Telecommunications

Standards Advisory
Committee (TSAC)

Next Generation
National Broadband
Network (NGNBN)

Optical Fibre
Deployment
Part 1 – Fundamentals of Optical
Fibre Communication

IMDA RD OFD - Part 1

Issue 1, 1 October 2016
Info-communications Media Development Authority
Resource Management & Standards
10 Pasir Panjang Road
#10-01 Mapletree Business City
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© Copyright of IMDA, 2011

This document may be downloaded from the IMDA website at http://www.imda.gov.sg and shall not be
distributed without written permission from IMDA.
IMDA RD OFD – Part 1 (October 2016)

Acknowledgement

The Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA) and the Telecommunications

Standards Advisory Committee (TSAC) would like to acknowledge the following members of the
Technical Committee Working Group 1 (TSTC WG1) for their invaluable contributions to the
preparation of this Reference Specification:

Chairman : Dr Yeo Yong Kee, A*STAR/I2R

S/N Organisation Name

1 Dr Chen Jian, Research Scientist

2 Mr Liaw Chin Yi, Senior Research Officer

3 Dr Wang Yixin, Senior Research Scientist

A*STAR/Institute for Infocomm Dr Cheng Xiaofei, Senior Research Fellow

4
Research (I2R)
5 Dr Park Chul Soo, Research Fellow

6 Dr Rong Weifeng, Research Fellow

7 Dr Shao Xu, Senior Research Fellow

Mr Christopher Thiam Boon Kwee, Director

8 BICSI Southeast Asia RFX Solutions Pte Ltd
Mr Tan Pek Tong, Senior Manager
9 M1 Limited
Mr Lim Chin Siang, Director (IT & Technologies)
10 Media Development Authority
A/Prof. Yu Changyuan, Assistant Professor
11 National University of Singapore

12 Nucleus Connect Pte Ltd Ms Khor Lay Khim, Senior Manager

13 OpenNet Pte Ltd Mr Tiong Oon Seng, Project Director

Mr Wong Ching Ping, Deputy Director

14 (International Private IP Engineering)
Singapore Telecommunications Ltd
Mr Tan Yoke Yin, Deputy Director (Access
15 System Engineering)
Mr Tan Yong Teck, Principal Engineer
16 StarHub Ltd

In addition, IMDA would like to thank Mr Varghese Paulose, A*STAR/I2R for his editorial contributions
to this document.

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 IMDA RD OFD – Part 1 (October 2016)

Telecommunications Standards Advisory Committee (TSAC)

TSAC is responsible for the strategic direction, work programmes and procedures for standards-
setting, and acts as the advisory body to IMDA in meeting the needs of all stakeholders.

TSAC is supported by a Technical Committee (TSTC), where professional, trade and consumers’
interest in information and communications is represented by a wide sector of the info-
communications industry, comprising network operators, equipment suppliers and manufacturers,
academia and researchers, professional bodies and other government agencies.

TSAC Membership (2009-2011)

TSAC Chairman:

Mr Raymond Lee Director (Resource Management & Standards), Infocomm Development

Authority of Singapore

TSAC Members:

Mr Lim Yuk Min Deputy Director (Resource Management and Standards), Infocomm
(TSAC Vice-Chairman) Development Authority of Singapore

Mr Darwin Ho Kang Ming Vice President, Association of Telecommunications Industry of

Singapore

Mr Lim Chin Siang Director (IT & Technologies), Media Development Authority

Mr Patrick Scodeller Chief Technical Officer, M1 Limited

Assoc Prof Li Kwok Hung Nanyang Technological University, School of Electrical & Electronic
Engineering

Prof Ko Chi Chung National University of Singapore, Department of Electrical & Computer
Engineering

Assoc Prof Tham Chen National University of Singapore, Department of Electrical & Computer
Khong Engineering

Mr Simon Smith Senior Manager Regulatory, Pacnet Internet (S) Ltd

Mr Edwin Lok Manager (Engineering), Pacnet Internet (S) Ltd

Mr Lee Siak Kwee Director (Mobile Network Access), Singapore Telecommunications Ltd

Mr Tan Seow Nguan Director (Network System Engineering), Singapore Telecommunications

Ltd

Mr Lim Cheow Hai Director (Access Engineering), Singapore Telecommunications Ltd

Mr Soh Keng Hock Director (Private IP Engineering & VAS), Singapore Telecommunications
Ltd

Mrs Leong Suet Mui Principle Technical Executive (Standards Division), SPRING Singapore

Mr Peter Cook Vice President (Network Mobile Technology & Planning Group), StarHub
Ltd

Mr Mah Chin Paw The Institution of Engineers, Singapore, AGM (Guthrie Engineering (S)
Pte Ltd

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IMDA RD OFD – Part 1 (October 2016)

Mr Liang Seng Quee Deputy Director (Network Infrastructure), Infocomm Development

Authority of Singapore

Ms Woo Yim Leng Senior Manager (Resource Management & Standards), Infocomm
Development Authority of Singapore

TSAC Secretariat:

Ms Tay Siew Koon Manager (Resource Management & Standards), Infocomm Development
Authority of Singapore

Page iv
 Contents

Section Title Page

1. Scope 2

2. Abbreviations 3

3. Principle of Guiding Light in an Optical Fibre 4

4. Single and Multi-mode Optical Fibres 7

5. Fibre Attributes 8

6. Propagation of Light in Fibres 10

7. Types of Optical Fibres 13

Important Performance Specifications for Optical Fibre

8. 13
Communication

9. References 16

Annex Corrigendum / Addendum 17

This Reference Document is a living document which is subject to review and

revision.
Reference Documents, Specifications and Guides are informative documents
and are not used for approval of customer equipment. They are either one of the
following types of documents:
Informative and interim documents on customer equipment standards which are
yet to be adopted by network operators; or
Informative documents describing network standards and practices adopted by
the public telecommunication networks in Singapore.

NOTICE

T HE INFO-COMMUNICATIONS M EDIA DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY (“IMDA”) MAKES NO WARRANTY OF ANY

KIND WITH REGARD TO THE MATERIAL PROVIDED HEREIN AND EXCLUDES ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF NON - INFRINGEMENT, MERCHANTABILITY, SATISFACTORY QUALITY AND
FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE . SUBJECT TO THE MAXIMUM EXTENT PERMITTED UNDER LAW,
IMDA SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ANY ERRORS AND / OR OMISSIONS CONTAINED HEREIN OR FOR ANY
LOSSES OR DAMAGES ( INCLUDING ANY LOSS OF PROFITS , BUSINESS , GOODWILL OR REPUTATION ,
AND /OR ANY SPECIAL , INCIDENTAL OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES ) IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OF
THIS MATERIAL .

IMDA DRAWS ATTENTION TO THE POSSIBILITY THAT THE PRACTICE OR IMPLEMENTATION OF THIS STANDARD
MAY INVOLVE THE USE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS AND TAKES NO POSITION CONCERNING THE
EXISTENCE, VALIDITY AND/OR APPLICABILITY OF ANY SUCH INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS, WHETHER
ASSERTED BY TSAC MEMBERS OR ANY THIRD PARTY.

AS OF THE DATE OF APPROVAL OF THIS STANDARD, IMDA HAS NOT RECEIVED WRITTEN NOTICE OF ANY
PATENT RIGHTS WHICH MAY BE RELEVANT IN RELATION TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THIS STANDARD.
HOWEVER, IMPLEMENTERS ARE CAUTIONED THAT THIS MAY NOT REPRESENT THE LATEST INFORMATION AND
ARE THEREFORE STRONGLY URGED TO CHECK WITH THE RELEVANT DATABASE IN ITU, ISO, IEC OR THE
RELATED STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION FOR INFORMATION OF PATENT RIGHTS. IMPLEMENTERS
ARE ADVISED TO OBTAIN THEIR OWN LEGAL AND/OR TECHNICAL ADVICE IN RELATION TO THE IMPLEMENTATION
OF THE STANDARD IF REQUIRED.
 IMDA RD OFD – Part 1 (October 2016)

Fundamentals of Optical Fibre Communication

1 Scope

The optical fibre is an optical waveguiding structure, and in this chapter, the basic principle behind the
guiding of light in optical fibres is explained. Various attributes that are used to characterise the
physical geometry and optical behaviour of optical fibres are also introduced. When an optical signal
propagates along a fibre, it is affected by impairments due to attenuation, dispersion and non-linear
effects. The origins of these impairments are explained and their influence on the signal integrity is
also described.

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2 Abbreviations

This Reference Specification uses the following abbreviations:

SMF Single-mode Fibre

MMF Multi-mode Fibre
MFD Mode Field Diameter
CD Chromatic Dispersion
PMD Polarisation Mode Dispersion
DGD Differential Group Delay
SRS Stimulated Raman Scattering
SBS Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
FWM Four Wave Mixing
BER Bit-Error-Ratio
BERT Bit-Error-Ratio Tester
PRBS Pseudorandom Bit Sequence
OSNR Optical Signal to Noise Ratio
WDM Wavelength Division Multiplexing

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3 Principle of Guiding Light in an Optical Fibre

An optical fibre is a medium that guides a lightwave if the light ray meets the condition of total internal
reflection. An optical fibre is made of a material that is transparent to the optical wave such as glass or
plastic. As shown in Figure 1, the optical fibre consists of two parts: the core and the cladding, which
guide a wave based on “total internal reflection”. The core is surrounded by the cladding, which has a
lower refractive index.

core cladding protective coating

Figure 1: Structure of an Optical Fibre (not to scale)

Total internal reflection is the basic mechanism that governs the propagation of light in the optical fibre.
To understand the principle of lightwave guiding, two well-known physical phenomena should be
introduced: refraction and reflection.

3.1 Refraction

Refraction can occur when light propagates from one medium to another as shown in Figure 2. The
lightwave changes its direction at the interface brought about by a difference in the refractive index of
the two media, and this process can be explained using Snell’s law.
sin 1 v1 n2
  (1.1)
sin  2 v2 n1
where, the velocity of the light is also defined as follows:
c
v (1.2)
n
(c is the velocity of light in vacuum and n is the refractive index)

Figure 2: Refraction of Lightwave at the Interface of Two Different Media

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3.2 Reflection

Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an interface between two different media so that
the wavefront returns to the medium from which it originated. The law of reflection is that the angle at
which the wave is incident on the surface equals the angle at which it is reflected.

For refraction of light in the different medium, assuming that medium 1 has a much higher refractive
index than that of medium 2 (n1 >> n2), there is a critical angle for the incident ray whereby θ2
becomes equal to /2 as shown in Figure 3 (a).

n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2 
 n1 sin  c  n2 (1.3)

Figure 3 (a): Critical Angle Defined for n1 >> n2 and Figure 3 (b) Total Reflection for θ1 > θc

For θ1 > θc, the lightwave is completely reflected into the medium 1 once the incident angle is greater
than the critical angle as illustrated in Figure 3(b). In an optical fibre, the lightwave remains inside the
optical core once the rays meet the “θ1 > θc” condition. Using the theory of total internal reflection, the
propagation of light in a step index fibre can be explained (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Rays in the Step Index Fibre

From Snell’s law, the incident ray should meet the following conditions:

n0 sin  i  n1 sin  core or sin  i  n1 sin  core (1.4)

where the refractive index of air n0 is 1.

From trigonometry:
sin  core  cos   1  sin 2  (1.5)

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To calculate the maximum ray angle of incident light, θi,max, that can be guided by total internal
reflection in the optical fibre, θ should meet the critical angle condition. Where it yields,

n0 sin  i ,max  n1 sin  core  n1 1  sin 2  c (1.6)

From (1.3)
2
n 
n0 sin  i ,max  n1 1  sin  c  n1 1   2   n12  n22
2
(1.7)
 n1 

For all rays that meet the condition, θi < θi,max, these rays satisfy the condition of total internal reflection
of the optical fibre and they can propagate along the fibre with low power loss. The term n 0sinθi is also
known as the numerical aperture, and it represents the light-gathering capacity of the optical fibre.

3.3 Refractive Index

The refractive index is a measure of the change in the speed of light inside a medium (Eq. (1.2)). For
instance, light travels at 0.71 times its speed in vacuum when it meets a medium that has a refractive
index of 1.4.

The refractive index of some common materials is listed in Table 1. Note that the refractive index
varies with temperature, pressure and the wavelength of the light.

Table 1. Refractive Index

Material n
Vacuum 1
Air @ 0°C, 1 atmosphere 1.000293
Water @ 20°C 1.3330
Water ice 1.31
Diamond @ room temperature 2.419
Fused silica 1.458
Sapphire 1.762-1.778
Acetone 1.36
Teflon 1.35 – 1.38
Silicon 4.01

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4 Single and Multi-mode Optical Fibres

Single-mode optical fibre (SMF) is the most common type of fibre deployed for high bandwidth
communication where long length is required. On the contrary, the multi-mode fibre is associated with
short distance and lower data rate communication. The term single-mode or multi-mode stems from
the physical property of an optical fibre that allows the simultaneous propagation of multiple modes of
light in the fibre. The multi-mode optical fibre can hold several light modes that are transmitted along
different paths along the fibre. However, for the single-mode optical fibre, its physical structure is
designed to propagate only one mode (path).

Table 2: Characteristics of Different Types of Optical Fibres

Type Core Diameter Cladding Diameter ∆*

Single-mode 8-10 μm 125 μm 0.1 ~ 0.2 %

50 μm 125 μm 1~2%

Multi-mode 62.5 μm 125 μm 1~2%

100 μm 140 μm 1~2%

*Fractional index change at the core-cladding interface

4.1 Cut-off Wavelength

The cut-off wavelength is the minimum wavelength that will result in only one propagation mode in the
fibre. A detailed definition of the cut-off wavelength can be found in EIA/TIA-455-170 [1].

4.2 Test Method for the Cut-off Wavelength (ANSI/TIA-455-80-C-2003) [2]

To measure the cut-off wavelength of the optical fibre, the transmitted power of the tested fibre is
measured for wavelengths. In this case, the multi-mode fibre is used as a reference as it can support
several modes. The attenuation difference (D()) of the sample fibre is plotted against the wavelength
used for testing. Here,

PSMF ( )
D ( )  10 log 10 dB (1.8)
PMMF ( )

As illustrated in Figure 5, the cut-off wavelength is determined by:

(a) Fitting the line of D() for a longer wavelength slope.

(b) Drawing a 0.1 dB lower line parallel to the fitted line.
(c) The intersection point of the 0.1 dB lower line with the measured D().

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Figure 5: Plot for Cut-off Wavelength Measurement

5 Fibre Attributes

5.1 Fibre Geometry

The geometrical parameters of the fibre include cladding diameter, cladding non-circularity, core-
cladding concentricity error and core non-circularity. These geometrical parameters are important
when two fibres are to be matched.

- The cladding diameter is defined as the average diameter of the cladding.

- The core diameter is defined as the average diameter of the core.

- The cladding non-circularity is the difference between the largest radius and the smallest radius of
the fibre divided by the average cladding radium, ellipticity. It is expressed as a percentage.

- The core-cladding concentricity error for a single-mode fibre is defined as the distance between
the core and the cladding centres while it is defined as the distance between the core and the
cladding centres divided by the core diameter for a multi-mode fibre. It is also expressed as a
percentage.

- The core non-circularity is the difference between the largest and the smallest core radius divided
by the core radius. The core non-circularity is measured only for a multi-mode fibre.

The definition of fibre geometry can be found in FOTP-176 [3] while test methods for measuring the
geometrical characteristics of a fibre are provided in TIA-455-176-A [3] or IEC 60793-1-20 [4].

To measure these geometrical parameters, the input of the fibre is overfilled while the output is viewed
via a video camera. For a high-resolution image, the image of the endface is magnified and digitised.
The fibre’s coating at the ends are stripped and prepared with end angles less than 1˚ with near-
perfect mirror surfaces.

The prepared fibre ends are set in the input and output stage of the measurement system shown in
Figure 6. The system automatically adjusts the position to show the desired image. Then edge data on
the cladding and the core are taken and fitted to the appropriate algorithms.

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Figure 6: Set-up for Fibre Geometry Measurement

5.2 Mode-field Diameter

The mode-field diameter (MFD) is a measure of the beam width of the lightwave in the optical fibre.
The power of the lightwave signal is mainly transmitted through the fibre core while a small portion of
its power penetrates its cladding, as illustrated in Figure 7. In a single-mode optical fibre, MFD is
mathematically defined as the diameter at which the optical power is reduced to 1/e2 of the maximum
power. The MFD depends on the operating wavelengths; the shorter the wavelength, the smaller the
MFD.

n
2

Core
n MFD
Diameter
1

Figure 7: A Beam of Light Propagating in a Single-mode Fibre Has Most of

Its Intensity in the Core and Partially in the Cladding

The measurement method for obtaining the mode-field diameter can be found in TIA/EIA-455-191-B
[5] and FOTP-191 [5].

5.3 Minimum Bend Radius

The transmission of light is significantly affected by bends that occur in the fibre. If there is significant
bending, optical attenuation losses in the fibre will increase. Optical fibre cable suppliers usually
provide a parameter known as the minimum bend radius to specify the maximum amount of bending a
fibre cable can tolerate without incurring too much attenuation loss. Chapter 2 provides a more
detailed description on bending-related losses.

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6 Propagation of Light in Fibres

6.1 Optical Power Attenuation

The propagation of light in an optical fibre can be numerically understood by solving Maxwell’s
equation. A mode of a fibre is a solution to Maxwell’s equations that satisfies boundary conditions at
the core-cladding interface. These modes suffer from losses due to the material absorption and the
Rayleigh scattering in the fibre when the light propagates in the medium. The material absorption loss
is caused by impurities in the fibre, but this has been significantly reduced as a result of advanced
fibre manufacturing processes. Today, Rayleigh scattering is the major contributor to the attenuation
losses in optical fibres.

Attenuation loss is an important factor limiting the transmission of a digital signal across long
distances. Attenuation in a fibre can be quantified using the following equation:

Attenuation (dB) = 10 log10 (Output intensity /Input intensity) (1.9)

An attenuation coefficient is always used to describe the fibre attenuation characteristics. The
attenuation coefficient is the total loss in the fibre per kilometre, and usually has units of dB/km.

Conventional SMF

Zero-water-peak
fibre

Figure 8: Attenuation Losses for a Single-mode Fibre

The typical losses are approximately 2.5, 0.3 and 0.2 dB/km at 0.8, 1.3 and 1.55 m, respectively. In a
single-mode fibre, the entire range of the wavelength that can be used for transmission is sub-divided
into different bands, as shown in Table 3.

Table 3: ITU’s Classification of Transmission Bands for Optical Fibre Communication

Band Description Wavelength

Ultra-long
U band 1625 – 1675 nm
wavelengths
L band Long wavelengths 1565 – 1625 nm
C band Conventional 1530 – 1565 nm
S band Short wavelengths 1460 – 1530 nm
E band Extended 1360 – 1460 nm
O band Original 1260 – 1360 nm

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The second and third windows were originally separated by a “high attenuation peak” due to
absorption caused by hydroxyl ions (OH) at around 1,400 nm. However, this peak can now be
eliminated as a result of enhanced fibre manufacturing techniques. Sometimes, such fibres are known
as “zero-water-peak” or “reduced-water-peak” fibres.

TIA-455-78-B describes the various methods for obtaining the attenuation of an optical fibre. There are
four methods, namely the cut-back method, the insertion loss method, backscattering method and the
spectral attenuation modelling method [6].

6.2 Dispersion in Fibres

6.2.1 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)

Ideally, the optical source used in the communication system should be a spectrally narrow source
with zero spectral width. However, in practical systems, a significant portion of the source’s optical
power is distributed across a non-negligible frequency band around the carrier frequency. Each
spectral component that constitutes the overall optical signal travels along the fibre at a slightly
different speed because of the wavelength-dependent nature of the refractive index (refer eq. 1.2).
The result is that different spectral components arrive at the receiver at different times, thus distorting
the waveform of the original signal. CD is present even in single-mode optical fibres because of the
non-zero spectral width of the optical source.

Fiber
Information

Input Output

Laser Diode Photodetector

Digitized Signal

Intensity Intensity

Time Time

Figure 9: Illustrating the Effect of Chromatic Dispersion

TIA-455-175-B describes the various methods for obtaining the chromatic dispersion of an optical
fibre. There are four methods: phase shift method, time-domain spectral group delay method,
differential phase shift method and interferometry method [7].

6.2.2 Polarisation Mode Dispersion (PMD)

When a lightwave propagates in free space, it propagates as a transverse wave where the polarisation
is perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation. In this case, the fundamental mode has two
orthogonal polarisations that travel at the same speed. However, when light propagates through
optical fibres in reality, there are random fluctuations in the fibre’s circular symmetry that result in
different propagation speeds for each polarisation component. The resulting speed difference between
polarisation modes causes differential group delay   PMDcoeff L , where PMDcoeff is a
ps
coefficient measured in km
and L is the transmission distance in the optical fibre. In the fibre, PMD
is statistically changed by time, wavelength, temperature and vibration.

PMD causes a time-domain spreading of the optical pulse. This kind of dispersion degrades the
performance of the fibre-optic communication system. For a long fibre span, PMD has random

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characteristics since it is dependent on the birefringence along the fibre. Moreover, it is time
dependent and is quite sensitive to temperature and mechanical vibrations. Therefore, expected
values < > of the RMS pulse broadening () or averaged differential group delay (DGD, ) among
principal states of polarisation can be used for measuring PMD for the long fibre span.

The following are commonly used test methods for measuring the PMD coefficient:

a. PMD measurement for single-mode fibres by the Stokes parameter evaluation method
(based on FOTP-122) [8]
In this testing method, results are obtained by Jones matrix measurement for the wavelength used for
testing, regardless of fibre lengths and polarisation coupling. This is limited to single-mode operation
only. The set-up consists of a tunable laser, polarisation controller, linear polarisers, a polarimeter and
the fibre under test. The Stokes parameters are measured by the polarimeter while the polarisation
controller is adjusted. Next, the differential group delay is calculated using these parameters and, with
the DGD, the PMD coefficient can be computed.

b. PMD measurement for single-mode fibres by the interferometric method (based on FOTP-
124) [9]
In this test method, the coherence time tc of the source should be lower than the fibre’s PMD values.
The measurement set-up is considerably more complex compared to the Stokes parameter-based
testing method. The fibre under test is placed within an interferometer set-up (Michelson or Mach-
Zehnder) and, during the test, the path length of the interferometer is varied in a precise manner. This
method provides a direct measurement of the averaged PMD coefficient as it measures <> or <2>
due to the interference of two lightwaves at the detector.

c. PMD measurement for single-mode fibres by the fixed analyser method (based on FOTP-113)
[10]
This test method can be applied to both long- and short-length fibres, regardless of polarisation mode
coupling. The test set-up consists of a broadband light source, a polariser, a polarised optical
spectrum analyser and the fibre under test. The DGD is measured by analysing power level
fluctuations in the optical spectrum.

6.3 Non-linear Effects

In an optical fibre system where there is high optical power or high bit-rate signals, the non-linearity
effects in the fibre link should be considered. In this section, three of the most important non-linear
effects are introduced: stimulated Raman scattering (SRS), stimulated Brillouin scattering (SBS) and
four-wave mixing (FWM).

6.3.1 Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)

SRS is caused by the interaction between photons in the signal and the vibration of silica molecules in
the fibre. This results in a scattering of light at a wavelength that is longer than that of the incident light
as well as a transfer of power to the newly generated light. Some of the power from the incident light is
also absorbed by the silica molecules in the fibre. The intensity of the scattered light increases
exponentially once the incident optical power exceeds the threshold.

Generally, SRS is considered to be an undesirable non-linear effect because it is a performance-

limiting factor in a multi-wavelength fibre transmission link, transferring energy from one wavelength
channel to neighbouring ones. However, in some situations, this effect can be harnessed to provide
amplification to a signal located at this longer wavelength. This is the principle behind the Raman
amplifier.

6.3.2 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

While SRS is caused by scattering of light by the Silica molecules, SBS is caused by the
electrostriction effect where the glass material undergoes compression in the presence of light. This
effect produces an acoustic wave in the fibre and it propagates along the fibre together with the
incident light. Due to the conservation of energy and momentum, a new optical signal known as a

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Stokes wave is also produced. However, the Stokes wave travels in a direction that is opposite to the
incident light and is thus detrimental to optical sources in a fibre transmission system.

SBS occurs in optical fibres at a lower input power compared with SRS. In other words, the threshold
power for SBS is lower than SRS. However, once the threshold level is exceeded, most of the light is
reflected back to the source. The Stokes wave is also generated at the lower frequency side of the
input signal by an amount determined by the non-linear medium (Brillouin shift).

6.3.3 Four Wave Mixing (FWM)

The refractive index of silica is generally assumed to be power independent. However, for high input
power, it is necessary to consider its power dependence. The refractive index changes depending on
the input power and, for high input power, the influence of the higher order non-linearity component of
the refractive index will become significant.

FWM is an interaction involving two or more optical signals occupying different wavelength channels in
a fibre. Under certain conditions, when these optical signals become phase matched, they will interact,
and new optical signals will be created at other wavelength channels. Through this process, energy
from the original signals will be transferred to the new ones. Therefore, FWM has a detrimental effect
in multi-wavelength channel systems because it creates crosstalk noise.

7 Types of Optical Fibres

The following table summarises the different types of fibres that are commonly used today.

Type of Fibre Standard

Multi-mode fibre for 1300nm and 850nm wavebands (for

ITU-T G.651 [11]
short-reach applications)

Standard single-mode fibre (most commonly deployed

ITU-T G.652a and G.652b [12]
fibre for long-distance communication)

Non dispersion-shifted, single-mode fibre with reduced

ITU-T G.652c [12]
water peak (for multi-wavelength channels)

Single-mode fibre with reduced water peak and low

ITU-T G.652d [12] *
dispersion

Dispersion-shifted, single-mode fibre (zero dispersion

ITU-T G.653 [13]
wavelength shifted to 1550nm)

Long distance undersea cable (higher power handling

ITU-T G.654 [14]
capability)

* Fibres in Singapore’s Next Generation NBN are based on ITU-T G.652d standard.

8 Important Performance Specifications for Optical Fibre Communication

8.1 Bit Error Ratio (BER)

Bit error ratio (BER) represents the error-ratio based on bit-by-bit counting. Since it is a statistical
parameter, the measured value is dependent on the gating time, t, which corresponds to the time the
data is collected and compared. Numerically it is defined as the number of errors counted divided by
the total number of bits transmitted or received.

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E (t )
BER  (1.10)
N (t )
where, E(t) is the number of bits received in error and N(t) is the number of total bits transmitted over
time t. Generally BER is expressed as 10-xx, i.e. BER of 10-6 means one error counted for a total of
1,000,000 bits transmitted.

To measure the BER of the system, the bit error ratio tester (BERT) is used. This comprises a pattern
generator and an error detector. In the generator, the pseudorandom bit sequence (PRBS) pattern
generator has the ability to change its pattern length from 2 7-1 to 231-1, and the signal levelling, so that
end-users can modify the signal for their purpose. The following figure shows the general set-up for
testing BER using BERT.

Figure 10: General BER Test Set-up

8.2 Eye Diagram

An eye diagram is an oscilloscope’s display of a repetitively sampled signal, and is a useful tool to
observe and analyse the performance of binary digital (or analogue) signals. It can provide visual
information to evaluate and troubleshoot digital transmission systems. The eye diagram is created by
capturing the time-domain signals and then overlapping their traces on the display. Its name originates
from the fact that the pattern looks like a human eye. Eye measurement provides insights on the
waveform characteristics of digital signals such as rise time, overshooting, signal-to-noise and jitter.

Amount of
amplitude
distortion

Vertical
eye
opening

Time variation of Horizontal eye opening

zero crossing Best time to sample

Figure 11: Measured Eye Diagram of a Digital Signal in

an Optical-fibre Communication System

The above figure shows a measured eye diagram for a digital signal in an optical transmission system.
The vertical eye opening indicates the amount of difference in signal level between the one-bits and

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 IMDA RD OFD – Part 1 (October 2016)

the zero-bits. The bigger the difference, the easier it is to discriminate between ones and zeros. The
part of the eye where the vertical opening is the largest represents the best time to sample the signal.
The horizontal eye opening indicates the amount of jitter present in the signal. The wider the eye
opening, the less jitter it is likely to possess. Thus, the amount of eye opening is an indication of the
signal’s quality, so the larger the eye opening, the easier it is for the signal to be detected without
errors. When the eye is nearly closed, it is very difficult or impossible to derive correct data from the
signal. The following figure shows a basic eye diagram measuring set-up.

Pulse Generator Oscilloscope

Trigger Data Out Channel
Trigger

System under Test

Figure 12: Eye Diagram Measurement Set-up

8.3 Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (OSNR)

The optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR) is widely used to estimate the performance of a Wavelength
Division Multiplexing (WDM) optical transmission system. It is the key performance parameter for
characterising the transmission performance of an optical signal and it can be used to estimate the
BER at the receiver of a transmission link. OSNR is defined as the ratio of signal channel power to the
noise power in an optical channel (within a specified optical bandwidth):

S
OSNR ( dB )  10  log 10 ( ) (1.10)
N
where, S represents the optical signal power and N is the average optical noise power in the signal
channel.

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 IMDA RD OFD – Part 1 (October 2016)

9 References

[1] EIA/TIA-455-170. FOTP-170 Cable Cutoff Wavelength of Single-Mode Fibre by

Transmitted Power. Nov 1, 1989.
[2] TIA-455-80-C. FOTP-80 IEC-60793-1-44 Optical Fibres - Part 1-44: Measurement Methods
and Test Procedures - Cut-off Wavelength. May 21, 2003.
[3] TIA-455-176-A. FOTP-176 IEC-60793-1-20 Optical Fibres Part1-20: Measurement
Methods and Test Procedures Fibre Geometry.
[4] IEC 60793-1-20. Optical Fibres - Part 1-20: Measurement Methods and Test Procedures -
Fibre Geometry. Sep 1, 2001.
[5] TIA-455-191-B. FOTP-191 IEC-60793-1-45 Optical Fibres - Part 1-45: Measurement
Methods and Test Procedures - Mode Field Diameter. Nov 16, 2003.
[6] TIA-455-78B. FOTP-78 IEC 60793-1-40 Optical Fibres - Part1-40: Measurement Methods
and Test Procedures - Attenuation. Nov 19, 2002.
[7] TIA-455-175-B. FOTP-175 IEC-60793-1-42 Optical Fibres - Part1-42: Measurement
Methods and Test Procedures - Chromatic Dispersion. May 21, 2003.
[8] TIA-455-122-A. FOTP-122 Polarization-Mode Dispersion Measurement for Single-Mode
Optical Fibres by Stokes Parameters Evaluation. Aug 1, 2002.
[9] TIA-455-124-A. FOTP124 Polarization-Mode Dispersion Measurement for Single-Mode
Optical Fibres by Interferometry. Feb 1, 2004.
[10] TIA/EIA-455-113. FOTP-113 Polarization-Mode Dispersion Measurement for Single-Mode
Optical Fibres by the Fixed Analyzer Method. Feb 1, 1997.
[11] ITU-T G.651. Characteristics of a 50/125 Micrometer Multimode Graded Index Optical Fibre
Cable - Series G: Transmission Systems and Media, Digital Systems and Networks -
Transmission Media Characteristics - Optical Fibre Cables - Study Group15. Feb 1, 1998.
[12] ITU-T G.652. Characteristics of A Single-Mode Optical Fibre and Cable. JUN 1, 2005.
[13] ITU-T G.653. Characteristics of a Dispersion-Shifted Single-Mode Optical Fibre and Cable-
Study Group 15. Dec 01, 2006.
[14] ITU-T G.654. Characteristics of a Cut-Off Shifted Single-Mode Optical Fibre and Cable -
Study Group 15. Dec 1, 2006.

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 IMDA RD OFD – Part 1 (October 2016)

Annex

Corrigendum / Addendum

Changes to IDA RD OFD - Part 1 Issue 1 Rev 1, May 2011

Page RS Ref Items Changed Date of Issue
The IDA RD OFD - Part 1 Issue 1 Rev 1 (May 2011) has been re- 1 Oct 2016
issued as the IMDA RD OFD - Part 1 Issue 1 (Oct 2016)

Changes to IDA RD OFD - Part 1 Issue 1, Jul 10

Effective
Page RS Ref. Items Changed
Date
─ ─ Change of IDA’s address at cover page to Mapletree Business City. 1 May 11

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