (2007) and in neutral water from in situ ion measurements in comet Halley. Journal of
Geophysical Research: Space Physics 100, 5827e5834.
demonstrated that an organic phosphorous compound is synthe-
Bandermann, L.W., Singer, S.F., 1973. Calculation of meteoroid impacts on moon and
sized by corrosion of reductive schreibersite, which is the chemical earth. Icarus 19, 108e113.
reaction to produce the building blocks of life. Reductive gas is easily Bell, E.A., Boehnke, P., Harrison, T.M., Mao, W.L., 2015. Potentially biogenic carbon
produced through reactions between water and anorthosite, KREEP preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon. Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences of the United States of America 112, 14518e14521.
basalts, and komatiite. Such environments had appeared universally Birck, J.L., Rotaru, M., Allègre, C.J., 1999. 53Mn-53Cr evolution of the early solar
during middle Hadean Earth. system. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 63, 4111e4117.
Bockelée-Morvan, D., Gautier, D., Lis, D.C., Young, K., Keene, J., Phillips, T., Owen, T., Huang, S.-S., 1960. Life outside the solar system. Scientific American 202, 55e63.
Crovisier, J., Goldsmith, P.F., Bergin, E.A., Despois, D., Wootten, A., 1998. Ida, S., Kokubo, E., Takeda, T., 2001. N-Body simulations of Moon accretion. In:
Deuterated water in comet C/1996 B2 (Hyakutake) and its implications for the Marov, M.Y., Rickman, H. (Eds.), Collisional Processes in the Solar System.
origin of comets. Icarus 133, 147e162. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, pp. 203e222.
Bockelée-Morvan, D., Biver, N., Swinyard, B., de Val-Borro, M., Crovisier, J., Ikoma, M., Genda, H., 2006. Constraints on the mass of a habitable planet with
Hartogh, P., Lis, D.C., Moreno, R., Szutowicz, S., Lellouch, E., Emprechtinger, M., water of nebular origin. Astrophysical Journal 648, 696e706.
Blake, G.A., Courtin, R., Jarchow, C., Kidger, M., Küppers, M., Rengel, M., Jahn, A., Riller, U., 2009. A 3D model of first-order structural elements of the Vre-
Davis, G.R., Fulton, T., Naylor, D., Sidher, S., Walker, H., 2012. Herschel mea- defort Dome, South Africa d importance for understanding central uplift for-
surements of the D/H and 16O/18O ratios in water in the Oort-cloud comet C/ mation of large impact structures. Tectonophysics 478, 221e229.
2009 P1 (Garradd). Astronomy & Astrophysics 544, L15. Javoy, M., 1995. The integral enstatite chondrite model of the Earth. Geophysical
Becker, H., Horan, M.F., Walker, R.J., Gao, S., Lorand, J.P., Rudnick, R.L., 2006. Highly Research Letters 22, 2219e2222.
siderophile element composition of the Earth’s primitive upper mantle: con- Javoy, M., 1998. The birth of the Earth’s atmosphere: the behaviour and fate of its
straints from new data on peridotite massifs and xenoliths. Geochimica et major elements. Chemical Geology 147, 11e25.
Cosmochimica Acta 70, 4528e4550. Javoy, M., Kaminski, E., Guyot, F., Andrault, D., Sanloup, C., Moreira, M., Labrosse, S.,
Borg, L.E., Shearer, C.K., Asmerom, Y., Papike, J.J., 2004. Prolonged KREEP magma- Jambon, A., Agrinier, P., Davaille, A., Jaupart, C., 2010. The chemical composition
tism on the Moon indicated by the youngest dated lunar igneous rock. Nature of the Earth: enstatite chondrite models. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
432, 209e211. 293, 259e268.
Borg, L.E., Gaffney, A.M., Shearer, C.K., 2015. A review of lunar chronology revealing Javoy, M., Pineau, F., 1983. Stable isotope constraints on a model Earth, from the
a preponderance of 4.34-4.37 Ga ages. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 50, study of mantle nitrogen. Meteoritics 18, 320e321.
715e732. Javoy, M., Pineau, F., 1991. The volatiles record of a “popping” rock from the Mid-
Boyet, M., Carlson, R.W., 2007. A highly depleted moon or a non-magma ocean Atlantic Ridge at 14 N: chemical and isotopic composition of gas trapped in
origin for the lunar crust? Earth and Planetary Science Letters 262, 505e516. the vesicles. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 107, 598e611.
Cameron, A.G.W., Ward, W.R., 1976. The origin of the Moon. Abstracts of the Lunar Javoy, M., Pineau, F., Delorme, H., 1986. Carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the mantle.
Planetary Science Conference, vol. 7 pp. 120e122. Chemical Geology 57, 41e62.
Carr, M.H., Wänke, H., 1992. Earth and Mars: water inventories as clues to accre- Javoy, M., Pineau, F., Demaiffe, G., 1984. Nitrogen and carbon isotopic composition in
tional histories. Icarus 98, 61e71. the diamonds of Mbuji Mayi (Zaire). Earth and Planetary Science Letter 68,
Cartigny, P., Boyd, S., Harris, J., Javoy, M., 1997. Nitrogen isotopes in peridotitic di- 399e412.
amonds from Fuxian, China: the mantle signature. Terra Nova 9, 175e179. Jolliff, B.L., Wieczorek, M.A., Shearer, C.K., Neal, C.R., 2006. New views of the Moon.
Clayton, R.N., 2003. Oxygen Isotopes in Meteorites, Treatise on Geochemistry. Mineralogical Society of America Geochemical Society 60.
Elsevier, pp. 129e142. Kallemeyn, G.W., Wasson, J.T., 1986. Compositions of enstatite (EH3, EH4,5 and EL6)
Clayton, R.N., Mayeda, T.K., 1996. Oxygen isotope studies of achondrites. Geochimica chondrites: implications regarding their formation. Geochimica et Cosmochi-
et Cosmochimica Acta 60, 1999e2017. mica Acta 50, 2153e2164.
Clayton, R.N., Mayeda, T.K., 1999. Oxygen isotope studies of carbonaceous chon- Kasting, J.F., Whitmire, D.P., Reynolds, R.T., 1993. Habitable zones around main
drites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 63, 2089e2104. sequence stars. Icarus 101, 108e128.
Clayton, R.N., Mayeda, T.K., Rubin, A.E., 1984. Oxygen isotopic compositions of Kawai, K., Tsuchiya, T., Tsuchiya, J., Maruyama, S., 2009. Lost primordial continents.
enstatite chondrites and aubrites. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth Gondwana Research 16, 581e586.
89, C245eC249. Kokubo, E., Ida, S., 1995. Orbital evolution of protoplanets embedded in a swarm of
Cloutier, R., Tamayo, D., Valencia, D., 2015. Could Jupiter or Saturn have ejected a planetesimals. Icarus 114, 247e257.
fifth giant planet? The Astrophysical Journal 813, 8. Kouchi, A., Kudo, T., Nakano, H., Arakawa, M., Watanabe, N., Sirono, S.I., Higa, M.,
Dauphas, N., Davis, A.M., Marty, B., Reisberg, L., 2004. The cosmic molybde- Maeno, N., 2002. Rapid growth of asteroids owing to very sticky interstellar
numeruthenium isotope correlation. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 226, organic grains. Astrophysical Journal 566, L121eL124.
465e475. Krot, A.N., Keil, K., Goodrich, C.A., Scott, E.R.D., Weisberg, M.K., 2005. Classification
Davies, G.F., 1972. Equations of state and phase equilibria of stishovite and a coesite- of meteorites. In: Davis, A.M. (Ed.), Meteorites, Comets and Planets: Treatise on
like phase from shock-wave and other data. Journal of Geophysical Research 77, Geochemistry. Elsevier BV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 83e128.
4920e4933. Krotev, R.L., 2005. Lunar geochemistry as told by lunar meteorites. Chemie der Erde
DeMeo, F.E., Carry, B., 2014. Solar System evolution from compositional mapping of - Geochemistry 65, 297e346.
the asteroid belt. Nature 505, 629e634. Kruijer, T.S., Kleine, T., Fischer-Godde, M., Sprung, P., 2015. Lunar tungsten isotopic
Dohm, J.M., Maruyama, S., 2015. Habitable trinity. Geoscience Frontiers 6, 95e101. evidence for the late veneer. Nature 520, 534e537.
Dole, S.H., 1964. Habitable Planets for Man, first ed. Blaisdell Publishing Company, Labidi, J., Cartigny, P., Moreira, M., 2013. Non-chondritic sulphur isotope composi-
ISBN 0-444-00092-5. p. 103. tion of the terrestrial mantle. Nature 501, 208e211.
Eberhardt, P., Reber, M., Krankowsky, D., Hodges, R.R., 1995. The D/H and O-18/O-16 Latimer, W.M., 1950. Astrochemical problems in the formation of the Earth. Science
ratios in water from comet P/Halley. Astronomy and Astrophysics 302, 301e316. 112, 101e104.
Ebisuzaki, T., Imaeda Y. United Theory of Planet Formation (I): Tandem Regime, Lécuyer, C., Gillet, P., Robert, F., 1998. The hydrogen isotope composition of seawater
submitted to New Astronomy. and the global water cycle. Chemical Geology 145, 249e261.
Elkins-Tanton, L.T., 2008. Linked magma ocean solidification and atmospheric Le Pichon, X., 1968. Sea-floor spreading and continental drift. Journal of Geophysical
growth for Earth and Mars. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 271, 181e191. Research 73, 3661e3697.
Fanale, F.P., 1971. A case for catastrophic early degassing of the earth. Chemical Lugmair, G.W., Marti, K., 1977. SmNdPu timepieces in the Angra dos Reis meteorite.
Geology 8, 79e105. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 35, 273e284.
Fischer-Gödde, M., Burkhardt, C., Kruijer, T.S., Kleine, T., 2015. Ru isotope hetero- Macke, R.J., Consolmagno, G.J., Britt, D.T., 2011. Density, porosity, and magnetic
geneity in the solar protoplanetary disk. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 168, susceptibility of carbonaceous chondrites. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 46,
151e171. 1842e1862.
Geiss, J., Gloeckler, G., 1998. Abundances of deuterium and helium-3 in the proto- Marchi, S., Bottke, W.F., Elkins-Tanton, L.T., Bierhaus, M., Wuennemann, K.,
solar cloud. Space Science Reviews 84, 239e250. Morbidelli, A., Kring, D.A., 2014. Widespread mixing and burial of Earth/’s
Halliday, A.N., 2000. Terrestrial accretion rates and the origin of the Moon. Earth Hadean crust by asteroid impacts. Nature 511, 578e582.
and Planetary Science Letters 176, 17e30. Maruyama, S., 1994. Plume tectonics. Journal of Geological Society of Japan 100,
Hartmann, W.K., Davis, D.R., 1975. Satellite-sized planetesimals and lunar origin. 24e49.
Icarus 24, 504e515. Maruyama, S., Liou, J.G., 2005. From snowball to Phanerozoic Earth. International
Hayashi, C., 1981. Structure of the solar nebula, growth and decay of magnetic-fields Geology Review 47, 775e791.
and effects of magnetic and turbulent viscosities on the nebula. Supplement of Maruyama, S., Ikoma, M., Genda, H., Hirose, K., Yokoyama, T., Santosh, M., 2013. The
the Progress of Theoretical Physics 35e53. naked planet Earth: most essential pre-requisite for the origin and evolution of
Hayashi, C., Nakazawa, K., Nakagawa, Y., 1985. Formation of the solar system. In: life. Geoscience Frontiers 4, 141e165.
Black, D.C., Matthews, M.S. (Eds.), Protostars and Planets II. The University of Maruyama, S., Masago, H., Katayama, I., Iwase, Y., Toriumi, M., Omori, S., Aoki, K.,
Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 1100e1153. 2010. A new perspective on metamorphism and metamorphic belts. Gondwana
Herwartz, D., Pack, A., Friedrichs, B., Bischoff, A., 2014. Identification of the giant Research 18, 106e137.
impactor Theia in lunar rocks. Science 344, 1146e1150. Maruyama, S., Sawaki, Y., Ebisuzaki, T., Ikoma, M., Omori, S., Komabayashi, T., 2014.
Hiesinger, H., Head, J.W., 2006. New views of lunar geoscience: an introduction and Initiation of leaking Earth: an ultimate trigger of the Cambrian explosion.
overview. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 60, 1e81. Gondwana Research 25, 910e944.
Hopkins, M.D., Mojzsis, S.J., 2015. A protracted timeline for lunar bombardment Maruyama, S., Santosh, M., Zhao, D., 2007. Superplume, supercontinent, and post-
from mineral chemistry, Ti thermometry and UePb geochronology of Apollo 14 perovskite: mantle dynamics and anti-plate tectonics on the core-mantle
melt breccia zircons. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 169, 1e18. boundary. Gondwana Research 11, 7e37.
Hopkins, M.D., Mojzsis, S.J., Bottke, W.F., Abramov, O., 2015. Micrometer-scale UePb Matsuda, T., Isozaki, Y., 1991. Well-documented travel history of Mesozoic pelagic
age domains in eucrite zircons, impact re-setting, and the thermal history of the chert in Japan - from remote ocean to subduction zone. Tectonics 10,
HED parent body. Icarus 245, 367e378. 475e499.
Huang, S.-S., 1959. Occurrence of life in the universe. American Scientist 47, Matsui, T., Abe, Y., 1986. Evolution of an impact-induced atmosphere and magma
397e402. ocean on the accreting Earth. Nature 319, 303e305.
McKenzie, D.P., 1969. Speculations on the consequences and causes of plate mo- the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. by Israel program for Sci-
tions. Geophysical Journal International 18, 1e32. ence Translations.
Meier, R., Owen, T.C., Matthews, H.E., Jewitt, D.C., Bockelée-Morvan, D., Biver, N., Safronov, V.S., 1972. Evolution of the protoplaneary cloud and the formation of the
Crovisier, J., Gautier, D., 1998. A Determination of the HDO/H2O ratio in comet Earth and the Planets. Soviet Astronomy 16, 183.
C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp). Science 279, 842e844. Santosh, M., Arai, T., Maruyama, S., 2017. Hadean Earth and primordial continents:
Meisel, T., Walker, R.J., Morgan, J.W., 1996. The osmium isotopic composition of the the cradle of prebiotic life. Geoscience Frontiers 8, 309e327.
Earth’s primitive upper mantle. Nature 383, 517e520. Schaffer, G.A., Schaeffer, O.A., 1977. 39Ar-40Ar ages of lunar rocks, Proceedings of
Morbidelli, A., Marchi, S., Bottke, W.F., Kring, D.A., 2012. A Sawtoothlike timeline for Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 8th, pp. 2253-2300.
the first billion years of lunar bombardment. Earth and Planetary Science Letter Schönbächler, M., Carlson, R.W., Horan, M.F., Mock, T.D., Hauri, E.H., 2010. Hetero-
355, 144e151. geneous accretion and the moderately volatile element budget of Earth. Science
Moresi, L.N., Solomatov, V.S., 1995. Numerical investigation of 2D convection with 328, 884e887.
extremely large viscosity variations. Physics of Fluids 7, 2154e2162. Schwarz, K.R., Bergin, E.A., 2014. The effects of initial abundances on nitrogen in
Morgan, W.J., 1968. Rises, trenches, great faults, and crustal blocks. Journal of protoplanetary disks. The Astrophysical Journal 797, 113.
Geophysical Research 73, 1959e1982. Shklovski, I.S., Sagan, C., 1966. Intelligent Life in the Universe. Holden-Day, San
Morgan, J.W., Walker, R.J., Brandon, A.D., Horan, M.F., 2001. Siderophile elements in Francisco.
Earth’s upper mantle and lunar breccias: data synthesis suggests manifesta- Smith, J.V., 1982. Heterogeneous growth of meteorites and planets, especially the
tions of the same late influx. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 36, 1257e1275. earth and moon. Journal of Geology 90, 1e48.
Mottmann, J., 1977. Origin of the late heavy bombardment. Icarus 31, 412e413. Smoliar, M.I., Walker, R.J., Morgan, J.W., 1996. Re-Os ages of group IIA, IIIA, IVA, and
Moynier, F., Day, J.M.D., Okui, W., Yokoyama, T., Bouvier, A., Walker, R.J., IVB iron meteorites. Science 271, 1099e1102.
Podosek, F.A., 2012. Planetary-scale strontium isotopic heterogeneity and the Snyder, G.A., Taylor, L.A., Liu, Y., Schmitt, R.A., 1992. Petrogenesis of the western
age of volatile depletion of early solar system materials. Astrophysical Journal highlands of the moon - evidence from a diverse group of whitlockite-rich
758. rocks from the Fra Mauro formation. Proceedings of Lunar and Planetary Sci-
Nemchin, A.A., Grange, M.L., Pidgeon, R.T., 2010. Distribution of rare earth elements ence 22, 399e416.
in lunar zircon. American Mineralogist 95, 273e283. Solomatov, V.S., 1995. Scaling of temperature- and stress-dependent viscosity
Nemchin, A.A., Pidgeon, R.T., Whitehouse, M.J., Vaughan, J.P., Meyer, C., 2009. SIMS convection. Physics of Fluids 7, 266e274.
U-Pb study of zircon from Apollo 14 and 17 breccias: implications for the Solomatov, V.S., Moresi, L.N., 1996. Stagnant lid convection on Venus. Journal of
evolution of lunar KREEP. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 72. Geophysical Research: Planets 101, 4737e4753.
Nesvorný, D., 2011. Young solar system’s fifth giant planet? The Astrophysical Solomatov, V.S., Zharkov, V.N., 1990. The thermal regime of Venus. Icarus 84,
Journal Letters 742, L22. 280e295.
Neukum, G., Ivanov, B.A., 1994. Crate size distributions and impact probabilities on Spray, J.G., Thompson, L.M., Biren, M.B., O’Connell-Cooper, C., 2010. The Man-
Earth from lunar, terrestrial-planet, and asteroidal cratering data. In: Gehrels, T., icouagan impact structure as a terrestrial analogue site for lunar and martian
Matthews, M.S., Schumann, A. (Eds.), Hazards Due to Comets and Asteroids. planetary science. Planetary and Space Science 58, 538e551.
University of Arizona Press, Tuscon, pp. 359e416. Steiger, R.H., Jäger, E., 1977. Subcommission on geochronology: convention on the
Neukum, G., Ivanov, B., Hartmann, W.K., 2001. Cratering records in the inner solar use of decay constants in geo- and cosmochronology. Earth and Planetary
system. In: Kallenbach, R., Giess, J., Hartmann, W.K. (Eds.), Chronology and Science Letters 36, 359e362.
Evolution of Mars. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp. 55e86. Stöffler, D., Ryder, G., Ivanov, A.V., Artemieva, N.A., Cintala, M.J., Grieve, R.A., 2006.
Newton, J., Franchi, I.A., Pillinger, C.T., 2000. The oxygen-isotopic record in enstatite Creating history and lunar chronology. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochem-
meteorites. Meteoritics & Planetary Science 35, 689e698. istry 60, 519e596.
Norman, M.D., Borg, L.E., Nyquist, L.E., Bogard, D.D., 2003. Chronology, geochem- Strughold, H., 1953. Comparative ecological study of the chemistry of the plane-
istry, and petrology of a ferroan noritic anorthosite clast from Descartes breccia tary atmospheres. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 24, 393e399,
67215: clues to the age, origin, structure, and impact history of the lunar crust. 469.
Meteoritics & Planetary Science 38, 645e661. Tarduno, J.A., Cottrell, R.D., Davis, W.J., Nimmo, F., Bono, R.K., 2015. A Hadean to
Öberg, K.I., Murray-Clay, R., Bergin, E.A., 2011. The effects of snowlines on C/O in Paleoarchean geodynamo recorded by single zircon crystals. Science 349,
planetary atmospheres. The Astrophysical Journal Letters 743, L16. 521e524.
O’Brien, D.P., Walsh, K.J., Morbidelli, A., Raymond, S.N., Mandell, A.M., 2014. Water Taylor, S.R., Jakes, P., 1974. The geochemical evolution of the Moon. Proceedings of
delivery and giant impacts in the ‘Grand Tack’ scenario. Icarus 239, 74e84. the Fifth Lunar Conference, vol. 2, 1287e1305.
Oka, A., Nakamoto, T., Ida, S., 2011. Evolution of snow line in optically thick pro- Taylor, D.J., McKeegan, K.D., Harrison, T.M., 2009. Lu-Hf zircon evidence for rapid
toplanetary disks: effects of water ice opacity and dust grain size. Astrophysical lunar differentiation. Earth and Planetary Science Letter 279, 157e164.
Journal 738. Tera, F., Papanastassiou, D.A., Wasserburg, G.J., 1974. Isotopic evidence for a terminal
O’Neill, H.S.C.,1991. The origin of the moon and the early history of the earthda chemical lunar cataclysm. Earth and Planetary Science Letter 22, 1e21.
model. Part 1: the moon. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 55, 1135e1157. Touboul, M., Kleine, T., Bourdon, B., Palme, H., Wieler, R., 2007. Late formation and
Pasek, M.A., 2015. Phosphorus as a lunar volatile. Icarus 255, 18e23. prolonged differentiation of the Moon inferred from W isotopes in lunar metals.
Pasek, M.A., Dworkin, J.P., Lauretta, D.S., 2007. A radical pathway for organic Nature 450, 1206e1209.
phosphorylation during schreibersite corrosion with implications for the origin Touboul, M., Puchtel, I.S., Walker, R.J., 2012. 182W evidence for long-term preser-
of life. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 71, 1721e1736. vation of early mantle differentiation products. Science 335, 1065e1069.
Ringwood, A.E., 1959. On the chemical evolution and densities of the planets. Touboul, M., Puchtel, I.S., Walker, R.J., 2015. Tungsten isotopic evidence for
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 15, 257e283. disproportional late accretion to the Earth and Moon. Nature 520, 530e533.
Ringwood, A.E., 1960. Some aspects of the thermal evolution of the earth. Geo- Trinquier, A., Birck, J.L., Allègre, C.J., 2007. Widespread 54Cr heterogeneity in the
chimica et Cosmochimica Acta 20, 241e259. inner solar system. The Astrophysical Journal 655, 1179.
Ringwood, A.E., 1966. Chemical evolution of the terrestrial planets. Geochimica et Urey, H., 1952. On the early chemical history of the earth and the origin of life.
Cosmochimica Acta 30, 41e104. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of
Ringwood, A.E., 1977. Composition of the core and implications for origin of the America 38, 351e363.
earth. Geochemical Journal 11, 111e135. Urey, H.C., Craig, H., 1953. The composition of the stone meteorites and the origin of
Ringwood, A.E., 1979. Origin of the Earth and Moon. Springer-Verlag, New York. the meteorites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 4, 36e82.
Ringwood, A.E., 1984. The Earth’s core: its composition, formation and bearing upon Valley, J.M., Peck, W.H., King, E.M., Wilde, S.A., 2002. A cool early Earth. Geological
the origin of the Earth. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series A, Society of America 30, 351e354.
Mathematical and Physical 395, 1e46. Walker, R.J., 2009. Highly siderophile elements in the Earth, Moon and Mars: up-
Ringwood, A.E., 1989a. Flaws in the giant impact hypothesis of lunar origin. Earth date and implications for planetary accretion and differentiation. Chemie der
and Planetary Science Letters 95, 208e214. Erde - Geochemistry 69, 101e125.
Ringwood, A.E., 1989b. The Earth-Moon connection. Journal of Physical Sciences 44, Walsh, K.J., Morbidelli, A., Raymond, S.N., O’Brien, D.P., Mandell, A.M., 2011. A low
891e923. mass for Mars from Jupiter/’s early gas-driven migration. Nature 475, 206e209.
Ringwood, A.E., 1992. Volatile and siderophile element geochemistry of the Moon: a Wänke, H., 1981. Constitution of terrestrial planets. Philosophical Transactions of
reappraisal. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 111, 537e555. the Royal Society of London A 303, 287e302.
Ringwood, A.E., Kesson, S.E., 1977. Basaltic magmatism and the bulk composition of Wänke, H., Dreibus, G., 1988. Chemical composition and accretion history of
the moon. The Moon 16, 425e464. terrestrial planets. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A:
Robert, F., Rejou-Micheal, A., Javoy, M., 1992. Oxygen isotopic homogeneity of the Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 325, 545e557.
Earth: new evidence. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 108, 1e9. Wetherill, G.W., 1986. Accumulation of the terrestrial planets and implications
Robert, F., 2001. The origin of water on Earth. Science 293, 1056e1058. concerning lunar origin. In: Hartmann, W., Philips, R., Taylor, G.J. (Eds.), Origin
Ryder, G., 1990. Lunar samples, lunar accretion and the early bombardment of the of the Moon. Lunar Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas, pp. 519e550.
Moon. EOS 71, 313e323. Whitaker, E.A., 1981. The lunar Procellarum basin. In multi-ring basins: formation
Ryder, G., 2002. Mass flux in the ancient Earth- Moon system and benign impli- and evolution. Proceedings of Lunar and Planetary Science Conference.
cations for the origin of life on Earth. Journal of Geophysical Research 107, 6-1- 105e111.
6-13. Wilde, S.A., Valley, J.W., Peck, W.H., Graham, C.M., 2001. Evidence from detrital
Safronov, V.S., 1969. Evolution of the Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of the zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr
Earth and the Planets. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and ago. Nature 409, 175e178.
Wilhelms, D.E., McCauley, J.F., Trask, N.J., 1987. The Geologic History of the Moon. Zahnle, K., Arndt, N., Cockell, C.S., Halliday, A., Nisbet, E., Selsis, F., Sleep, N.H., 2007.
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1348. Emergence of a habitable planet. Space Science Reviews 129, 35e78.
Willbold, M., Elliott, T., Moorbath, S., 2011. The tungsten isotopic composition of the Zahnle, K.J., Kasting, J.F., Pollack, J.B., 1988. Evolution of a steam atmosphere during
Earth/’s mantle before the terminal bombardment. Nature 477, 195e198. earth’s accretion. Icarus 74, 62e97.
Wood, J.A., Dickey, J.S., Marvin, U.B., Powell, B.N., 1970. Lunar anorthosites. Science Zhang, J., Dauphas, N., Davis, A.M., Leya, I., Fedkin, A., 2012. The proto-Earth as a
167, 602e604. significant source of lunar material. Nature Geoscience 5, 251e255.
Yang, X., Gaillard, F., Scaillet, B., 2014. A relatively reduced Hadean continental crust
and implications for the early atmosphere and crustal rheology. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 393, 210e219.

El Origen de La Tierra

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

El Origen de La Tierra

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

El Origen de La Tierra

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geoscience Frontiers 8 (2017) 253e274

H O S T E D BY Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

China University of Geosciences (Beijing)

Origin of the Earth: A proposal of new model called ABEL

1. Introduction Earth system including superplume and three-layer model of conti-

You might also like