Shifts in Kabīr Contexts and Texts - Imre Bangha

Imre Bangha
6. Shifts in Kabīr Contexts and Texts

from Mughal to Modern Times
Abstract. Kabīr’s extraordinary popularity was made possible by the fact that his
poetry could be adapted to various contexts and was able to speak to various com-
munities over the times. New interpretive communities recontextualised Kabīr’s
text through various means, such as selection, textual variation or providing a new
context to existing textual strategies. After a survey of the major receptive com-
munities and presenting possible reasons for neglect from Sufi and early Kabīr
panthī circles, this paper analyses textual variation in ten poems in the pada form as
they transited from one receptive community to another. Each of these poems had
been recorded by at least two of the six clusters of sectarian sources produced by
Sikh, Vaishnava, Dādūpanthī, Kabīrpanthī, Radhasoami and Nāthpanthī compilers
between the late sixteenth and the early twentieth century. Many of their variant
readings are indicative of sectarian preferences. Divine names, the importance of
the guru and hagiographic details were particularly contested aspects of the padas.
Keywords. Kabīr, Pada, Textual variation, Interpretive community, Recontextual-

isation.
‘I speak for all

but no one knows me.
It was okay then
and it’s okay now.
Ages pass, I stay the same.’
Kabīr, sākhī 183, Bījak
Continuous recontextualization of Kabīr
The poet-saint Kabīr (d. c. 1518) is one of the most outstanding authors of Old
Hindi literature.* Kabīr’s message of a higher devotional consciousness and his
advocacy of a direct contact with an ineffable nirguṇa deity, expressed in powerful
poetry with striking, elemental imagery, make him one of the most popular Indian
poets both in India and abroad.1
* I express my gratitude to the peer reviewer as well as to Linda Hess, Peter Friedlander,
and David Lorenzen for their comments on an earlier version of this article.
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Imre Bangha
This extraordinary popularity was made possible by the fact that Kabīr poetry
could be adapted to various contexts and spoke to various communities throughout
history. He has always been considered a poet–saint but has also become more
than that. In contemporary India, for example, his vigorous attacks on hypocrisy
in both religions has led him to be viewed as a symbol of Hindu–Muslim unity or
as one of the early representatives of low-caste Dalit literature.2 Interestingly, he is
one of the few Hindi poets who transcended the linguistic confines of South Asia
and, over the past hundred years, came to speak to popular Western audiences who
perceived Kabīr as a mystic either from Christian, Beat, or New Age perspectives.3
In academia, the focus of Kabīr studies has gradually moved from the question
of reconstructing an ‘original Kabīr’ to the examination of the multiplicity of voic-
es in the available material both written and oral. While scholars such as Dvivedi,
Tivari, and Vaudeville tried to arrive at what Kabīr was or was not, more recent
scholarship investigates the multiplicity of Kabīr images and the multiplicity of
Kabīr voices.4 This multiplicity is examined in the tradition about the persona of
Kabīr, as the telling plural in the title of an important volume, Images of Kabīr,
indicates. It is also acknowledged in the latest Kabīr-edition through, for example,
the synoptic presentation of all early variant versions in The Millennium Kabīr
Vāṇī or through Dharwadker’s translation of poems from markedly different Kabīr
layers.
Reception in a particular community in early modern India is reflected, among
others, through the manuscripts they produce. In these manuscripts, the process of
selection is determined by two major factors: the availability and quality of source
material and the sectarian principles of the interpretative community and manu-
script editors. In sectarian anthologies—and all early Kabīr material is sectarian—
1 The term Kabīr in this article, unless indicated otherwise, refers not to the historical per-
son but rather to the persona who composed or inspired songs under the name Kabīr. This
approach does not deny the historicity of Kabīr but reckons with the possibility of compos-
ite authorship of Kabīrian poetry. For arguments about the approximate date of death of the
historical person, see Lorenzen (1992), p. 18.
2 See, e. g., Hedayetullah (2009) and Ralhan (2004). A Google search of ‘Kabir’ and
‘Hindu–Muslim unity’ resulted in over 12,000 hits. The seminal book on Kabīr as Dalit is
Dharmvir (1998). For a recent Hindi monograph discussing Indian and Western approaches
to Kabīr, see Agrawal (2009).
3 On English translations of Kabīr, see Kumar (2009), pp. 165–181 and the ‘Introduction’
in Friedlander (2017), pp. 5–42. Tagore and Underhill’s English version, One Hundred
Poems of Kabir, has been translated into French, German, Spanish, Italian, Hungarian,
Russian, and Bulgarian. Interestingly, no prominent translations exist in non-European
languages. See Imre Bangha, 'International Tagore Bibliography', University of Oxford,
<http://tagore.orient.ox.ac.uk>. (Accessed 27 October 2018).
4 The groundbreaking article in this approach was Hess (1987). The books of Dvivedi
(1950 [1942]), Tivari (1989 [1961]) and Vaudeville (1997 [1993]) are listed in the refer-
ences.
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6. Shifts in Kabīr Contexts and Texts from Mughal to Modern Times
poems are selected for inclusion and their text is sometimes modified. At other
times, new meanings are acquired simply by transposing the unchanged poem
from one community to another.
In this chapter, I intend to examine a particular aspect of this multiple recep-
tion, namely, the changes in particular poems when they pass from one interpretive
community to another. In order to show how various communities received, ac-
commodated, and recontextualized Kabīr, I will present examples of an influential
part of texts, the padas, called sabads in certain sources though other sources make
a clear distinction between the two.5 Other poetic forms, such as distiches (dohās)
or ramainīs are at least as important in the Kabīr literature as the padas, but in this
chapter, due to constraints of size and the easy availability of the earliest pada cor-
pus in publication, I am considering only the latter. The examination that can be
contained within the framework of an article is limited and I will only be compar-
ing versions of single poems used in two or more different contexts. A wider search
may include the comparison of entire collections and identifying dominant themes,
stylistic features, or keywords.6 It may also assess the structures of various collec-
tions or compare the various forms of dohās, sākhīs or ramainīs, and include hagi-
ography.7 A study of a certain theme, such as Kabīr’s attack on orthodoxies, Hindu
or Muslim, over the centuries would also be of special interest.8 I will not include
all communities that produced a record of their reception either and I do not even
aim at a balance of all chronological layers. However, I aim to sample the most im-
portant old receptive communities and then give some examples of reception under
colonial modernity as well. The work of Linda Hess, Shabnam Virmani, and others
show how much Kabīr is a living presence.9 However, extending my investigations
to all major modern collections of texts would have considerably increased my
article. I will be primarily examining written sources, but it should not be forgotten
that Kabīr may have been more of an oral than a written presence during the period
under investigation. However, the oral cannot be excluded from this analysis as it is
5 Strictly speaking, sabads are brief poems made by joining together three or four cou-
plets of the same metre, normally čaupāīs or dohās. The poetic output of Sant Čarandās,
for example, apart from over a hundred padas, contains sabads in čaupāī, nisānī and other
metres. Brajendra Kumar Singhal, ‘Svāmījī Śrīrāmčaraṇjī Mahārāj Kī Anubhav-Vāṇī’ (un-
published work), pp. 587–590.
6 Such examination was carried out by Linda Hess in the 1980s on what appears now to be
a limited number of texts (1987), pp. 114–141. About the limitations and the validity of her
project within the light of recent scholarship, see Hess (2015), p. 146.
7 A comparison of the structures of two early Dādūpanthī collections is found in Strnad
(2016).
8 Cf. Lorenzen (2011), pp. 23–25, 27–36. Pauwels (2010) shows that within the groups
that nowadays are part of Hinduism, the Śāktas are singled out for special criticism.
9 Hess (2015) and Shabnam Virmani, ‘The Kabir Project,’ Srishti School of Art, Design
and Technology, <http://kabirproject.org/>. (Accessed 27 October 2018).
127
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always inherently present in the written. Kabīr’s poems were first performed orally
and the first recordings of Kabīr, though written, are snapshots of oral performanc-
es preserving extrametrical exclamations or explicatory phrases.10
In the changing world of Kabīr, silences are of special interest. We do not
have early recordings of his poetry from several communities with which it has
been associated. For example, we do not have extant Kabīr manuscripts of Sufi
provenance even though he has repeatedly been associated with the Sufis.11 No
early Kabīrpanthī or Nāthpanthī manuscript recording of Kabīr’s poems seems
to exist although the former claims the custodianship of Kabīr’s legacy through
a disciple lineage and the latter shares the tantric and yogic imagery present in
many of Kabīr’s songs.12 The accommodation of Nāthpanthī imagery in Kabīrian
poems went so far that entire Gorakh-bānī songs were included under Kabīr’s
name with minor modifications in a Dādūpanthī manuscript containing the works
of both Kabīr and Gorakh.13 This may be due to the fact that the Nāthpanth initially
did not pay as much attention to vernacular writing as did the Dādūpanth or the
Nirañjanīs. In fact, vernacular Nāth manuscripts do not seem to appear before the
eighteenth century.14
The lack of Sufi and early Kabīrpanthī archives requires a few words about
Kabīr’s reception in these circles.
Reception in Indo-Persian and Sufi circles
Although in the twentieth century there have been attempts to present Kabīr as a
hero of Hindu–Muslim unity, his reception amongst Muslims was rather modest.15
Textual scholarship does not mention the existence of any Sufi recensions of his
poetry, or even his presence in nasta‘līq manuscripts, and he was not discussed by
Muslims as a poet until the twentieth century. Moreover, before the nineteenth cen-
tury, he had only a moderate presence in the rich Indo-Persian religious discursive
10 Bangha (2010) and (2013).

11 It should be mentioned that Tivari in his critical edition found traces of Urdu script
transmission. However, his arguments seem to be highly speculative (1989), pp. 73–79.
12 Such recordings are missing from Dharwadker’s list of Kabīr sources in Dharwadker
(2003), pp. 33–39.
13 Strnad (2018), pp. 151-153, discusses the example of tatva belī lo, tatva belī lo; avadhū
gorakhanātha jānī (Gorakhnāth) and rāma guna belaṛī re avadhū gorakhanāthi jānī (Kabīr).
14 James Mallinson, email communication, 13 November 2015. However, Nāth works
on Haṭhayoga from north-west India, such as the Amaraughaśāsana, are found as early as
1525 CE. See also Mallinson (2011), p. 424.
15 On the Muslim reception of Kabīr, see Rizvi (1978), pp. 411–413, Vaudeville (1997),
pp. 48–51, and Gaeffke (2002). At present, I am also preparing an article including further
examples of Muslim reception.
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literature. Out of the twenty-seven post-1530 Sufi biographical dictionaries dis-

cussed by Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi in his History of Sufism in India, only five
mention Kabīr. Another telling silence is in the discourses of Dārā Shukoh, in
his conversations with the bairāgī ascetic Bābā Lāl Dās or in his philosophical
treatises, such as the Majma’-ul-baḥrain.16 However, we have evidence that in
1698–1699 Ālamgīr made a grant to a village for the upkeep of the tomb of Śāh
Kabīr in Magahar. Further grants followed later.17
Muslim appreciation of Kabīr may have been hindered by the lack of Islamic
terminology in the poems. Nonetheless, it was a stumbling block for later Muslims
that the Hindavi Sufi poets, such as Mālik Muḥammad Jāysī, wrote in a literary
idiom of Hindi and translated Sufi terminology into Hindi hardly retaining any of
the terms in Arabic. How can Kabīr talk from an Islamic standpoint or to a Sufi
audience? Such Sufi usages in his corpus have hardly been studied.18
Two questions have been posed in this context, that of the vernacular language
and that of the non-Islamic terminology. There are various explanations for the ex-
istence of Hindavi poems within Indian Islamic discourse. The nationalist idea that
vernaculars were used as a missionary tool by Sufis to convert Hindus to Islam
has been rejected by modern scholarship.19 Moreover, no scholar has proposed to
credit Kabīr with such an agenda. Scholars from Pitambardatt Barthwal (1901–
1944) to Charlotte Vaudeville accounted for the lack of use of Islamic terminology
by positing Kabīr as a Muslim poet of a recently converted weaver community
that has only been partially Islamicized.20 This explanation would accord with the
view in which Muslim society is divided into aśrāf (high, non-indigenous) and
ajlāf (low, indigenous) groups, the former using Persian and the latter Hindavi in
their discourse.21 Consequently, Kabīr, as a member of ajlāf, would not have direct
16 On Shukoh’s conversations, the So’āl o Jawāb bain-e-Lāl Dās wa Dārā Shikoh (also
called Mukālama-i Bābā La’l Dās wa Dārā Shikoh), see Huart and Massignon (1926). His
most discussed work is Mahfuz-ul-Haq (1998 [1929]).
17 Lorenzen (1992), p. 17.
18 Welcome exceptions are De Bruijn (2014) and Hess’s session on Kabīr’s poems with
a Muslim association at the Fifth Early Hindi/Braj Bhasha Workshop-Retreat in Bansko,
29 July 2017.
19 See, e. g., Barthwal (1978), p. 1109, xii; Rizvi (1978), vol. 1, p. 327; Ernst (2004),
p. 166. According to Ernst (2004), p. 157, ‘the malfūz̤ āt texts of the thirteenth and four-
teenth centuries refer only to a few isolated cases of individuals who converted to Islam
after becoming attracted to the Sufi saints.’ Francesca Orsini and Samira Sheikh, in their
‘Introduction’ to Orsini and Sheikh (2014), p. 30, assert that ‘there is little evidence of a
large-scale conversion to Islam’ in the ‘long fourteenth century.’
20 See Barthwal (1978), pp. 250–251, and Vaudeville (1997), p. 72. This hypothesis has
been sharply criticized by Purushottam Agrawal. See Lorenzen (2011), p. 31, and (2014),
pp. 174–175.
21 Eaton (1978), pp. 42–43, 90–91.
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access to Perso-Arabic resources and would not only use Hindavi language but
also indigenous imagery.
Poems apparently lacking Islamic terminology were, however, used by Sufis in
their discourses during the Sultanate period. A good example of the distribution of
language functions is proposed by Carl Ernst who examined the Bābā Farīd poems
recorded in the Khuldabad manuscripts of four fourteenth-century malfūz̤ āt works
(preserved in relatively late, apparently post-seventeenth-century transcripts). The
readership (and audience) of these malfūz̤ āt texts was restricted, consisting of elite
Sufis who were familiar with the local language.22 These verses used in Sufi dis-
courses, where they are embedded between Persian verses and Qur’anic passages,
do not convey any distinctively Islamic import. ‘The purpose of this kind of poetry
seems rather to be that of reinforcing the subject at hand by means of a powerful
literary tool that had great appeal to an audience of Indian Sufis.’23 This is in line
with Rizvi’s judgement made in the 1970s: ‘Such songs were not composed for
propaganda purposes but were a natural evolution from the deep and personal
involvement of these two great mystics with their environment.’24
The equivalence or translation theory proposes an alternative to the already ex-
isting notion of different functions. Drawing on Tony K. Stewart’s work, Francesca
Orsini suggests approaching early Hindavi Sufi poetry in terms of translation:25
In order to express their ways of imagining the world, we must assume that
these Muslim authors did not ‘borrow’ terms but, in a more intellectually
astute process, sought the closest ‘terms of equivalence’ in order to approx-
imate the ideas they wanted to express.26
According to Stewart and Orsini, in their ‘attempt to “think Islamic thoughts in

the local language” they in practice thought new thoughts’ in the vernacular.27 The
concept of seeking Hindavi equivalence for Perso-Arabic expressions may have
even deeper roots since Ḥamīdudīn Nāgaurī (d. 1273) is credited with the transla-
tion of some verses of Niẓāmī into Hindavi.28
Kabīr has long been present in Sufi singing.29 His links to vernacular Sufis
show that he was not isolated in his poetry. Contemporary Sufi singers have been
22 Ernst (2004), p. 166.

23 Ibid., p. 167.
24 Rizvi (1978), vol. 1, p. 327.
25 Pellò (2014), pp. 422, 426.
26 Pellò (2014); Stewart (2001), p. 273.
27 Pellò (2014), p. 426.
28 Rizvi (1978), vol. 1, p. 328.
29 For example, Śaikh Bāhā’uddīn Barnavī had a special affection for Kabīrī songs. See
Rizvi (1978), vol. 1, p. 278.
130
documented in Rajasthan and Pakistan by Shabnam Virmani.30 She has noted var-
ious ways in which Kabīr overlaps in language, symbol, affect, text arrangements,
and narrative references with vernacular Sufi poets, such as Bulleh Shah, Shah
Abdul Latif, Sachal Sarmast, and with the richly mixed Muslim–Hindu culture of
the Sindhi and Punjabi mystical love legends.31
The archives of the Kabīrpanth
It has further intrigued scholars that no written Kabīrpanthī collection is known

prior to the Jñānsāgar (Ocean of Knowledge) present in extant manuscripts from
1737 onwards, and Marco della Tomba’s 1760 translation of the Mūlpañjī, Register/
Quintet of the Root [Teachings], both belonging to the Dharamdāsī branch of the
Kabīrpanth.32
The Dharamdāsīs, now centred at Damakheda and at Kharsiya in the state of
Chhattisgarh, hold the Jñānsāgar as the authoritative book of Kabīr. This book is
presented as a verse conversation between Kabīr and the merchant Dharamdās,
who is mentioned in Rāghavdās’s Bhaktamāl verse 353 as one of the nine direct
disciples of Kabīr.33 Some modern scholars, however, tentatively date Dharamdās
to the eighteenth century.34 Rāghavdās’s Bhaktamāl does not present later than
second-generation disciples of Dādū and verse 358 introduces five disciples of
Dharamdās possibly of two generations, namely those of Čūḍāmani and his son
Kulapati.35 Apparently, the Bhaktamāl was written at a distance of two generations
from both Dādū and Dharamdās. Dharamdās, therefore, appears to have been con-
temporary to Dādū Dayāl.
The Jñānsāgar was present in manuscript form as early as 1737 and its text
does not seem to have undergone major changes from della Tomba’s time until
Yugalanand’s edition in 1906.36 Marco della Tomba, who talks about the Kabīr-
panth of the 1760s, is silent about the Bījak and only mentions the Jñānsāgar and
30 <http://kabirproject.org/music%20with%20books/pakistan%20mein%20kabir> and

<http://kabirproject.org/music%20with%20books/rajasthan%20mein%20kabir>. (Accessed
27 October 2018).
31 Hess (2015), p. 96.
32 On Dharamdās, see Lorenzen (1992), pp. 58–61; on the Dharamdāsīs, see Friedlander
(2015), pp. 195–198, and Hess (2015), p. 92. On Marco della Tomba’s Kabīr, see Lorenzen
(2002) and (2010), pp. 78–81.
33 Nahta (1965), p. 178.
34 Agrawal (2009), p. 165; Friedlander (2015), p. 195.
35 These two names also featuring in the modern Dharamdāsī list of gurus as found on the
opening page of any Kabīr-sāgar volume. See Vihari (1906).
36 Lorenzen (2002), p. 38–39. The published version is Vihari (1906).
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Imre Bangha
the Mulpancì (Mūlpañjī) as the ‘books of the Kabīr Panth.’37 The mostly regular
dohā–čaupāī format, the themes, and the language used suggest a relatively late
stage of composition, probably the early eighteenth century for both.38 At that
time, similarly to the Vaishnava sects of Rajasthan, an urge for theological sys-
tematization may have been felt within the Kabīrpanth. The Mūlpañjī, which della
Tomba describes as a systematic description of their philosophy (‘li loro sistemi’)
at the end of the Jñānsāgar, is more elusive since no independent manuscript of
it exists.39
Interestingly, the Kabīr-čauṛā branch of the Kabīrpanth with headquarters at
Varanasi has a completely different text, the Bījak, as the authentic voice of Kabīr
and as their sacred book.40 Kabīr-čauṛā lore names Kabīr’s disciple Bhagvāndās
or Bhaggojī (d. 1576) of Dhanauti, Bihar, as the compiler of the Bījak.41 The
Bījak has been present in innumerable manuscripts and publications over the past
two centuries; yet its pedigree has been questioned on the ground that its earli-
est recording is a manuscript dating from 1797–1798 or 1802–1803.42 Besides,
Callewaert demonstrated that the often only partial overlap between the old Panjabi–
Rajasthani Kabīr song tradition and the sabads of the Bījak is limited to about one
37 Gubernatis (1878), p. 94. Lorenzen (2002), pp. 38–39. The Jñānsāgar and the Mūlpañjī
circulated in the Kaithī script.
38 Cf. Friedlander (2015), p. 195.
39 See De Gubernatis (1878), p. 94, and Lorenzen (2010), p. 233, ch. 7, n. 1.
40 This work has been present in countless editions since Pandit Gopinath Pathak ed.,
Bījak (with commentary by Vishvanath Singh, Benares Light Press, 1868). In this study,
I am using Simh (1972). This edition lists its manuscript sources and occasionally gives
variants. However, it is not clear on the basis of which manuscript the text was established.
41 See Hess and Singh (1986), pp. 165–166, and Lorenzen (1992), pp. 61–62.
42 Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieu (2000), p. 3; Hess and Singh (1986), p. 166, and
most subsequent literature mentions 1805 as the date of earliest manuscript consult-
ed by Simh. Dharwadker (2003), p. 39, further confuses the matter as he refers to a
Phatua recension manuscript of 1805 used by Simh. Simh (1972), p. 25, indeed mentions
a manuscript from VS 1862 (1805) and refers to his source as the ‘Khoj vivaraṇ’ (1958) of
the Bihār Rāṣṭrabhāṣā Pariṣad. Vaudeville, strangely, only mentions the Hess and Singh
(1986) translation and not Simh’s edition in her list of the Bījak publications (1997),
pp. 358–360. Apparently referring to the Simh edition she states that ‘Shukdev Singh,
unfortunately, does not give his sources and text criticism is absent.’ (1997), p. 360.
Actually, Simh lists several sources in his introduction but it is unclear how he used them.
For example, he does not seem to have consulted the Bihār Rāṣṭrabhāṣā Pariṣad manu-
script for his edition. This manuscript is described in Shastri (1971), p. 163 (entry 80).
This entry erroneously calculates sāl 1212 mentioned in its colophon as VS 1951 (!) and
1805 CE. If sāl refers to Faslī san, as proposed by Simh, then it should be 1802/3 CE;
if it refers to Hijri, then it is 1797/8 CE. As far as the Phatua-recension manuscript is
concerned, Simh discusses it on p. 67. Without mentioning its provenance, he quotes its
colophon that dates it to san 1268. As Faslī san, it dates from 1858–1859 and as Hijri, it
is 1851–1852.
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fourth of the Bījak.43 Moreover, unlike in the case of Dharamdās, the name of the
compiler, Bhagvāndās, does not figure in Rāghavdās’s list of Kabīr’s prominent
direct disciples.
The similar mercantile connotations of the names Mūlpañjī (root-register), and
Bījak (belonging to the seed/inventory), suggests that they may have been com-
piled within an atmosphere of sub-sectarian rivalry and are therefore contempora-
neous. Is it possible that the Kabīrpanth took up writing under merchant influence?
Yet, there are indications of some early roots of the Bījak. Kabīr’s poetic out-
put, as recorded in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, contains padas (songs,
called sabad in the Bījak), dohās (distiches, called sākhīs in the Bījak), and čaupāī-
dohā stanzas (called ramainīs, stanzas in the (Hindi) Rāmāyan metre). Interest-
ingly, it is the Bījak taxonomy that figures in Rāghavdās’s Bhaktamāl (1660?)
twice when he refers to the works of Kabīr. One of them mentions the widespread
respect they are held in:
sabada ramaiṁṇī sākhī, satya sagalā kari māṁnī/jāṁni (125)

His sabads, ramainīs and sākhīs—all respect/know them as truth.
The other reference is more telling as it speaks of Kabīr’s works as parts of both
written and oral traditions:
sākhī sabadī grantha ramainī pada pragaṭa hai,

sohai sarbahī kaṇṭhi hāra jaisai hīra kau. (126)44
His sākhīs, sabads, and ramainīs are present as handwritten books and songs,45
Everyone knows them by heart, they shine on everyone’s neck like a
jewelled necklace.
The interpretation of the date of this Bhaktamāl, saṁvat satrahai sai satrahotarā,
is contested as 1660 (VS 1717), 1713 (VS 1770), and 1720 (VS 1777). Since the
work presents no bhaktas later than the second generation after Dādū, the inter-
43 Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieu (2000), p. 4, lists thirty-two padas that show at least
some partial similarity between the old corpus and the Bījak. Lorenzen (2015), p. 220, men-
tions that this list is ‘quite incomplete.’ MKV30/Bījak112 is an example of further similar
poems. Cf. Friedlander (2015), p. 192.
44 Verses 125 and 126 are numbered as 150 and 151 in Narayandas’ edition of the same
work. Verse 125 is also repeated as 351 (427 in Narayandas).
45 There are various ways to translate this line due to the lack of conjuncts, postpositions,
and plural markers. The literal translation is ‘sākhī(s) sabadī(s) book(s) ramainī(s) song(s)
are public.’ The phrase ‘sākhī-sabadī grantha’ may refer to a book of sākhīs and sabads,
and ramainī may then qualify the songs. It may also be that songs are a category different
from the sabads. There are other possible interpretations.
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pretation VS 1717 (1660) is the most likely one.46 The second oldest extant Bījak
manuscript is in the Bodleian Library in Oxford (MS Hindi e.1). This Kaithī script
Bījak was copied in 1805 and contains 113 sabads, 365 sākhīs, and eighty-four
ramainīs. Its sabad-arrangement is different from the two recensions, Dānāpur
and Bhagatahīa, discussed in the introduction to Shukdeo Singh’s edition.47 The
structure of the manuscript corresponds to the Phatuhā recension in the number of
sabads (113) and the other works included into it on folios 45–74.48 In the Bījak
sabads examined in this article, I will give its non-orthographic variants below the
poems quoted with the siglum Ox against those of the published version Bī.
The Bhaktamāl’s vocabulary shows that the Bījak drew on seventeenth-century
concepts of structuring its content. It is also important to note that the material
preserved in the Bījak is sometimes attested in very early layers of transmission:
poem 416 of the Millennium Kabīr Vāṇī (hereafter MKV) is already present in the
Mohan-Pothīs (M3), dating from around 1570, and in four seventeenth-century
Rajasthani sources (A J C Gop) with a minimum amount of variation in the Bījak
(see below). This can be taken as an example of the relative reliability of the trans-
mission between the late sixteenth and seventeenth or eighteenth centuries, when
the Bījak gained its written form.
Continuous recording
Poetry attributed to Kabīr has been transmitted orally, in handwriting, print, and
contemporary media, such as sound recording and the Internet.49 We know that all
media have different dynamics. The difference in the dynamics of the two types of
‘paper recording,’ namely handwritten and print, are such that people are tempted
to perceive print as revolution. What has been less studied, however, is the dif-
ferent methods of oral transmission. In India poems can be performed in at least
three different ways. Firstly, they can be recited (or read aloud) without melody
46 Nahta (1965), Bhaktamāl, p. da. Singhal (2007), vol. 1, p. 31, notes that in the VS 1840
Bhaktamāl manuscript used by Narayandas for his edition, there is another work by
Rāghavdās called Utpatti-sthiti-četāvnī-jñān, which was composed in VS 1717. This
determines Rāghavdās’s floruit as VS 1717 (cf. Callewaert (1988), p. 14). Callewaert and
Friedlander rely on the modern editor of this work, Svami Narayandas, who conceives
Rāghavdās to be a fifth-generation disciple and is inclined to accept VS 1777 as date of
composition. Callewaert and Friedlander (1992), p. 20, however, give the Bhaktamāl’s date
as VS 1770. Recent discussion of the dating of this Bhaktamāl can be found in Rajpurohit
(2013), pp. 51–72.
47 Simh (1972), pp. 65–71.
48 Ibid., pp. 67–68.
49 Cf. Hess (2015), pp. 102–111. Hess (2015) pp. 226–248, discusses the relationship of
orality and the Internet in the light of modern perception theories.
134
but making the metre clearly felt (sasvar pāṭh). Secondly, they can be chanted or
sung to a melody set to the appropriate metre (dhun), since there are several set
melodies to various traditional metrical forms. Thirdly, they can be sung to a raga
(musical mood) and a tāla (rhythm).50 In the latter, the metre does not play an
important role—singers have freedom to explore and vary the text through repeti-
tions, inversions, omissions, and additions.51 The role of metre can be overwritten
by those of the tāla and the raga. As far as chanting is concerned, it has, probably,
been a living practice for centuries. A vivid picture of modern chanting is given
by Peter Friedlander:
When I stayed at the monastery in the summer of 1984, all the novice
monks, and some full monks, would sit together in an open colonnaded hall
for about three hours each morning and rapidly independently repeat the
Bījak in a kind of monotone chant over and over again. The novices had to
recite while reading the text of the Bījak but the full monks had all learned
the complete text by heart. I was told that the novices would spend several
years memorizing the entire text of the Bījak.52
This also reminds us of the interplay between the written and the oral as written
props are used for singing and recitation and oral performances get written down.
Through transmission, the poetry has been in constant metamorphosis over the
past half millennium. The text of lines kept changing, some particularly popular
lines or phrases floated from one poem to another, new lines were added and ob-
scure, clumsy, corrupt, or theologically objectionable lines removed, the metrical
pattern of lines changed, and entirely new stanzas were also added to the poetic
corpus.53 The creation and re-creation of Kabīr-poetry has been an ongoing phe-
nomenon right up the present day.54 The forces of metamorphosis were so strong
50 Classical singing of ‘Kabīrīs’ is attested by Śaikh Bāhā’uddīn Barnavī’s (floruit 1655)

love for the genre. See Rizvi (1978), vol. 1, p. 278. It should, however, be mentioned that
we do not exactly know what ‘raga’ meant to Dādūpanthī or Sikh compilers in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries.
51 Cf. Tanaka (2012), p. 182.
52 Friedlander (2015), p. 189. This practice has, however, stopped due to recent anti-litur-
gical attitudes within the Kabīrpanth (Peter Friedlander, personal communication, 8 Sep-
tember 2017).
53 Hess (2015) examines fluidity ‘in words, lines, passages, sequences’ (pp. 80–90), in
‘sectarian affiliation’ (pp. 91–94) and ‘fluidity driven by ideology’ (pp. 94–102).
54 Some recent Kabīr songs, including one about a rail journey with an admonition not
to lose the ticket, are presented in Singh (2002), pp. 191–198. Hess (2015) vividly de-
scribes how contemporary singers adjust Kabīr’s songs to their audiences. She observes
that ‘nearly every song we heard from multiple sources in Malwa has variations from one
singer to another, often from one occasion to another’ (p. 82). On the ‘Folk Invented Kabir’
(episode 4 in Shabnam Virmani’s film Koi Sunta Hai), see <https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=9GJJcidA-Q8>. (Accessed 27 October 2018).
135
Imre Bangha
that, as we will see, it was not only the oral and the manuscript transmission that
changed the text but also print, usually considered as a standardizing power, trans-
formed it according to the interests of editors. Written and, from the twentieth
century onwards, performed recordings from various points of the evolution of
the Kabīr-poems can provide us with clues about their earlier layers and about the
interconnectedness of various texts.
Later centuries added other poetic forms or genres to the song–distich–ramainī
corpus, such as Akharāvtī or Rekhtā.55 The 1805 Bījak manuscript, for example,
includes basant, pad kahrā, bel, hīḍolā, and čāčarī.56 However, they will only be
of marginal interest with regards to how later layers developed from early ver-
sions.57 Some later sabads and songs, nevertheless, will be examined in their rela-
tionship to texts recorded earlier.
Recent scholarly consensus normally deals with three old Kabīr collections:
the eastern Bījak; the western Rajasthani nirguṇa manuscripts; and the northern
Gurū Granth Sāhib.58 This approach has been slightly modulated in recent years
by taking into consideration the polyphony of the early Rajasthani tradition, which
includes Vaishnava, Dādūpanthī, and Nirañjanī sources.59
While not denying the convenience of grouping the Kabīr-poems in eastern,
western, and northern clusters, one should not neglect the fact that the Kabīr tra-
dition has been a process of continuous recording and apparently production and
reworking over the past half millennium. The academic search for the earliest
forms of recorded Kabīr may date back to Shyamsundar Das’s Kabīr-Granthāvalī,
primarily based on a manuscript spuriously claimed to date from 1504.60 Such
efforts culminated in the publication of the Millennium Kabīr Vāṇī drawing on
55 See, e. g., [Prasad] (1910) and (1913). A cursory search of Hindi manuscript catalogues
in the Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute and the Nāgarī Pračārinī Sabhā Khoj Reports
yielded thirteen manuscripts containing Rekhtā attributed to Kabīr.
56 Manuscript, Hindi e.1, in the Raja Chandra Sham Shere collection of the Bodleian
Library, Oxford, fols. 65r–75r.
57 The earliest manuscript that I was able to locate containing Kabīr’s Rekhtā, for example,
dates from 1762 (VS 1819). It is 25187(8), fol. 6 in the Jodhpur collection of the Rajasthan
Oriental Research Institute.
58 Hess (1987), pp. 114–141; Vaudeville (1997), pp. 20–33; Callewaert, Sharma, and
Taillieau (2000), pp. 3–16.
59 The earliest Rajasthani manuscript with Kabīr’s padas is Vaishnava and one of the ear-
liest sources on Kabīr, the Dabistān-i mazāhib, mentions Kabīr as a Vaishnava bairāgī. See
Rizvi (1978), p. 412. On the variety of approaches to Kabīr within the Vaishnava Fatehpur
manuscript, see Hawley (2005). For a list of important Kabīr manuscripts and publications,
see Dharwadker (2003), pp. 33–41. In this list, partially based on Callewaert, Sharma, and
Taillieu (2000), pp. 19–22, Dharwadker also indicates the sectarian provenance of the man-
uscripts.
60 Das (1928). Das provides variants from a later manuscript as well.
136
sources from Rajasthan and Panjab between c. 1570 and 1681.61 This study will
attempt to extend this time frame in both directions by reconstructing earlier layers
in the Kabīr-poems based on a metrical analysis of the Millennium Kabīr Vāṇī
material and then give an insight into the later lives of some poems until the twen-
tieth century. The survey is selective as it does not take into consideration the rich
later sectarian anthologies such as, for example, Rambhajan Ramsanehi’s Sār-
Saṅgrah-Bodh, in which Kabīr is abundantly quoted, Yugalanand Vihari’s Kabīr-
sāgar (1906), Gangasharan Shastri’s Mahābījak (1998), and so on.62
Manuscript collections are sectarian compilations and, in the investigation
below, I will consider six clusters of sectarian sources:63
In manuscript form:
(1) Panjab: the Sikh Mohan Pothī (c. 1570) and the Ādi Granth (1604)
(2) Rajasthan: the Vaishnava Fatehpur manuscript (1582) and Callewaert’s

C (1660) and J (1681) manuscripts
(3) Rajasthan: the Dādūpanthī Pañc-vāṇī (S V A) and Sarvāṅgī (Gop, Raj)

anthologies (1614–1675)64
(4) East: the Kabīrpanthī Bījak (before 1803)65
In print form:
(5) Radhasoami: Kabīr sāhab kī śabdāvalī (1907 [1900])66
(6) Nāthpanthī: Śrī Śilnāth Śabdāmṛt (1923 [1915])67
The manuscripts represent the earliest layers as well as the later but no less
influential Bījak linked, apparently, to the eastern region, possibly the Benares
61 Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieau (2000).

62 On Rambhajan Ramsanehi, see Singhal (2015), p. 45. On Yugalanand Vihari, see
Friedlander (2017), pp. 11–12. On the Mahābījak, see Hess (2015), p. 114–117.
63 Friedlander (2015) presents in brief the Sikh, the krishnaite, Dādūpanthī and Rajasthani,
Eastern, Dharamdāsī, Kabīrpanthī, New Indian, and transnational audiences of Kabīr.
64 Items 1–3 are recorded in Callewaert, Sharma. and Taillieau (2000). For details of the
individual sources, see pp. viii–x, 10–11, 19–23.
65 The standard edition is Simh (1972).
66 [Prasad] (1907[1900]). According to Dharwadker (2003), it was first published in 1900.
67 Shilnath (1923).
137
Imre Bangha
region. The first recorded Kabīr-poems come from Rajasthan and Panjab. One
can speculate that the reason behind this is not simply the unfriendliness of the
wet eastern climate towards manuscripts. It may also be cultural. Rajasthan has
been less Brahminical on a popular level than Madhyadesha and vernacularization
happened in Rajasthan earlier. Rajasthan and Panjab were also the soil of mono-
theistic writing sects such as the Dādūpanth, the Nirañjanīs, and the Sikhs. They
took to writing around the turn of the seventeenth century as a powerful means
of expressing their religious experience. The fact that Kabīrpanthī ascetics mem-
orized the Bījak, at least in modern times but probably earlier too, may also have
presented less need for writing. None of the early Rajasthani and Panjabi sources
are devoted exclusively to Kabīr. All are anthologies presenting poems by several
nirguṇa authors.
By comparing the Bījak with the western Rajasthani and northern Sikh tra-
ditions, Linda Hess found that the western (and northern) collections are linked
to music as the Bījak is not. They are infused with bhakti feeling and language,
featuring Vaishnava (especially Krishnaite) names for God and are linked with
personal worship and devotional fervour. They also contain numerous poems of
ecstatic realization, in which the poet may or may not be in the role of a lover. She
has also found that the Bījak is more harsh and intellectual, uses more pervasive
and unmitigated satire, has greater emphasis on the nirguṇa expression of truth by
negation, riddle, and teasing mental challenge. According to Hess, such lyrics are
not as appealing to the singer or to the singer’s audience as those that emphasize
worship and emotion. Kṛṣṇa is absent from these poems and viraha, vinaya, and
ecstasy are rare in the Bījak. In sum, the Bījak is terse and unmusical, has a differ-
ent set of keywords and has less Vaishnava bhakti in it.68
Out of the printed books, I am considering two influential selections, which
apparently drew not just on manuscripts but also on oral tradition, representing
the state of Kabīr songs at the time of their publication, and which also influenced
some later volumes.
There is no straightforward linear succession between these groups of collec-
tions and most of them are records of different singing repertoires, which to a
certain extent overlap. Nevertheless, we can assume that they reflect the image of
Kabīr of their times or of the times that preceded their being committed to writing.
However, it is clear in most of them that they are normally not direct recordings of
oral performances but rather relied on manuscript archetypes. More importantly,
they may also reflect the preferences of the community that committed them to
writing.
68 Hess (1987), pp. 117–118. Hess also noticed that at the time of her research on the Bījak
in the late 1970s, the Kabīr-čauṛā monks used a printed Śabdāvalī that represented padas
more popular for singing. Interestingly, there was no overlap between the two collections.
138
The Kabīr Śabdāvalī, apparently edited in 1900 by Baleshwar Prasad, the

head of Belvedere Steam Press, shows Radhasoami influence.69 The Santiniketan
scholar Kshitimohan Sen’s edition (1910–1911) drew heavily on Prasad but by
exchanging references to the guru into prem (love), he presented a Kabīr closer to
Brahmo-concepts.70 It was, eventually, Sen’s collection that served as a basis for
the English translation of Tagore (1914) that has made Kabīr world-famous. Based
on the research of Peter Friedlander, A. K. Mehrotra observes that:
As a member of the Radhasoami sect, which believes in the supremacy of

a living guru, Prasad replaced the words used for addressing God—Kabir's
Rama and Hari—with guru and gurudev. Sen's edition [relying to a certain
extent on Prasad] lacks the guru words, instead including ones for love.71
The lesser known Śrī Śilnāth Śabdāmṛt containing 500 bhajans, the majority of
which had Kabīr’s signature, served as a source to many songs of Kumar Gandharva
(1924–1992), which were then presented in Hess’s Singing Emptiness.72 Shilnath
was a Nāthpanthī and his book is indicative of the esteem in which Kabīr was held
by Nāths in the twentieth century.73
In the following pages, I will present some poems shared between various
traditions and examine how poems were reshaped while being transmitted from
one community to another. With the help of some standard philological tools, it
is possible to speculate on diachronic changes in the poems and to assume some
directions in those changes.
Continuous recontextualization
As an illustration of the similarity and difference between the Bījak and the western
traditions, Callewaert gave the example of four Bījak poems (75, 99, 87, 106).74 He
pointed out that the inversion of lines and half-lines in them, as well as the inser-
tion of floating lines, was the result of their handling by singers. Following on a
similar comparison, one can also enter into an analysis of changes in the content.
Keeping in mind the phenomena of textual variations within a line, changes in the
metrical pattern, and anchoring floating lines, one can examine shifts within the
poems as they appear in various traditions and various collections and speculate
69 Mehrotra (2011), pp. xxvi–xxii.

70 Ibid.
71 Ibid., p. xxviii. Cf. Friedlander (2017), p. 18.
72 Hess (2009).
73 Ibid., pp. 19–22.
74 Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieu (2000), pp. 5–10.
139
Imre Bangha
on how receptive communities recontextualized the poems according to their in-

terest and understanding. It should be mentioned that not all textual change is the
result of recontextualization. Many changes occur in a haphazard manner due to
slips of memory, incomprehensibility of syntax and grammar, slips in copying, or
damage to manuscripts.
It is, however, worth keeping in mind that recontextualization may take place
simply by travelling from one community to another. For example, the sabad ‘mo
ko kahāṁ ḍhūnḍhe bande’ (Where are you searching for me, my servant?) is con-
textualized in the Dharamdāsī tradition as a bhajan sung by Kabīr in response to a
Dharamdās song. In the Kabīr-čauṛā understanding, and in most modern interpre-
tations, the song contains the words of God addressing Kabīr.75 The Dharamdāsī
version elevates Kabīr to a godly status.
Before recording—metrical-sung transitions
1.
Elsewhere I have argued that when employing the criteria that John Smith used
in his reconstruction of the Vīsāḷadeva-rāsa most early Kabīr poems can be
reconstructed into conventional Hindi metrical frames.76 I am reproducing below
an extreme example of metrical confusion. The following poem is presented in the
oldest Pañč-vānī as:
kāhe kūṁ kījai pāṁḍe čhoti bicārā;

čhotihī taĩ upanāṁ saba saṁsārā. (ṭeka)
hamārai kaisaĩ lohūṁ pāṁḍe; tumhārai kaisaĩ dūdha.
tuma kaise bāṁbhaṇa hama kaisai sūda.
čhoti čhoti karatāṁ tuma hī jāe; grabha vāsa kāhe kūṁ āe.
janamata čhotī maratahīṁ čhoti; kahai kabīra hari ki nrimala joti.
(MKV171, S126)
Why do you harbour untouchability, o pundit?
Is it out of untouchability that the whole world emerged? (Refrain)
How do I have blood, o pundit? How do you have milk? How is it that you
are a Brahmin and I am a Shudra?
Were you born by caring for touchability and untouchability? Then why did
you come from your mother’s womb?
Untouchability when you are born, untouchability when you die. Kabīr says,
God’s light is stainless.
75 Friedlander (2015), pp. 196–197. It should also be mentioned that the two versions
present several further variables, though they are not immediately germane to the argument
being made.
76 Bangha (2010) and (2013).
140
The metrical pattern is the apparently hopeless 22 + 19; 17 + 12 + 19; 18 + 15;

16 + 16 morae. The last two lines, however, suggest that čaupāī metre, the most
popular in Kabīr, is the basis. More exactly, the rhyming pattern of the last couplet
suggests a čaupaī with its long-short ending (čhoti, joti). If we excise the word
hī or tuma from the third line, emend the two-mora garbha to the longer tatsama
garbha, read the final syllable of the word maratahīṁ as short, and emend kahai
to kaha, we arrive at a metrically correct line. But what to do with the monster-like
lines in the beginning? In his reconstruction of the Vīsāḷadevarāsa Smith gives a
list of forms most often demanding excision for a metrical reconstruction.77 These
forms include vocatives, personal pronouns, and possessive pronouns. Excising
these forms (pāṁḍe, hamārai, pāṁḍe, tumhārai, tuma, hama) from these lines
leads us, again, close to čaupāīs. We may need to excise the postposition kūṁ
from the first line and the adjective saba from the second, as well as to read the
final ī in čhotihī short, in order to get to the exact metre. The excision of the word
saba is confirmed in the other manuscript of this poem (square brackets and dotted
underline indicate editorial intervention):
kāhe [kūṁ] kījai [pāṁḍe] čhoti bicārā; čhotihī̆ taĩ upanāṁ [saba] saṁsārā.
[hamārai] kaisaĩ lohūṁ [pāṁḍe]; [tumhārai] kaisaĩ dūdha;
[tuma] kaise bāṁbhaṇa [hama] kaisai sūda.
čhoti čhoti karatāṁ tuma [hī] jāe; garbha vāsa kāhe kūṁ āe.
janamata čhotī maratahī̆ṁ čhoti; kaha kabīra hari ki nrimala joti.
Why do you harbour untouchability?
Is it out of untouchability that the world emerged?
How is blood? How is milk? How is a Brahmin? And how is a Shudra?
Were you born by caring for touchability and untouchability? Then why did
you come from your mother’s womb?
Untouchability when you are born, untouchability when you die. Kabīr says,
God’s light is stainless.
The amplification in this poem can be the result of an explicatory process linked
to the loss of an original environment, which included an oral homiletic exposi-
tion. In song, this homiletic environment is reduced but due to the flexibility of
this performing genre, explanation is now included within the poem. It is easy to
imagine how one singer would add short unemphatic explanatory phrases into the
performed lines and another learn the song in the amplified form, and that later this
version would be committed to writing.
Naturally, the reconstruction of a metrically correct poem does not mean that
we have arrived to what Kabīr—or the pseudo-Kabīrs—composed. We can, how-
ever, say that a metrical reconstruction is possible in most of the cases and that the
77 Smith (1976), p. 13.

141
Imre Bangha
reconstructed poems do not simply take us a step closer to the earliest versions but
also present more compact and poetically more polysemic compositions.
Examining metrical deviances can tell us something about the performance
history of these padas as well. The relative lack of flexibility in recitation and
singing to a set melody also suggests that transmission in this way did not allow
so much change in the original metrical pattern as did singing in a raga. The
fact that in the early manuscripts the metre is still perceptible whereas in the
later Kabīr tradition it is less so leads one to suspect that the early manuscripts
were somewhat closer to a recited or set-melody performance, whereas with the
process of time raga singing became more and more prominent. It may also have
been the case that performance became more and more linked to profession-
ally skilled singers. As has been seen, the written repertoires of these singers,
the sources of the earliest Kabīr material, such as the Fatehpur manuscript, the
Pañč-vānīs, and the Sarvāṅgīs, already contain the changes effected by the per-
formers.
The earliest recensions: Vaiṣṇava, Sikh, and Dādūpanthī transitions
Ideological shifts in Kabīr reception may be represented by interpolation or omis-

sion of entire poems as has been the case with two paradoxical ‘upside-down-
language’ poems present in the earliest recorded source, the Mohan Pothī (1570–
1572), which were first also included but then crossed out as useless in the earliest,
Kartarpur manuscript (1604) of the Ādi Granth.78 Following G. S. Mann’s specula-
tion on the reason for their omission, Hess writes, ‘the Sikh gurus apparently had
a strong preference for plain language and domestic propriety. They also emphati-
cally avoided anything that had even a whiff of tantric influence.’79
Kabīr’s Sikh reception has been studied extensively. Karine Schomer argued
that the Ādi Granth verses of Kabīr underline themes that are more supportive of a
sense of religious community and social morality rather than of an individualistic
mystical religion.80 The gurus often comment in this vein on the verses of Kabīr.
According to Lorenzen, ‘Guru Arjan sometimes uses the occasion to suggest some
criticism or modification of Kabīr’s point of view.’81 Pashaura Singh summarizes
the differences between Sikh teachings and Kabīr as follows:
78 Mann (2001), pp. 114–115.

79 Hess (2015), p. 95. On pp. 94–102, Hess gives several further examples of ideologically
motivated fluidity. Most of her examples (pp. 96–102) are modern.
80 Schomer (1979), p. 84.
81 Lorenzen (2012), p. 26.
142
There are some disagreements between Kabir and the Sikh Gurus on essen-
tial points. Kabir remains a solitary spiritual seeker who does not seem to
have a sense of social mission or the idea of an organized religious com-
munity. In contrast, the Sikh Gurus seem to have a strong sense of mission
that compels them to proclaim their message for the ultimate benefit of
their audience and to promote socially responsible living. While as a mys-
tic Kabir can afford to run away from the sinners (śāktas), the Sikh Gurus
cannot do so and they keep their doors open for them principally because
of their sense of mission. Kabir regards mendicity (madhukarī) as a means
of acquiring merit in spiritual life and this may have been the reason for
renouncing his traditional family craft of weaving. In contrast with Kabir,
the Sikh Gurus are strongly opposed to begging. They stress the dignity
of regular labour as an integral part of spiritual discipline. Whereas Kabir
seems to be resentful because of his failure to win divine favour in spite of
his stern asceticism, Guru Amar Das seems to correct his view through his
comment that grace is a matter of divine free choice that does not depend
upon any kind of previous growth in spirituality. In the Sikh doctrine, di-
vine grace and human effort go together in spiritual life, because human ef-
fort too is a matter of divine grace. Kabir sometimes gives the impression of
self-withdrawal from active life in the world and appears to be complaining
against the divine will betraying a type of negative or escapist attitude. The
Sikh Gurus, on the other hand, stress the spirit of optimism to confront life
with a positive attitude and to create a harmonized ‘balance’ by avoiding
the extremes of self-withdrawal and excessive indulgence in the things of
the world.82
The shift from the individual to the communal is well illustrated in the overlapping
texts of two padas, one attributed to Kabīr (MKV423, aika nirañjana alaha merā)
and the other composed by Guru Arjan Singh (Ādi Granth, Bhairau 3, eku gusāī
alahu merā).83 Guru Arjan’s version includes the Kabīr-poem and extends it with a
commentary. However, Arjan does not quote the final verse, which reads:
kahai kabīra bharama saba bhāgā; eka nirañjana syauṁ mana lāgā.
(MKV432, version of A327 in MS)
Kabīr says: All error has fled; my mind is attached to the one Niranjan.
(trans. Lorenzen (2011), p. 26)
Guru Arjan’s final verse is as follows:
82 Singh (2003), pp. 109–110.

83 For a detailed comparison of the two versions, see Singh (2003), pp. 101–109, and
Lorenzen (2011), p. 26.
143
Imre Bangha
kahu kabīra ihu kīā vakhānā; gura pīra mili khudi khasamu pačhānā.
(Ādi Granth, raga bhairau, mahalā 5)84
I made this declaration. Meeting with pir and guru, I recognised the potential
in myself. (trans. Lorenzen (2011), p. 26)
Kabīr’s Vaishnava recension was studied much less. In his article ‘Kabīr in his
earliest dated manuscript,’ J. S. Hawley proposed to place the Fatehpur poems on a
spectrum with Vaishnava poems at one end and yogic at the other.85 This spectrum
may also indicate recontextualization from a nirguṇa bhakti or yogic context into
a Vaishnava reception. The apparently later Vaishnava layer was appealing to and
maybe created by the Fatehpur scribe as he prepared his manuscript for a Vaishnava
patron, the landlord Narharidās in Fatehpur. Signs of recontextualization may be
found in a single manuscript but the phenomenon can also be observed in one
poem in various manuscripts prepared for different receptive communities. One
can elaborate this attitude further in investigating how the Kabīr-poems addressed
Sikh, Dādūpanthī, and Vaishnava communities in the later manuscripts.
2.
Let us now see what shifts occur in poems fully attributed to Kabīr. Hawley found
the following poem to be the most Vaishnava within the Fatehpur manuscript
(asterisked words are contested in various traditions):
kahā karau, kaise tarau; bhava-jalanidhi bhārī.

rākhi rākhi muhi *bīṭhulā; tohi saraṇi *murārī.
[three couplets about failed efforts for liberation]
kahu kabīra, *mere *mādhavā, tohi saraba-biāpī.
tohi samāna nahi ko *dayāla, mosā nahi *jācī. (F14)86
What can I do?
How can I cross
this heavy sea of being?
Save me, save me, Viṭṭhal.
Shelter me
Murari.
. . .
Says Kabir:
Oh my Mādhav, everything
there is, is shot through
with you.
84 P. 1136 of <http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&g=1&h

=1&r=1&t=1&p=0&k=0&Param=1136>. (Accessed 27 October 2018).
85 Hawley (2005), p. 286.
86 Ibid., pp. 290–292. The text is taken from Bahura and Bryant (1982), pp. 189–190.
144
None is your equal, merciful one—

but as for me,
I’m through. (trans. Hawley (2005), p. 292)
Apart from the Fatehpur manuscript (F), this particularly popular poem is also
present in the Ādi Granth and in three Dādūpanthī (S, V, Gop) and two Vaishnava
(C, J) manuscripts of Rajasthan. On the basis of the meaningful variants listed in
the apparatus below, we can also talk of these groups as three recensions of the
poem. While there is a diachronic succession in the dating of these recensions, one
should be cautious in automatically translating copying dates into a diachronic
development of the text:87
bīṭhulā] F AG, kesavā S V (-e) J C Gop; murārī] F S V Gop, tumhārī AG

J C; mere] F AG, suni S V Gop, kali J C; mādhavā] F AG, kesavā S V J C
(-e) Gop; dayāla] F (-u) AG, dātā S V J C Gop; jāčī] F C (jačīṁ) J, pāpī
AG S V Gop.
One can observe in the poem and its variants a proliferation of the specifically
Krishnaite designations of God, Biṭhulā (Viṭṭhala), Mādhava, Murāri, and Keśava,
which do not comprise Kabīr’s most frequent and somewhat less sectarian terms,
Hari and Rām. Unlike in other poems, these designations, including the variants,
fit well into the metre.
This poem is not an isolated case on the variation of divine names. One can
find a similar proliferation in several other poems. In MKV 261, for example,
where the divine names in the line kahi kabīra raghunātha bhaja nara (Kabīr
says, worship Raghunātha) (S207) also appear as gobyanda (A), hari nāma (V),
yeka rāma (J C), and rāma nāma (Gop). The Ādi Granth version is kahi kabīra
jagajīvanu aisā (AG482;27) and the Bījak has kahaiṁ kabīra bhagavanta bhajo
nara (Bī60). One explanation for such changes can be that the divine names in
Kabīr are interchangeable precisely because his songs do not present a sectarian
god.88 However, if that had been the case, we would not be able to account for
the frequent changes of divine names as well as for the scarcity of Islamicate
designations of God, such as Allah and Khudā, or of Shaiva designations in the
early corpus. Examining the use of divine names in the poetic corpus attributed
to another Hindi poet-saint, Raidās, Callewaert and Friedlander argue that divine
names occur according to context. Ramaite names tend to be used when God is
evoked in his sovereign aspect. Kṛṣṇa and his synonyms are used when God’s
87 The critical apparatus is based on Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieu (2000), pp. 578–580
(poem 473).
88 Francesca Orsini, personal communication, 7 May 2015.
145
Imre Bangha
grace is to be conjured, while Islamic names appear in a context where the irrele-
vance of sectarian divisions is underlined.89
The Krishnaite tint of the song above carried by the names of God cannot be
missed. The fact that the different versions hardly have any major variant apart
from in the divine names, and therefore the bulk of the poem remains unchanged,
shows that the teaching, imagery, and emotion of such poems were accepted over
sectarian divisions and they only needed to add some markers to anchor them into
their own tradition.
Just as in most Kabīr-poems, divine names appear in the first and the last cou-
plets of the poem.90 The small apparatus shows that these names are not inalienable
parts of the poem and are liable to change even within the western tradition. One
can note that the obsolete word bīṭhulā, the name of a Maharashtrian deity who
came to be identified with Viṣṇu, appears only in the two earliest sources but turns
out to be useless or perhaps too closely linked to the Maharashtrian Vārkārī sect
for the Dādūpanthī and the Vaishnava audiences. They introduced Keśava twice,
a term that was absent in the two oldest sources. Apart from this, later books also
felt uncomfortable with the alliterating phrase mere mādhavā expressing intimacy
with God. A further noteworthy variation is the mixing up of the components of
the dayāla–pāpī (‘compassionate–sinner’) and dātā–jācī (‘generous donor–beg-
gar’) imagery. Only the two later Vaishnava manuscripts (C and J) get it right.
3.
Another example of shifts within the earliest recensions is the first Kabīr-poem in
the Fatehpur manuscript. It is also present in three Dādūpanthī (A V Gop) and two
Vaishnava (C J) sources of Rajasthan (these five will be marked collectively as
Rāj). Since it is missing from the Ādi Granth and the massive early S manuscript,
there is a time gap of forty-five years without recording and the five later sources
populate a period of about fifty years (1627–1681):91
saravara *kai taṭi haṁsinī tisāī; jugati binā hari jalu pīyo *na *jāī.
kuṁbha līye ṭhāḍhī *papanihārī; *leja binu *nīra kau bharahi kaisai nārī.
*
kūvau *lorai lai *khaga *bārī; uḍi na sakaiṁ doū *para bhārī.
*
kahata *kabī[ra] *ika budhi *bičārī; sahaja subhāi *muhi *mile *banavārī.92
89 Callewaert and Friedlander (1992), pp. 83–85.

90 On examining a corpus of Kabīr-poems in the Rajasthani Pāñc-vānī tradition, published
in Shyamsundar Das’s Kabīr-Granthāvalī, Linda Hess observed that designations for God
in more than two thirds of the cases came in the refrain (ṭeka) or in the last line (bhaṇitā).
See Hess (1987), p. 125.
91 The critical apparatus is based on Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieu (2000), pp. 436–437
(poem 329).
92 Bahura and Bryant (1982), p. 76 (SSD 298, MKV329). My transcript also indicates the
letters crossed out in the original manuscript.
146
kai] (unm) Fac; (omits) Fpc Rāj. na jāī] Fpc Rāj; narjāī Fac. papanihārī] (dit-
tography) Fac; panihārī Fpc Rāj. leja] Fac; jala Fpc, guna Rāj. nīra kau] (unm.)
Fac; nī [rā r̃ a kā] (unm.) Fapc, nīra Rāj. kū] Faac, hū Fapc. kūvau lorai] Fa;
pīyau loṛai ta A; pīyau cāhai tau V J C (-yā) Gop. khaga] Fapc, Rāj; khaka
Faac. bārī] Faac; sārī Fapc, Rāj. para] Fa V Gop, paṣa A J C. kahata] Fa V;
kahi A; kahai J C Gop. kabīra] Rāj; kabī(?) Fa. ika] Fa; gura A V; gura eka
J C Gop. bičārī] Fa; batāī Rāj. muhi mile banavārī] Fa; mile rāma rāī A J
C Gop; mile raghurāī V.
At the edge of the lake

A thirsty haṁs bird:
But how, without the wherewithal,
Can she drink Hari’s water?
There stands the watercarrier.
She’s brought her waterpot.
But the well has lost its rope:
How can she draw it up?
The bird can make it
Down the well to the water,
But how can she fly back
When her wings get weighed down wet.
Kabir says, just one thought
To keep in mind:
In what’s natural—what’s your own—
You’ll find The Forest One. (trans. Hawley (2005), p. 301)
One can observe here that the obscurities and the uncertainties of the Fatehpur man-
uscript have mostly been eliminated in the later versions. A good example can be
found in the fifth half line, where the unclear kūvau (well) or kūhū (?) and the rare
lorai (is restless, craves for, clings to, etc.) are substituted with the more comprehen-
sible phrase pīyau cāhai (wants to drink). The intermediary pīyau loṛai (is restless to
drink) reading of one source (A) suggests that the substitution occurred in two steps.
The original bārī (water) reading of the same line is corrected into sārī (mynah) by
a later hand in the Fatehpur manuscript in accordance with the reading of the later
sources. These sources also make the verse hypermetrical by the insertion of the par-
ticle tau (then). In all variations, the reading is slightly unclear and the syntax loose.
Some variations are the result of oral transmission, such as the inversion of the
second and third lines in V and Gop and the addition of an extra line in C. This
interpolation is an elaboration on the five water-carrier image sara sūkau kāyā
kumilāṁnī; vimukha čalī pāṁčau paṁnihārī (the lake dried up, the body withered,
and the five water-carriers returned disappointed). Although it does not add much
to the overall message of the poem, this pada indicates that the image of the five
water-carriers, referring to the five senses, was particularly appealing to some sev-
enteenth-century performers.
147
Imre Bangha
The last line of the poem is unmetrical in all versions, suggesting that all have
been changed at some point. Its half lines contain several elements liable to be
contested, namely the poetic signature, a reference to the guru, and the name of
God. The kahata kabī ika reading of the Fatehpur manuscript already suggests
some previous scribal error.
In sources A C J and Gop, the punning word banavārī, which can refer to Kṛṣṇa
but also to a flower garden and to the cultivation of sixteen-petalled lotuses, pre-
sumably a chakra,93 is given as the flat rāma rāī (king Rām) and in V as raghurāī
‘Rām, Lord of the Raghus). The overall content of the poem is about the difficulty
of spiritual realization and apart from the name banavārī (and raghurāī—but this
is not Krishnaite), there is no Vaishnava element in it. As Kṛṣṇa devotion seems to
be superimposed on the poem in the Vaishnava Fatehpur manuscript, so may the
reference in the signature pada below to the enlightening guru be a later addition to
an earlier yogic or tantric layer in which enlightenment comes from within (sahaja
subhāi) through mental realization (eka budhi bicāri):
kahi kabīra guri eka budhi batāī (Gop C J)

Kabīr says: ‘The guru has indicated the enlightened thought.’
Shifts in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries:

Ādi Granth, Rajasthani anthologies, Bījak
4.
We can extend our investigation of textual shifts beyond the late sixteenth and sev-
enteenth centuries. Already Callewaert compared the Sikh, Rajasthani, and Bījak
versions of the following poem (MKV 416) and drew attention to the inversion of
lines which are proofs of oral transmission. I am quoting below the Mohan Pothī
and the Bījak versions, along with two Rajasthani variants:
(sūhī rāgu)
thara thara kaṁpai bālā jīu, *nā jānā kiyā karasī pīu.
raini gaī matu dinu bhī jāi, bhavara gae baga baiṭhe āi. (rahaū)
kāčai karavai rahai na pānī, haṁsu calia kāiā *kumalānī.
kāgu ud̤āvata bhujā pirānī, kahai kamīru eha kathā sirānī. (M3)
*
nā] emendation from the unmetrical na in MKV (nā is also the reading of the
majority of the manuscripts).
*
kumalānī] emendation from the unmetrical kūmalānī in MKV (all other manu-
scripts read the word with a short u).
93 Hawley (2005), p. 303.

148
This girl, my soul, trembles and shakes, she does not know what her beloved will do.
The night has passed, lest the day also end.94 The bees gone, now herons have come.
Water, lustre, does not stay in unbaked pot. The wild goose is gone, the body withers.95
My arm aches in beating at crows.96 Kabīr says, this story is over.
(rāga bhairu)
raiṁni gaī jaisaiṁ dina bhī jāi, bhavara uḍe baga baiṭhe āi. (ṭeka)
tharahari kaṁpyau bārā jīva, ko jāṁnaiṁ kā karihai pīva.
kāčai bhāṁḍai rahai na pāṁnīṁ, haṁsa calyau kāyā kumilāṁnīṁ.
kahi kavīra yahu kathā sirāṁnīṁ, kāga uḍāvata bāṁha pirānīṁ. (A340)
As the night has passed so is the day coming to an end. The bees are flown,
herons have come.
This girl, my soul, trembles and shakes, who knows what her beloved will do.
Water, lustre, does not stay in unbaked pot. The wild goose is gone, the body withers.
Kabīr says: ‘This story is over. My arm aches in beating at crows.’
(rāga bhairuṁ)
raiṁni gaī mata dina bhī jāi, bhavara uḍyā buga baiṭhe āi. (ṭeka)
kačai karavai rahai na pāṁnī, haṁsa ūḍyā kāyā kumyalāṁnīṁ.
tharahara tharahara kaṁpai jīva, nāṁ jānūṁ kā karihai pīva.
kaüā uḍāvata bahiyāṁ pirānī, kahai kabīra morī kathā sirāṁnīṁ. (C139)
As the night has passed lest the day also end. The bee flown, herons have come.
This girl, my soul, trembles and shakes, who knows what her beloved will do.
Water, lustre, does not stay in unbaked pot. The wild goose is gone, the body withers.
My arm aches in beating at crows. Kabīr says: ‘My story is over.’
bhauṁra uṛe baka baiṭhe āya, raina gaī divaso čali jāya.
*
thala-thala kāṁpai *bālā *jīva, nā jāṁnauṁ kā karihai pīva.
kāče bāsana ṭikai na pānī, uṛi *gai haṁsa kāyā kumhilānī.
*
kāga uḍāvata bhujā pirānī, kahai kabīra yaha kathā sirānī. (Bījak 106)
*
jīva] this reading of the Oxford manuscript (Ox) is preferred to the unrhyming jibe
in the edition (Bī). The other non-orthographic variants, with the exception of gā,
are either inferior or negligible: thala-thala] Bī, halahala Ox; bālā] Bī, bole Ox;
gai] Bī, gā Ox; kāga] Bī, nāga Ox.
94 The night is taken as symbolic of a youth with dark hair and the day as that of old age
with white hair. The same applies to the colours of the bee and the heron. The words bhī jāī
are separated, resulting in the meaning ‘also goes.’ However, the Old Hindi root bhīj- means
to get wet and with regards to night it refers to its passing as it becomes colder and wetter.
This meaning now applied to the day may also be at play, creating a more vivid texture.
95 The pot is a traditional simile for the human body, the wild goose for the soul.
96 Hess gives the note on the occurrence of this expression in the Bījak: ‘The crow's caw-
ing is auspicious: it means someone is coming. Women separated from loved ones chase
crows to make them “talk.”’ In the context of this poem the phrase may stand for useless
activities.
149
Imre Bangha
The bee has flown, the heron remains.

Night is over,
Day is going too.
The young girl quakes and shivers,
Not knowing what her lover
Will do.
Water won't stay
In unbaked clay.
The swan flutters, the body withers.
Beating at crows, the arm grieves.
Says Kabir, the story sputters
And goes out here. (trans. Hess and Singh (1986), pp. 76–77)
Indeed, the inversion of lines is one of the most conspicuous variations. Along
with this, one can notice the use of synonyms (uḍe–gae; karavai–bhāṁḍai–bāsa-
na; čalyau–uḍyā; bhujā–bāṁha–bahiyā) or equivalent idiomatic usages (nā jānā
(no one knows); ko jānai (who knows); nāṁ jānūṁ (I don’t know) in the four
versions quoted. Dialectal variation is also present. Interestingly, the Rajasthani
future karasī (will do) forms appear in Panjab, while the Braj karihai (will do)
appears in the Rajasthani and the Bījak versions. The form of pronouns can also
change (iha–yahu–yaha vs. mori). In the manuscripts that I did not quote above,
there are some further eccentric variations. Most of these transformations can only
take place in oral transmission and do not seem to carry any change in meaning.
They are also lost in translation. There are, however, two meaningful changes. The
Ādi Granth version (792;2) adds an extra line before the concluding one:
kuāra kaṁniā jaise karata sigārā, kiu raliā mānai bājha bhatārā.
[The soul?] decorates itself like a young girl, but what delight does it have
without the Lord?
This line, found only in the Ādi Granth, with conventional virah imagery is only
loosely connected to the others that lament the vain passing of life. It may have
been anchored in this poem because of the opening image of the girl-soul.
A less conspicuous yet more significant change can be observed with the omis-
sion or substitution of the prohibitive particle mati (don’t, lest). While most early
records agree on it and thus express an exhortation to the listener, the Rajasthani
A340 and the Bījak version omit it and confront the listener with a finite state.
Considering the date and the number of sources, it appears to be a later variation.
This variant, however, represents not an ideological but rather a rhetorical shift.
It is done to trigger a stronger inner protest in the listener in rejecting the course
of such a life.
150
5.
Let us now have a further look at the later life of the Kabīr-poem about mortality.
The text of the quatrain MKV102, which shares a line with MKV350 (F2), is pres-
ent in the Rajasthani (S A V J) and Panjabi (G) traditions.97 While the quatrains in
the Rajasthani manuscripts present negligible variation, the tercet in the Ādi Granth
has an interesting shift. Two out of its three lines are present in the Rajasthani
versions of the same poem, but its first line is shared with poem MKV350.
jhūṭḥe tana kūṁ kā grabaīe; mūṁvāṁ palabhari rahaṇa na paīye.

khīra khāṛ̃ a ghrita piṁḍa savārā; prāṁṇa gayeṁ le bāhari jārā.
čovā čandana čaračata aṅgā; so tana jarai kāṭha kai saṅgā;
dāsa kabīra yahu kīnha bičārā; eka dina hvaigā hvāla hamārā. (MKV102 S77)
Why do you pride yourself falsely in your body? When dead, it does not remain
for a moment.
You nourished your flesh with khir, jaggery, and ghee; when the life-breath leaves
it, it will be taken out to burn.
You cared for your limbs with fragrance and sandalwood; that body will burn
together with the funeral wood.
The devotee Kabīr has thought it over; this will be your condition one day.
(Rāg gauḍī)
jihi siri rači rači bāṁdhata pāga; so siru čuṁča savārahi kāga. (2) (cf. MKV350,5)
isu tana dhana ko kiā garabaīā; rāma nāmu kāhe na driṛīā. (1, rahāu) (cf. MKV102,1)
kahata kabīra sunahu mana mere; ihī havāla hohige tere. (3) (cf. MKV102,4) (Ādi
Granth 330,35)
The head where you carefully tied the turban, a crow will take care of it with its
beak.
Why do you pride yourself in your body and wealth? Wy didn’t you stick firmly to
Kabīr says: ‘Listen, my mind; this will be your condition.’ [God’s name?
The Dādūpanthī version of this stanza talks about ‘our’ shared human condition
without any explicit exhortation. The slightly overlapping Ādi Granth version is a
straightforward address to the listener. The dismal admonition about death is the
theme of all eight padas in the Rajasthani version. The refrain ‘When dead, it does
not remain for a moment’ reinforcing this message becomes an exhortation in the
Ādi Granth, ‘Why didn’t you keep firm in God’s name?’—a reminder of one of the
most important devotional practices, the repetition of the divine name.
Let us now consider another similar poem on mortality in the Ādi Granth
(Goṇḍ 2), a line of which can also be found in one of Kabīr’s distiches. The spirit
of the antarās of this pada is close to the above two stanzas. However, the refrain
introduces an entirely new concept, a question on the ways of the karma. The
97 A brief presentation of variations on this poem in Bījak 99, Ādi Granth 330,35, MKV102
(S77), and Tivari 62 is given in Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieu (2000), pp. 6–7.
151
Imre Bangha
repeated question, showing some discrepancy with the admonition about death,
incites the listener to think about his or her karma. Another difference here is the
direct address to the listener, bābā re, translated here as ‘o my brother’:
(Rāg goṇḍ)
narū marai naru kāmi na āvai; pasū marai dasa kāja savārai. (2)
apane karama kī gati mai kiā jānaü; mai kiā jānaü bābā re. (1, rahāu)
hāḍa jale jaise lakarī kā tūlā; kesa jale jaise ghāsa kā pūlā. (3)
kaha kabīra taba hī naru jāgai; jama kā ḍaṁḍu mūṁḍa mahi lāgai. (4) (Ādi
Granth 2)
When man dies he becomes useless— when an animal dies it is useful for
a dozen tasks.
How can I know the ways of my karma? How can I know it, o my brother?
Your bones will burn like firewood; your hair will burn like a sheaf of grass.
Kabīr says: ‘Man will only awake when Death’s rod touches his head.’
The following dohā is also present in the Ādi Granth (AG1366,36) and in the
Bījak (Bī174). The version reconstructed by Tivari (Ti Sākhī 15/7) follows the
one published by Shyamsundar Das (SSD12/16). The Ādi Granth version is given
below (in the apparatus, the siglum BīBH stands for the Bhagtāhī recension text
of the Bījak, as opposed to the reference to Shukdev Simh’s edition based on the
Dānāpur recension marked by Bī):
kabīra hāḍa jare* jiu lākarī, kesa jare* jiu ghāsu; (cf. AG, Goṇḍ 2,2)
ihu** jagu jaga jaratā* dekhi kai, bhaïo kabīru udāsa.***
jarai/jarai/jaratā] AG Bī; jalai/ jalai/ jalatā SSD. **ihu] AG; saba SSD.
*
ihu... udāsa] SSD, AG; kabīrā jarai rāma rasa; jasa kāṭhina jarai kapāsa
***
Bī.
With its statement about Kabīr becoming disillusioned and indifferent (udāsa) to-
wards the world, the distich exhorts the listener to similarly turn away from maya,
since he will end up dead. The Bījak version also proposes a way forward, ‘Kabīr is
burning in the emotion of God,’ an example exhorting the listener towards bhakti.
What happened to these poems later? The Bījak (Bī99) presents an interesting
composite text based on the three different earlier padas. It is also amplified by
two more lines not found in the early corpus:
aba kahā̃ calehu akele mītā; *uṭhahu na karahu gharahu kā čiṁtā.

khīra khāṛ̃ a ghṛta piṁḍa saṁvārā; so tana lai bāhara kara ḍārā.
(cf. MKV102,2)
*
jo sira raci raci bād̃ hyo pāgā; so sira ratana *biḍārata kāgā. (cf. MKV350,5)
hāṛa jarai *jasa jaṅgala kī lakaṛī; kesa jaraĩ *jasa ghāsa kī pūlī. (cf. AG,
Goṇḍ 2,2)
152
*
māyā ke rasa lei na pāyā; antara jama bilāri hoe dhāyā.
kahaĩ kabīra *ajahũ na jāgā; jama kā mugadara *sira biča lāgā. (99) (cf.
AG, Goṇḍ 2,3) (Bījak 99)
*
uṭhahu] Bī, uṭhīvo Ox; jo] Bī, jehī Ox; biḍārata] Bī, bīḍāre Ox; jasa
jaṅgala kī lakaṛī] (unrhyming) Bī, jaise lakaṛī jhūrī BiBH Ox; jasa ghāsa
kī pūlī] Bī, jaise trīna ke kūrī BiBH Ox; māyā] Bī, āyata saṁga na jāta
saṁghātī, kāha bhaai dala bāghe hāthī. maā Ox; ajahũ] Bī, nala ajahu
Ox; sira biča] Bī mājha śira Ox.
Where are you going alone, my friend?
You don’t get up, or fuss
About your house.
The body fed on sweets, milk and butter,
The form you adorned
Has been tossed out.
The head where you carefully
Tied the turban,
That jewel,
The crows are tearing open.
Your stiff bones burn
Like a pile of wood,
Your hair like a branch of grass.
No friend comes along, and where
Are the elephants you had tied?
You can’t taste Maya’s juice,
A cat called Death has pounced inside.
Even now you lounge in bed
As Yama’s club
Falls on your head. (trans. Hess and Singh (1986), pp. 74–75)
Although this sabad can be analysed as composed of earlier, different Kabīr lines,
it has developed into an organic unit. The poem becomes a powerful admonition
through a longer sequence of reminders to death, kicked off with the familiar ad-
dress ‘my friend.’ As with some of its antecedents, it leaves in the shadow any
reference to the means of salvation.
The reconstruction by Parasnath Tivari (Ti62) is a purged version of the Bījak
poem with a different refrain. His lines are picked up from the same three early
sources and while such a reconstruction does not have any pedigree to represent
the earliest Kabīr, it is in line with later tradition in making new poems by combin-
ing lines from early padas, as has been seen in the case of the Bījak:
jhūṭhe tana kaũ kyā garabāvai; marai tau pala bhari rahana na pāvai. (ṭeka)
(cf. MKV102,1)
khīra khāṁḍa ghṛta piṁḍa saṁvārā; prāṁṇa gaeṁ lai bāhari jārā. (2)
(cf. MKV102,2)
153
Imre Bangha
jihiṁ siri raci raci bāṁdhata pāgā; so siru caṁcu savārahi kāgā. (3)
(cf. MKV350,5)
hāṛa jarai jaisai lakaṛī jhūrī; kesa jarai jaisai trina kai kūrī. (4)
(cf. AG, Goṇḍ 2,2)
kahai kabīra nara ajahuṁ na jāgai; jama kā ḍaṁḍ mūṁḍ mahiṁ lāgai. (5)
(cf. AG, Goṇḍ 2,3) (Parasnath Tivari, 1961)
Kabīr's imagery is part of a larger tradition and was used by other bhakta authors.
For example, the same theme also occurs in the later layers of the Sūrsāgar:98
(rāga jhĩjhauṭī)
jā dina mana pañchī uṛi jaihai;
tā dina tere tana taruvara ke sabai pāta jhari jaihaĩ;
yā dehī kau garaba na kariyai, syāra-kāga-gīdha khaihaĩ; (cf. MKV102,1)
tīnani maĩ tana kṛmi, kai biṣṭhā, kai hvai khāka uṛaihai;
kahã vaha nīra, kahā̃ vaha sobhā, kahã rãga-rūpa dikhaihai;
jina logani saũ neha karata hai, tehi dekhi ghinaihaĩ;
ghara ke kahata sabāre kāṛhau, bhūta hoi dhari khaihaĩ; (cf. MKV102,2)
jina putranihĩ bahuta pratipālyau, devī-deva manaihaĩ;
teī lai khoparī bās̃ a dai, sīsa phori bikharaihaĩ;
ajahũ mūṛha karau satasaṅgati, santani maĩ kachu paihai;
nara-bapu dhāri nāhĩ jana hari kaũ, jama kī māra so khaihai;
sūradāsa bhagavaṁta-bhajana binu bṛthā su janama gãvaihai.
(Sūrsāgar 86)
On the day that the bird of your soul flies away
All the leaves of your body's tree will be shed.
Don't take pride in this body—jackals, crows or vultures will eat it.
Your corpse will turn into one of these three:99 worms or excrement or will be
blown away as ashes.
Where is the old brilliance? Where is the old lustre? Where will it show its
The people you loved will be disgusted by seeing it. [beauty and colour?
Everyone of your house will say ‘take it away! It will become a ghost and
overpower100 us.’
The same children that you protected so much and considered to be gods and
goddesses
Will apply a bamboo stick to your skull and will burst and scatter your head.
O you dull, go to the company of the true one right away; among the truthful
ones you will receive something.
If receiving human birth, one isn't Hari's servant, then he will be struck by Death.
Sūrdās says: ‘Without praising the Lord he wastes his life in vanity.’
98 Sūrsāgar, vol. 1. p. 28. It is absent from the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century man-
uscripts of the Sūrdās poems (J. S. Hawley, personal communication, 29 May 2012; cf.
Bryant and Hawley 2015).
99 Or ‘fall apart into its three qualities.’
100 Cf. dharikhāyo (‘to overpower’) in Callewaert and Sharma (2009), p. 1002.
154
6.
The next poem to be examined (MKV261) is about the workings of maya and how
to become liberated from it:
māyā moha mohi hita kīnha, tātai merau gyāṁna dhana hari līnha. (ṭeka)
. . .
kahi kabīra raghunātha bhaja nara, dutī nāṁhī koī. (S207)
My infatuation with illusion did good to me101 since it snatched away my
wealth of knowledge. (Refrain)
. . .
Kabīr says: ‘Worship Rām, the Lord of Raghus, o man. There is no one else
(in the world).’
The way to liberation, however, is highly contested as various manuscripts of-

fer different objects for man’s devotion. While the Rajasthani manuscripts have
Vaishnava names in the last line—raghunātha (S), gobyanda (A), hari nāma (V),
yeka rāma (J C), rāma nāma (Gop)—and propose to worship God either directly
or through his name, the Ādi Granth and the Bījak deploys more generic terms,
such as jagajīvanu (AG482,27) and bhagavanta (Bī60) respectively.
This is, however, not the only variation. The Bījak (Bi60), as compared to the
early Sikh and Rajasthani versions, interpolated a couplet that may have been use-
ful for community building. These two extra lines (Bī60.6–7) distance the listener
or the reader from the learning of both Islam and Hinduism and direct them to the
true guru:
*
saiyada sekha kitāba *nīrakhai, *paṇḍita sāstra *bičārai.
sataguru ke upadesa binā *te, jāni ke *jīvahi mārai.
saiyada sekha] Bī, sekha saiata Ox; nīrakhai] Bī, nīrakhata Ox; paṇḍita]
Bī, sumrīta Ox; bičārai] Bī, bičārī Ox; te] Bī, tuma Ox; jīvahi mārai] Bī,
jīva mārī Ox.
The sayyid and the shaikh look at the Qur’an; the pundit ponders on the shastras.
Without the teachings of the true guru, they destroy their lives on purpose.
This particular importance lent to the guru in the Bījak is in contrast with the
poem’s variant readings. For example, the second half of the first antarā in the
texts of the Rajasthani manuscripts and in the Ādi Granth are similar. The only
difference is that the Ādi Granth version is more personal while the Rajasthani
recension is more neutral:
101 Alternatively, ‘Illusion and infatuation are impassioned with me.’ For a discussion of
the word hita in this poem, see Strnad (2013), p. 91, n. 1. My translation makes use of the
irony found in the Hari ṭhagi (‘God the swindler’) poem (MKV97) to be discussed below.
155
Imre Bangha
sāča kari nari gāṇṭhi bāndhyau čhaḍi parama nidhāṁna (S207)

Collecting money, man tied it into his knot-purse and abandoned the highest treasure.
sāṁča kari hama gāṭhi dīnī soī parama nidhāna (AG482;27)

Collecting money, we tied it into our knot-purse and that is the highest treasure for us.
The Bījak, however, takes the poem into a different direction, reminding us of the
importance of the guru:
sabda guru upadesa diyo te čhāṁḍeu parama nidhānā (Bi60)

The guru gave guidance through the word but you abandoned the highest treasure.
te čhāṁḍeu] Bī, tuma čhoḍo Ox.
7.
The next poem to be discussed (MKV486) is one of the few ‘autobiographical’
Kabīr-poems with a reference to his imminent death in Magahar, a notoriously
impure town for Hindus.102 In its earliest recorded forms (in M, AG, S and V), it is
an exhortation for internal devotion to a gracious God given into the mouth of the
dying or already dead Kabīr. As we have seen, the use of death imagery to awaken
the listener to an internal realization is a frequent theme in the Kabīr-poems. The
second and the third lines remind us of God’s grace. The real novelties here are the
repeated inclusion of Kabīr’s name, the first-person statement in the penultimate
line and the reference to Magahar:
lokā re, mati bhorā re,

jau kāsī tana tajai103 kabīrā; to rāmahi kauna nihorā re. (ṭeka)
jaupaiṁ bhagati bhagati hari jānai; milai ta aciraja kāhā re.
jaisaiṁ jalaihi jalahi ḍhuri miliyau; yūṁ ḍhūri milyau julāhā re
kahai kabīra rāma mai jānyāṁ; bhrami bhūlai jini koī re
jasa kāsī jasa magahara usara, hṛdai rāma jo hoī re. (S365)
O people, it’s so foolish!104
If Kabīr gives up his body in Kashi, then, tell me, what is the role of Ram’s
compassion? (Refrain)
If a devotee knows Hari through his devotion then, say, what is the surprise
102 Variation in this song has been discussed in Strnad (2018); the Bījak version has been
studied by De Bruijn (2014), pp. 145–147.
103 Emendation from jai jai. Cf. Strnad (2013), p. 133, n. 2.
104 This formulation aims to reflect the ambiguity of the Hindi as it allows the interpreta-
tions, ‘It is so foolish of you!’ and ‘It’s so foolish of Kabīr’; cf. Strnad (2013), p. 133, n. 1.
The Hindi exclamation re is not present in each line but its function of directly addressing
the listener is indicated by phrases such as ‘tell me,’ ‘say,’ and ‘you see,’ or by using sec-
ond-person addresses instead of third-person narration.
156
if he meets Him?
Just as water poured into water merged, so has the weaver, you see.
Kabīr says: ‘I have known God, none of you should be lost in doubt.’
Kashi is just as the barren land of Magahar, if you hold Rām in your heart.
The interpretation of the last third of the refrain, to rāmahi kauna nihorā re, calls
for some comment as it has several opacities and is a good example of how elusive
Kabīr’s texts can be for a modern translator and how much can be lost when the
translator needs to pick up only one meaning. Apart from the conjunct to (then) and
the exclamation re, translated here as ‘tell me,’ all words present some ambiguity.
Firstly, this half line lacks a clear finite verb, which should apparently be a form of
either ‘to be’ or ‘to do.’ The word rāmahi is in the oblique case and most probably
stands for a direct or an indirect object, that is, accusative or dative case. More-
over, a dative is often used to express concepts to be translated with the genitive
(for example, ‘[the role of] compassion for Rām’). The word kauna can stand for
‘what,’ ‘who,’ ‘what kind of,’ or ‘which.’105 To create some clarity and reduce the
meanings to ‘what,’ two sources (AG and Gop) present the word kahā, equivalent
of the modern Hindi kyā (what). Yet, the most intriguing word is nihorā, which
means ‘entreaty,’ ‘favour, compassion,’ and ‘support’ and the line can be translated
in either of these meanings. Thus, some further probable alternatives are ‘who will
then implore God?’ and ‘How does God’s support work in it?’106 The variation in
meanings represents various shades of agency attributed to God or to the devotee.
In contrast with the earliest sources, the three other Rajasthani anthologies (J
C Gop), which can be called the Vaishnava recension, invert lines 3 and 4 and add
two lines (7, 8) after the second and the inverted third line.107 The new line order
we arrive at is as follows:
1
2
[7]
4
3
[8]
5
6
105 Cf. McGregor (1993); Prasad, Sahay, and Shrivastav (1992); Callewaert and Sharma
(2009). Out of these, the first two meanings have been recorded in Rajasthani as well (see
Lalas 1962–1988) and the first three in Brajbhāṣā (see Gupta, Shukla, and Tandan 1974).
106 Vaudeville (1997), p. 214 seems to opt for the first solution: ‘If Kabīr leaves his body
at Kasi, who will take refuge in Rām?
107 M has two couplets appended at the end, apparently by Nāmdev. This is a transcription
mistake either by the Mohan Pothī scribe or by Callewaert and his collaborators.
157
Imre Bangha
A novelty in these versions is the inclusion of a reference to the guru, which can
again be perceived as a means of community-building:
gura parasāda sādha kī sī saṅgati, jaga jītyoṁ jāhi julāhā. (line 8 J76)
Through the grace of the guru and the companionship of the truthful,
the weaver goes —having conquered the world.
The expression jītyo jāhi in the second half of this line is in fact a combination
of the perfective participle jītyo (having conquered) and the present jāhi (goes).
To avoid confusion with the passive jītyo jā(h)i (is conquered), the other versions
have the adverbial form jītyeṁ jāi (C) and jīteṁ jāi (Gop). The conquest refers to
the fact that Kabīr has become independent of worldly customs.
In the same poem, the fifth line has contested readings in the early layer man-
uscripts:
kahatu kabīra sunahu re loī (AG, M)

kahai kabīra rāma maiṁ jānyāṁ (S, [jānauṁ] V)
kahai kabīra sunahu re santo (J, C, [kahata] Gop)
The earliest recorded version (AG, M) is a fully formulaic reference to the poet
Kabīr’s authority, positioning his persona in dialogue with his audience. The
second version omits the direct address to the audience and reinforces Kabīr’s
authority with a self-confident first-person statement. The third version is a slight
variation on the first, already presenting a community of truthful people. The same
poem with more substantial variations is also present in the Bījak:
logā tumahīṁ mati ke bhorā

*
jyoṁ pānī pānī mili gayaū, *tyoṁ dhuri mile kabīrā.
*
jo maithila ko sācā byāsa, tora marana ho magahara pāsa.
magahara marai marana nahi pāvai, anta marai to rāma le jāvai.
magahara marai so gadahā hoya, bhala paratīta rāma se khoya.
kyā kāsī kyā magahara ūsara, jo pai hṛdaya rāma basa mora.
jo kāsī tana tajai kabīra; to rāmahi, kahu, kauna nihora. (Bījak 103)
jo] Bī, je Ox; tyoṁ] Bī, te tehī Ox; jo maithila ko] Bī; jauṁ meṁthī kā BīBH;
jyau maithī ko Ox; byāsa] Bī BīBH, bāsā Ox; le jāvai] Bī, lajāve Ox.
You simple-minded people!
As water enters water, so Kabīr
Will meet with dust.
That Maithili pandit said
You’d die near Magahar.
What a terrible place to be dead!
If you want Ram to take you away,
Die somewhere else instead.
158
Besides, they say

Whoever dies at Magahar
Comes back a donkey.
So much for your faith in Ram.
What’s Kashi? Magahar? Barren ground,
When Ram rules in your heart.
If you give up the ghost in Kashi
Is there some debt
On the Lord’s part? (trans. Hess and Singh (1986), pp. 75–76)108
One is tempted to say that the chronologically earliest sources (M AG S and V)

represent the earliest accessible layer of the poem going back to the late sixteenth
century. Some amplification happened in the Rajasthani vaiṣṇava recension that
came to life towards the end of the first quarter of the seventeenth century and a
more radical shift took place in the Bījak in the late eighteenth century. The fifth
line containing the contested readings in the early layer manuscripts is omitted
from the Bījak just as the extra lines [7] and [8] of the vaiṣṇava recension. In its
turn, the Bījak elaborates on the theme of Magahar in three additional čaupāī lines
(b3–b5). The inclusion of these internally rhyming čaupāīs not only confuse the
poetic metre, but the inversion of lines also breaks the rhyming pattern (and forces
the word bhorā to rhyme with kabīra). The Bījak also turns the exhortation of the
audience into polemics about brahmanical orthodoxy. The line correspondence
between the older sources, represented here in the vaiṣṇava recension’s line order,
and Bījak sabad 103 is as follows:
Raj Bījak
1 1
2 7
[7]
4 2
b3
b4 (b5 in Ox)
b5 (b4 in Ox)
3
[8]
5
6 6
108 A different translation is in Vaudeville (1997), p. 156, no. 2180.

159
Imre Bangha
The Bījak version expresses a later fascination with Magahar and indeed with
Kabīr hagiography, which by that time has, apparently, become an important
Kabīrpanthī centre.109 As an Indian singer relishes some poetic or musical turn
and explores its variations, the pseudo-Kabīr of these three lines does the same.
In his study of this sabad, Thomas De Bruijn found that it was moulded to suit
hagiography about Kabīr's death in Magahar. Like most other sabads in the Bījak,
this one comments on, rather than narrates, a hagiographic event and by doing
so it actively addresses and challenges the audience.110 One is reminded that the
hagiographic interest in the Kabīrpanth on the eve of the compilation of the Bījak
may have been one of the major forces of sectarian identity. Marco della Tomba in
the 1760s was told by Kabīrpanthīs that Kabīr had ‘performed great miracles’ and
was also the guru of Alexander the Great.111
8.
The last early layer poem to be examined is present in AG, S, A V, J, and Gop:
hari ṭhagi jaga kūṁ ṭhagorī lāī; hari kai bivoga kaisaiṁ jīu merī māī.
kauṇa pūta ko kāko bāpa; kauṇa marai kauṇaṁ karai saṁtāpa.
kauṇa puriṣa ko kākī nāri, abhi antari tumha lehu bicāri.
kahai kabīra, ṭhaga syūṁ mana mānyā, gaī ṭhagaurī ṭhaga pahicānyāṁ.
(S74, MKV97)
That con man Hari has conned the world; but, my companion, how can I
live without Him?
Who is son and who is whose father? Who dies and who suffers?
Who is husband and who is whose wife? Think this over deep within.
Kabīr’s heart accepts the thief. Cheating disappears when you recognise the cheat.112
The poetic form is the most frequent early Kabīr stanza, a quatrain of four čaupāī
lines, although the metre needs to be emended at certain places. For example, the
second half line with suggested metrical correction (underlined) and excision (in
square brackets) is as follows:
109 Kabīr legends composed from about 1600 onwards always mention Kabīr’s death in
Magahar (Lorenzen (1992), p. 41). Magahar may refer to the village of the same name near
Gorakhpur although contesting sites exist (ibid., p. 42). A land grant from 1688–1689 con-
firms this site’s connection to Kabīr Śāh (ibid., p. 17).
110 In his analysis of the Bījak version of this poem, De Bruijn (2014), pp. 145–147,
demonstrated how this song had been moulded to suit hagiography about Kabīr's death in
Magahar. As with most songs in the Bījak, this one, commenting on rather than narrating a
hagiographic event, actively addresses and challenges the audience.
111 Lorenzen (2002), p. 40 speculates that della Tomba may have misunderstood the story
of Kabīr’s legendary encounter with Sikandar Lodī.
112 Parts of the translation draw on Hess and Singh’s English version in Hess and Singh
(1986), p. 53.
160
hari kai bivoga kaisaiṁ jīu [merī] māī (S74)

hari ke bioga kaise jīu [merī] māī (AG331;39)
hari ke biyoga kasa jiyehu re bhāī (Bī36; harī ke bīvoga kaise jīu māī Ox64)
hari kĕ bi|vŏga kasa| jīūṁ|, māī (metrical reconstruction)
or
hari bi|voga kasa| jīūṁ|, māī (metrical reconstruction)
The only noteworthy variation within the early layer is that manuscript J felt the
gender incongruence in the feminine verbal form lāī in the first pada and emended
the text to hari ṭhaga jaga ṭhagorī lāyā. This triggered a change of the rhyme in the
next pada into merī māyā (my illusion). The Bījak inverts lines 2 and 3 and adds
an extra, explicatory line before the concluding čaupāī:
ṭhagi ṭhagi mūla sabana ko līnhā, rāma ṭhagaurī kāhu na cīnhā. (4)
Cheating repeatedly, it has snatched away everyone’s capital; no one recog-
nized God, the swindler.
Such geyavikāras, sung inflections, show that the Bījak text cannot directly derive
from the early written archetype. The inverted lines, apparently less emphatic than
the rest of the poem, are also more liable to change. Manuscript J and the Bījak
also unfold and slightly confuse the simple grammar and the correct metre of the
earlier forms kaüna ko pūtu pitā ko kāko (AG) and kauṇa pūta ko kāko bāpa (S A V
Gop) into ko kāko putra, kavana kāko bāpā (J Bi). The half-line abhi antari tumha
lehu bicāri (S A V Gop; iā tata lehu sarīra bicāri AG) is changed into akatha
kathā sādho lehu bicāri in manuscript J and into akatha kathā yama dṛṣṭi pasārī
in the Bījak. The result is that while the older versions exhort and instigate direct
involvement, that is agency, the Bījak makes a threatening statement, which unlike
the old versions would allow the assistance of a guru.
Into the twentieth century:

Bījak–Śabdāvalī–Kumar Gandharva transitions
Independent documentation in the twentieth century hardly had any overlap with
the earliest versions published in the Millennium Kabīr Vāṇī.113 To sample the rich
archive surfacing in that century, I will use two early-twentieth-century sources and
will examine the relationship of a few overlapping songs to their Bījak equivalents.
The Kabīr sāhab kī śabdāvalī (1907 [1900]) has been a particularly popular book
113 Cf. Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieu (2000), p. vii, and Callewaert (2004), p. 121.
Callewaert’s statement is based on Tagore’s translations, the recordings of Bahadur Singh
in 1995–1996 in Rajasthan, and David Lorenzen’s research in Benares in 1990–1992. On
161
Imre Bangha
of Kabīr songs. Its Radhasoami background and its being a source for Kshitimohan
Sen and Tagore has been discussed earlier. Our other resource here is at the in-
tersection of print and song culture. Hess published the transcript of thirty songs
performed by Kumar Gandharva, who, in turn, relied on the print collection Śrī
Śilnāth Śabdāmṛt (1923 [1915]), which had Nāthpanthī background and limited
circulation. A concordance of the twenty-one Kumar Gandharva songs that bear
Kabīr’s signature is given in Table 6.1.114
As can be seen, there is only minimal overlap across these three selections. Only
one song (māyā mahā ṭhaganī) is shared by all of them. The Kumar Gandharva
repertoire shares two songs with the Bījak and eight with the more musical Śabdā
valī.115 A comparison of the Śabdāvalī and the Bījak (not in the above table) shows
that these two collections share four songs (Bījak 24, 91, 59, 54 are bhed-bānī 24,
citāvanī 33, citāvanī 31, and citāvanī 11 in the Śabdāvalī). Nonetheless, when
a text is shared, it shows much less variation than the chronological distance
between the repertoires would suggest. This phenomenon can be explained by the
growth of the Kabīr corpus over the centuries and with the influence of print.116
Twentieth-century anthologists had a wider range of poems at their disposal to
select from than their predecessors and with the advent of print culture many of
these poems were standardized.
A good example of this phenomenon is the poem māyā mahā ṭhaganī
(Kumar Gandharva 12/Shilnath 257–Śabdāvalī, čitāvanī 31–Bījak 59) a poem
about the workings of maya, illusion. The only variation within its text across
the three sources is that suno ho santo (listen, o truthful ones) of the Bījak be-
comes suno bhāī sādho (listen, my truthful/ascetic brother) in the Śabdāvalī and in
Kumar Gandharva. This song is reminiscent of the early Hari ṭhagi poem (MKV97)
discussed earlier. However, its tone is much more subdued as the swindler here is
not Hari but the more conventional Māyā.
There are instances where there is variation in the imagery and sometimes
in the vocabulary. An example of the former is the song avadhūtā gagana ghaṭā
gaharānī (Kumar Gandharva 1/Shilnath 198–Śabdāvalī, bhed-bāni 9 p. 50), which
the Rajasthan research, see Singh (2002), pp. 192–198, and on Benares, Lorenzen (1996)
and Singh (2002), pp. 205–223.
114 The remaining nine songs in the repertoire, some of them attributed to Gorakhnāth, do
not overlap with the other two sources. However, one of them (22 bholā mana jāne amara
merī kāyā) opens with a line familiar from the earliest records, including the Fatehpur man-
uscript (nara jāṇai amara merī kāyā, MKV110) and later evokes the image of the well and
the five water-carriers found in MKV329.
115 On the musical and non-musical contrast between these two collections, see Hess
(1987), p. 118.
116 While Callewaert documented 593 Kabīr padas recorded between 1570 and 1681,
Parasnath Tiwari used sources presenting 1.579 padas documented between 1604 and 1937;
cf. Dharwadker (2003), pp. 54–58.
162
Table 6.1 Kumar Gandharva (Singing Emptiness).
Śabdāvalī Bījak
1 avadhūtā gagana bhed-bānī 9 (p.50) —
2 avadhūtā kudrat kī gata — 23
3 avadhūtā yugana — —
4 bina satagura čitāvanī 1 (p.1) —
5 dhuna suna ke — —
6 gurujī ne diyo — —
7 hama paradesī paṁčhī — —
8 hiranā samajha būjha bana čaranā — —
9 jhīnī jhīnī bhed-bānī 10 (p.51) —
10 kauna ṭhagavā nagariyā čitāvanī 4 (p.2) —
11 mana bhāvarā bhayo — —
12 māyā mahā ṭhaganī čitāvanī 31 (p.14) 59
13 naiharavā hama kā na bhāvai bhed-bānī 5 (p.48) —
14 naiyā morī nīke nīke — —
15 nirabhaya niraguna — —
16 rāma nirañjana nyārā re — —
17 ramaiyā kī dulahina lūṭā bazār — —
18 sakhiyā, vā ghara saba se nyārā — —
19 sataguru morī čūka saṁbhāro birah aur prem 33 —
(p.79)
20 sunatā hai guru gyānī bhed-bānī 22 (p.62) —
21 uṛa jāegā haṁsa akelā — —
Source: Author.
presents considerable paraphrasing in the imagery. However, the overall sense of

a half-hidden metaphor is kept in both versions and both culminate in the praise
of the divine name.
163
Imre Bangha
9.
In two songs—9 jhīnī jhīnī and 20 sunatā hai guru gyānī—Shilnath/Kumar Gand-
harva add two lines to the Śabdāvalī versions (bhed-bānī 10 and bhed-bānī 22).
The latter poem also introduces changes in the terminology and Kumar Gandharva
has ādi puruṣa and āda kī bānī where the Śabdāvalī reads alakha puruṣa and amara
bānī—otherwise they are identical. Some changes are even more subtle. In a line
about not finding help in the world in the song sataguru morī čūka saṁbhāro
(Kumar Gandharva 19 and Śabdāvalī, birah aur prem 33), Kumar Gandharva uses
perfectives (dekhyo, milyo) instead of the eastern Hindi future forms (dekhiba,
mileba) of the Śabdāvalī, which expressed more conviction than experience.
kara dekhyo hita sāre jagata se, milyo na koū puni sahāro. (Kumar Gandharva 19)
I’ve looked for help
Everywhere in the world
And found nothing to rely on. (trans. Hess (2009), p. 96)
kara dekheba hita sāre jaga soṁ, koi na mileba puna bhāro. (Śabdāvalī 33)
You may look for help everywhere in the world and won’t find anyone to
take on its Load.
10.
The song bina satagura nara rahata bhulānā (Without the true guru, humans are
lost) is built on two conventional images for the realization of one’s true nature.
The first image is about a lion brought up among sheep and the second is of a musk
deer searching in the outside world for the scent coming from within:117
bina satagura nara rahata bhulānā,

khojata phirata rāha nahīṁ jānā. (ṭeka)
kehara suta le āyo gaḍariyā pāla poṣa una kīnha sayānā.
karata kalola rahata ajayana saṁga, āpana marma unahuṁ nahīṁ jānā.
. . .
kahata kabīra suno bhāī sādho, ulaṭi āpa meṁ āpa samānā. (Kumar Gandharva 4b)
117 The image of the lion is found, for example, in the Ismaili ginān of Pīr Śams, eji
kesari siṁha sarūpa bhulāyo, ajā kere saṅge ajā hoi raheyo; ese bharama meṁ jivana kuṁ
bhulāyo (The lion forgot its lionish form, and in the company of goats it lived as a goat.
In such delusion life’s purpose is forgotten). Shackle and Moir (1992), hymn 5. The musk
deer imagery has been so popular that the Kabīr sākhī corpus has an entire aṅg (section)
dedicated to it, the kasturiyā mriga kau aṅg (section on the musk deer). See Simh and Simh
(1993), pp. 317–319.
164
Without the true guru, humans are lost.

They search and wander but can’t find the way.
A shepherd raised a lion cub,
He cared for him so cleverly.
That cub gambolled with the goats,
Not knowing his own nature.
. . .
Kabir says, listen seeker, friend,
Self turns, merges
With self. (trans. Hess (2009), p. 66)
The sixteen-mora first line of the refrain is presented as a proper čaupāī in this
version, which introduces the second pada. The Śabdāvalī does not turn the refrain
into a čaupāī but follows it with an extra antarā, ‘He goes up and down with-
out steadfastness and wanders drunk and mad.’ Its markedly Perso-Arabic phrase
alamasta divānā stands in contrast with the rest of the poem, which uses Indic
vocabulary. After this, the two poems match almost exactly until the closing line.
While Kumar Gandharva is more cryptic in the last line and focuses on the result,
the Śabdāvalī is more explicit and talks of the way:
bina satagura nara phirata bhulānā. (ṭeka)

ūṁca nīca laga dhīraja nāhīṁ tāsu phirai alamasta divānā.
kehara suta le āyo garaḍiyā pāla poṣa una kīna sayānā.
karata kalola rahata ajayana saṁga, āpana marma unahuṁ nahīṁ jānā.
. . .
kahaiṁ kabīra suno bhāī sādho ulaṭī rāha sahaja mastānā.
(Śabdāvalī, čitāvanī 1)
Without the true guru, man wanders lost. (Refrain)
He goes up and down without steadfastness and wanders drunk and mad.
A shepherd raised a lion cub, he cared for him so cleverly.
That cub gambolled with the goats, not knowing his own nature
. . .
Kabir says: ‘Listen seeker friend, the road to the drunken, inborn God is reverse.’118
118 This rendering draws on Hess’s translation of the previous version.

165
Imre Bangha
Kabīr as lasting presence
Many twentieth-century scholars claimed a formidable 120-year lifespan (1398–

1518) for Kabīr. Yet, even this lifespan is too tight to contain all Kabīr-poetry.
Many poems are indebted to centuries of earlier layers of Indian vernacular
compositions and after the poet’s death, poems with ‘his’ signature continued to
evolve119 and have been continually produced and remoulded over the past five
centuries, leaving the idea of the original poet very much in a haze.
Kabīr has an extraordinary capacity to speak to a wide range of communities
and to each in a different way. Kabīr’s poetry has been in constant metamorphosis
and with the help of forms recorded over the past four and the half centuries, we
can speculate about how they kept being adopted not only to new performative
environments but also to new receptive communities.
The earliest Kabīr-poems appearing in the oldest manuscripts and published by
Winand Callewaert as Millennium Kabīr Vāṇī had already undergone two phases
of oral transmission. In the earliest phase, they were metrically correct poems,
probably recited or sung to a fix melody and embedded into an environment where
explanation was either unnecessary or was provided along with their performance.
This phase can be inferred from the fact that in the case of early sources a sys-
tematic reconstruction of metrically correct poems is relatively easy and that the
reconstructed poems curtailed of explicative fillers are more compact, more poly-
semic, and therefore, more poetically more powerful. This phase in transmission
may be called the metric phase. In the next, the musical phase of oral transmission,
these poems entered into singers’ repertoires and spread over wide regions. Proba-
bly it was only in this phase that they were set to raga and, in order to compensate
for a lost homiletic context, explanations of certain aspects were incorporated to
them in the form of hypermetrical fillers.
Circulation between receptive communities resulted in the continuous recon-
textualization of the poems. The earliest extant Kabīr manuscripts come from
Vaishnava, Sikh, and Dādūpanthī singing environments. Although it is not possible
to detect sectarian involvement in the earlier metric phase of their oral transitions,
their often-cryptic nature easily lent them to sectarian appropriation. As has been
discussed, one major area of contestation was the use of divine names. While the
frequent use of the terms Rām and Hari for a non-sectarian God have deep roots in
the Kabīr tradition, the Vaishnava origin of these terms lent the poems to a Vaish-
nava interpretation. Moreover, at times more markedly, Vaishnava names also pop
119 As far as the precursors of the Kabīr verses are concerned, see Dasgupta (1962),
pp. 416, where a čaryāpad of Ḍheṇḍhaṇa closely shares its enigmatic imagery with a Kabīr
pada. The third chapter in Dvivedi (1950) compares the Nāth doctrines with the teaching
of Kabīr.
166
up in the Kabīr-poems. Another contested area was the importance of a guru and of
the community of devotees, which seem to have become more and more dominant
over the centuries. A further contested area was hagiographic interest. This shift in
emphasis is clearly perceptible in the Bījak, set into its ‘final’ form possibly in the
eighteenth century. The twentieth century witnessed an unprecedented richness in
the Kabīr corpus as well as early print standardization. A particularly remarkable
later phenomenon is the multiplication of imagery, as if the performer was relish-
ing a particularly successful image by building parallels to it.
While examining the changes in the Kabīr corpus, his recent translator, Vinay
Dharwadker identified enlargement and discursive variation as major forces in
operation in manuscript transmission.120 A further study of the evolution of the
Kabīr corpus reveals that changes involve shifts not only in phrasing, metre, and
imagery but also in attitudes as poems travel between both performative and sec-
tarian environments. The transforming forces, among others, include bhaktifica-
tion, especially, Vaishnavization, musicalization, and community-building.
While many sectarian and non-sectarian ‘Kabīrs’ were created and some com-
munities may even claim to represent a more authentic Kabīr, a contemporary
reader or listener, whether in India or abroad, can relish the richness produced over
the centuries by a powerful yet elusive presence.
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Imre Bangha

6. Shifts in Kabīr Contexts and Texts

Keywords. Kabīr, Pada, Textual variation, Interpretive community, Recontextual-

‘I speak for all

Continuous recontextualization of Kabīr

Reception in Indo-Persian and Sufi circles

10 Bangha (2010) and (2013).

literature. Out of the twenty-seven post-1530 Sufi biographical dictionaries dis-

According to Stewart and Orsini, in their ‘attempt to “think Islamic thoughts in

22 Ernst (2004), p. 166.

The archives of the Kabīrpanth

It has further intrigued scholars that no written Kabīrpanthī collection is known

30 <http://kabirproject.org/music%20with%20books/pakistan%20mein%20kabir> and

sabada ramaiṁṇī sākhī, satya sagalā kari māṁnī/jāṁni (125)

sākhī sabadī grantha ramainī pada pragaṭa hai,

50 Classical singing of ‘Kabīrīs’ is attested by Śaikh Bāhā’uddīn Barnavī’s (floruit 1655)

(2) Rajasthan: the Vaishnava Fatehpur manuscript (1582) and Callewaert’s

(3) Rajasthan: the Dādūpanthī Pañc-vāṇī (S V A) and Sarvāṅgī (Gop, Raj)

(4) East: the Kabīrpanthī Bījak (before 1803)65

(5) Radhasoami: Kabīr sāhab kī śabdāvalī (1907 [1900])66

(6) Nāthpanthī: Śrī Śilnāth Śabdāmṛt (1923 [1915])67

61 Callewaert, Sharma, and Taillieau (2000).

The Kabīr Śabdāvalī, apparently edited in 1900 by Baleshwar Prasad, the

As a member of the Radhasoami sect, which believes in the supremacy of

69 Mehrotra (2011), pp. xxvi–xxii.

on how receptive communities recontextualized the poems according to their in-

Before recording—metrical-sung transitions

kāhe kūṁ kījai pāṁḍe čhoti bicārā;

The metrical pattern is the apparently hopeless 22 + 19; 17 + 12 + 19; 18 + 15;

77 Smith (1976), p. 13.

The earliest recensions: Vaiṣṇava, Sikh, and Dādūpanthī transitions

Ideological shifts in Kabīr reception may be represented by interpolation or omis-

78 Mann (2001), pp. 114–115.

Guru Arjan’s final verse is as follows:

82 Singh (2003), pp. 109–110.

kahā karau, kaise tarau; bhava-jalanidhi bhārī.

84 P. 1136 of <http://www.srigranth.org/servlet/gurbani.gurbani?Action=Page&g=1&h

None is your equal, merciful one—

bīṭhulā] F AG, kesavā S V (-e) J C Gop; murārī] F S V Gop, tumhārī AG

89 Callewaert and Friedlander (1992), pp. 83–85.

At the edge of the lake

kahi kabīra guri eka budhi batāī (Gop C J)

Shifts in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries:

93 Hawley (2005), p. 303.

The bee has flown, the heron remains.

jhūṭḥe tana kūṁ kā grabaīe; mūṁvāṁ palabhari rahaṇa na paīye.

aba kahā̃ calehu akele mītā; *uṭhahu na karahu gharahu kā čiṁtā.

The way to liberation, however, is highly contested as various manuscripts of-

sāča kari nari gāṇṭhi bāndhyau čhaḍi parama nidhāṁna (S207)

sāṁča kari hama gāṭhi dīnī soī parama nidhāna (AG482;27)

sabda guru upadesa diyo te čhāṁḍeu parama nidhānā (Bi60)

lokā re, mati bhorā re,

kahatu kabīra sunahu re loī (AG, M)

logā tumahīṁ mati ke bhorā

Besides, they say

One is tempted to say that the chronologically earliest sources (M AG S and V)

108 A different translation is in Vaudeville (1997), p. 156, no. 2180.

hari kai bivoga kaisaiṁ jīu [merī] māī (S74)

Into the twentieth century: