Math (P)refresher Lecture 1:

Functions

September 2006

Today’s Topics∗ : • R1 and Rn • Interval Notation for R1 • Neighborhoods: Intervals, Disks,

and Balls • Open/Closed/Compact Sets • Introduction to Functions • Domain and Range/Image
• Some General Types of Functions • Log, Ln, and e • Graphing Functions • Solving for Variables
• Finding Roots • Summation and Product Notation • Limit of a Function • Continuity

1 R1 and Rn

• R1 is the set of all real numbers extending from −∞ to +∞ — i.e., the real number line.

• Rn is an n-dimensional space (often referred to as Euclidean space), where each of the n axes
extends from −∞ to +∞.

• Examples:

1. R1 is a line.
2. R2 is a plane.
3. R3 is a 3-D space.
4. R4 could be 3-D plus time.

• Points in Rn are ordered n-tuples, where each element of the n-tuple represents the coordinate
along that dimension.

2 Interval Notation for R1

• Open interval: (a, b) ≡ {x ∈ R1 : a < x < b}

• Closed interval: [a, b] ≡ {x ∈ R1 : a ≤ x ≤ b}

• Half open, half closed: (a, b] ≡ {x ∈ R1 : a < x ≤ b}

3 Neighborhoods: Intervals, Disks, and Balls

• In many areas of math, we need a formal construct for what it means to be “near” a point c in
Rn . This is generally called the neighborhood of c and is represented by an open interval,
disk, or ball, depending on whether Rn is of one, two, or more dimensions, respectively. Given
the point c, these are defined as
∗
Much of the material and examples for this lecture are taken from Simon & Blume (1994) Mathematics for
Economists, Boyce & Diprima (1988) Calculus, and Protter & Morrey (1991) A First Course in Real Analysis
Math (P)refresher: Functions 2

1. ²-interval in R1 : {x : |x − c| < ²}
The open interval (c − ², c + ²).
2. ²-disk in R2 : {x : ||x − c|| < ²}
The open interior of the circle centered at c with radius ².
3. ²-ball in Rn : {x : ||x − c|| < ²}
The open interior of the sphere centered at c with radius ².

4 Sets, Sets, and More Sets

• Interior Point: The point x is an interior point of the set S if x is in S and if there is
some ²-ball around x that contains only points in S. The interior of S is the collection of
all interior points in S. The interior can also be defined as the union of all open sets in S.
Example: The interior of the set {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 4} is {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 < 4} .

• Boundary Point: The point x is a boundary point of the set S if every ²-ball around x
contains both points that are in S and points that are outside S. The boundary is the
collection of all boundary points.
Example: The boundary of {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 4} is {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = 4}.

• Open: A set S is open if for each point x in S, there exists an open ²-ball around x completely
contained in S.
Example: {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 < 4}

• Closed: A set S is closed if it contains all of its boundary points.

Example: {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 4}

• Note: a set may be neither open nor closed.

Example: {(x, y) : 2 < x2 + y 2 ≤ 4}

• Complement: The complement of set S is everything outside of S.

Example: The complement of {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 4} is {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 > 4}.

• Closure: The closure of set S is the smallest closed set that contains S.
Example: The closure of {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 < 4} is {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 ≤ 4}

• Bounded: A set S is bounded if it can be contained within an ²-ball.

Examples: Bounded: any interval that doesn’t have ∞ or −∞ as endpoints; any disk in a
plane with finite radius. Unbounded: the set of integers in R1 ; any ray.

• Compact: A set is compact if and only if it is both closed and bounded.

5 Introduction to Functions

• A function (in R1 ) is a rule or relationship or mapping or transformation that assigns one

and only one number in R1 to each number in R1 .

• Mapping notation examples

1. Function of one variable: f : R1 → R1

2. Function of two variables: f : R2 → R1
Math (P)refresher: Functions 3

• Examples:

1. f (x) = x + 1
For each x in R1 , f (x) assigns the number x + 1.
2. f (x, y) = x2 + y 2
For each ordered pair (x, y) in R2 , f (x, y) assigns the number x2 + y 2 .

• Often use one variable x as input and another y as output.

Example: y = x + 1

• Input variable also called independent variable. Output variable also called dependent
variable.

6 Domain and Range/Image

• Some functions are defined only on proper subsets of Rn .

• Domain: the set of numbers in X at which f (x) is defined.

• Range: elements of Y assigned by f (x) to elements of X, or

f (X) = {y : y = f (x), x ∈ X}

Most often used when talking about a function f : R1 → R1 .

• Image: same as range, but more often used when talking about a function f : Rn → R1 .

• Examples:

3
1. f (x) = 1+x2

Domain X = R1
Range f (X) = (0, 3]

 x + 1, 1≤x≤2
2. f (x) = 0, x=0

1−x −2 ≤ x ≤ −1
Domain X = [−2, −1] ∪ {0} ∪ [1, 2]
Range f (X) = [2, 3] ∪ {0}

3. f (x) = 1/x
Domain X = R1 − {0}
Range f (X) = R1 − {0}
Math (P)refresher: Functions 4

4. f (x, y) = x2 + y 2
Domain X = R2
Image f (X, Y ) = R1+

7 Some General Types of Functions

• Monomials: f (x) = axk

a is the coefficient. k is the degree.
Examples: y = x2 , y = − 12 x3

• Polynomials: sum of monomials.

Examples: y = − 21 x3 + x2 , y = 3x + 5
The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of its monomial terms. Also, it’s often a
good idea to write polynomials with terms in decreasing degree.

• Rational Functions: ratio of two polynomials.

2 +1
Examples: y = x2 , y = x2x−2x+1

• Exponential Functions: Example: y = 2x

• Trigonometric Functions: Examples: y = cos(x), y = 3 sin(4x)

• Linear: polynomial of degree 1.

Example: y = mx + b, where m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.

• Nonlinear: anything that isn’t constant or polynomial of degree 1.

Examples: y = x2 + 2x + 1, y = sin(x), y = ln(x), y = ex

8 Log, Ln, and e

• Relationship of logarithmic and exponential functions:

y = loga (x) ⇐⇒ ay = x

The log function can be thought of as an inverse for exponential functions. a is referred to as
the “base” of the logarithm.
Math (P)refresher: Functions 5

• The two most common logarithms are base 10 and base e.

1. Base 10: y = log10 (x) ⇐⇒ 10y = x

The base 10 logarithm is often simply written as “log(x)” with no base denoted.
2. Base e: y = loge (x) ⇐⇒ ey = x
The base e logarithm is referred to as the “natural” logarithm and is written as “ln(x)”.

• loga (ax ) = x and aloga (x) = x

• Examples:
√
1. log( 10) = 1/2
2. log(1) = 0
3. log(10) = 1
4. log(100) = 2
5. ln(1) = 0
6. ln(e) = 1

• Properties of exponential functions:

1. ax ay = ax+y
2. a−x = 1/ax
3. ax /ay = ax−y
4. (ax )y = axy
5. a0 = 1

• Properties of logarithmic functions (any base):

1. log(xy) = log(x) + log(y)

2. log(1/x) = − log(x)
3. log(x/y) = log(x) − log(y)
4. log(xy ) = y log(x)
5. log(1) = 0

• Use the change of base formula to switch bases as necessary: logb (x) = loga (x)/ loga (b)

9 Graphing Functions

• Know your function. How? Graph your function.

• A picture is worth a thousand words.

Math (P)refresher: Functions 6

1. Is the function increasing or decreasing? Over what part of the domain?

2. How “fast” does it increase or decrease?
3. Are there global or local maxima and minima? Where?
4. Are there inflection points?
5. Is the function continuous?
6. Is the function differentiable?
7. Does the function tend to some limit?
8. Other questions related to the substance of the problem at hand.

10 Solving for Variables

• Sometimes we’re given a function y = f (x) and we want to find how x varies as a function of
y.

• If f is a one-to-one mapping, then it has an inverse.

• Use algebra and relationships identified above to move x to the LHS of the equation and so
that the RHS is only a function of y.

• Examples: (we want to solve for x)

1. y = 3x + 2 =⇒ y − 2 = 3x =⇒ x = 13 (y − 2)
2. y = 3x − 4z + 2 =⇒ y + 4z − 2 = 3x =⇒ x = 31 (y + 4z − 2)
3. y = ex + 4 =⇒ y − 4 = ex =⇒ ln(y − 4) = ln(ex ) =⇒ x = ln(y − 4)

• Sometimes (often?) the inverse does not exist.

√
• Example: We’re given the function y = x2 (a parabola). Solving for x, we get x = y and
√
x = − y — for each value of y, there are two values of x.

11 Finding Roots

• Solving for variables is especially important when we want to find the roots of an equation:
those values of variables that cause an equation to equal zero.

• Especially important in finding equilibria and in doing maximum likelihood estimation.

• Procedure: Given y = f (x), set y = 0. Solve for x.

• There may be multiple roots.

√
−b± b2 −4ac
• For quadratic equations ax2 + bx + c = 0, use x = 2a .

• Examples:
Math (P)refresher: Functions 7

1. f (x) = 3x + 2 =⇒ 3x + 2 = 0 =⇒ x = − 23
2. f (x) = e−x − 10 =⇒ e−x − 10 = 0 =⇒ e−x = 10 =⇒ x = − ln(10)
3. f (x) = x2 + 3x − 4 = 0 =⇒ x = {1, −4}.

12 Summation and Product Notation

P
n
• Summation: xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn
i=1

P
n P
n
1. cxi = c xi
i=1 i=1
Pn P
n P
n
2. (xi + yi ) = xi + yi
i=1 i=1 i=1
Pn
3. c = nc
i=1

Q
n
• Product: xi = x1 x2 x3 · · · xn
i=1

Q
n Q
n
1. cxi = cn xi
i=1 i=1
Q
n
2. (xi + yi ) = a mess
i=1
Q
n
3. c = cn
i=1

• Use logs to go between sum, product notation:

Q
n P
n P
n
log( cxi ) = log(cxi ) = n log(c) + log(xi )
i=1 i=1 i=1

13 The Limit of a Function

• We’re often interested in determining if a function f approaches some number L as its inde-
pendent variable x moves to some number c (usually 0 or ±∞). If it does, we say that f (x)
approaches L as x approaches c, or limx→c f (x) = L.

• Limit of a function. Let f be defined at each point in some open interval containing
the point c, although possibly not defined at c itself. Then lim f (x) = L if for any (small
x→c
positive) number ², there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − c| < δ,
then |f (x) − L| < ².

• Examples:

1. lim k = k
x→c
2. lim x = c
x→c
Math (P)refresher: Functions 8

3. lim |x| = 0
x→0

¡ 1
¢
4. lim 1 + x2
=∞
x→0

• Uniqueness: lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = M =⇒ L = M

x→c x→c

• Properties: Let f and g be functions with lim f (x) = A and lim g(x) = B.
x→c x→c

1. lim [f (x) + g(x)] = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = A + B

x→c x→c x→c
2. lim αf (x) = α lim f (x) = αA
x→c x→c
3. lim f (x)g(x) = [lim f (x)][lim g(x)] = AB
x→c x→c x→c
f (x) lim f (x)
x→c A
4. lim = = B, provided B 6= 0
x→c g(x) lim g(x)
x→c

• Examples:

1. lim (2x − 3) = 2 lim x − 3 lim 1 = 2 × 2 − 3 × 1 = 1

x→2 x→2 x→2
2. lim xn = [lim x] · · · [lim x] = c · · · c = cn
x→c x→c x→c

• Other types of limits:

1. Right-hand limit: lim f (x) = L, if c < x < c + δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ²

x→c+

√
Example: lim x=0
x→0+

2. Left-hand limit: lim f (x) = L, if c − δ < x < c =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ²

x→c−
3. Infinity: lim f (x) = L, if x > N =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ²
x→∞
4. −Infinity: lim f (x) = L, if x < −N =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ²
x→−∞

Example: lim 1/x = lim 1/x = 0

x→∞ x→−∞
Math (P)refresher: Functions 9

14 Continuity

• Continuity: Suppose that the domain of the function f includes an open interval containing
the point c. Then f is continuous at c if lim f (x) exists and if lim f (x) = f (c). Further, f is
x→c x→c
continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it is continuous at each point in the interval.

• Examples: Continuous functions.

√
f (x) = x f (x) = ex

• Examples: Discontinuous functions.

1
f (x) = floor(x) f (x) = 1 + x2

• Properties:

1. If f and g are continuous at point c, then f + g, f − g, f g, |f |, and αf are continuous.

f /g is continuous, provided g(c) 6= 0.
2. Boundedness: If f is continuous on the closed bounded interval [a, b], then there is a
number K such that |f (x)| ≤ K for each x in [a, b].
3. Max/Min: If f is continous on the closed bounded interval [a, b], then f has a maximum
and a minimum on [a, b], possibly at the end points.
4. The image of a closed bounded interval [a, b] under a continuous function f is also a
closed bounded interval [m, M ].