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KAND~U~
GRAY rTY-FLo~ WATER SYSTEMS
FOR SMALL COMMUNITIES

BY:
THOMAS D. JORDAN JR.

A reference manual for surveying. designfng, and constructing

gravity—flow water systems, with special reference to such pro,jects
as implemented by the Local Development Department of His Majesty’s
Government of Nepal

United Nation’s Children’s Fund

Box 1187
Kathmandu, Nepal
 HANDBOOK OF GRAVITY-FLOW WATER SYSTEMS

FIRST PRINTING
1 SEPTEMBER 1980 (1000 COPiES)

THIS BOOKS IS AVAILABLE FROM

UNICEF
Box 1187
KATHMANDUJ NEPAL
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

ChaDter 1: INTRODUCTION 2
1.1 Description of Systems 2
1.2 Fundamental Problems 3
1.3 Organization of this Handbook 4
Chapter 2: VILLAGE EVALUATION & FEASIBILITY STUDY 5
2.1 Introduction ‘5
2.2 Population Survey 6
2.3 Village Enthusiasm & Motivation 6
2.4 Current Water Sources 7
2.5 Source Investigation 7
—Springs
-Small streams
-Big streams & rivers
2.6 Flow-measuring Techniques 8
-Bucket & Stopwatch
-V-notch weir
-Velocity-area method
2.7 Safe Yield 13
2.8 Water Quality 13
2.9 Source Development 13
2.10 Water Rights 15
2.11 Local Materials, Labor, & Logistics 15

Chapter 3: TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING 16

3.1 Introduction 16
3.2 Theodolite Surveying 16
3.3 Barometric Altimeter Surveying 16
3.4 Abhey Level Surveying 17
3.5 Description 17
3.6 Sighting with the Abney 18
3.7 Adjustment
-Two-post of the Abney
method 19

-Flat surface method

-Setting the bubble
-Setting the mirror
-Setting the height of the bubble vial
3.8 Surveying with the Abney 22
3.9 Field Methods 24
3.10 Closing the Survey & Accuracy Limits 24
-Accuracy

Chapter 4: DESIGN PERIOD, POPULATION, & WATER DEMANDS . . .27

4.1 Introduction 27
4.2 Destgn Period 27
4.3 PopulatIon Forecast 27
4.4 Water Demands 29
Chapter 5: TYPES OF SYSTEMS 30
5.1 IntroductIon 30
5.2 Open Systems without faucets 30
5.3 Open Systems with faucets 30
5.4 Closed System with reservoir 31
5.5 Closed System with Intermittent service 31
5.6 Closed system with float-valves 31
5.7 Open system vs Closed system 32
5.8 Limited Expansion
-Additonal taps
—Increased water demands
5.9 Phased Expansion 33

Ch~pter6: HYDRAULIC THEORY 35

6.1 Introduction 35
6.2 Energy 35
6.3 Head: the measure of energy 35
6.4 Fluid Statics: water at rest 36
6.5 Fluid Dynamics: water in motion 37
6.6 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) 39
6.7 Friction: lost energy 39
6.8 Valves: variable friction devices 40
-Gate valves
-Globe valves
6.9 Frictional Headloss Factors 41
6.10 Equivalent Pipelengths of Fittings 42
6.11 Plotting the HGL 43
6.12 Required HGL Profiles 45
6.13 Residual Head: excess energy 45
-Negative residual head
-Positive residual head
-Natural flow
6.14 Maximum Pressure Limits 48
-Class III HDP Pipe
—Class IV HOP Pipe
—GI Pipe
6.15 U-Profiles & Multiple Pipelines 50
6.16 MinImum Pressure Limits 52
6.17 VelocIty Limits 53
6.18 Sunination 53
Chapter 7: AIR-BLOCKS & WASHOUTS 54
7.1 Introduction 54
7.2 Air-Blocks: introduction 54
7.3 Air-Blocks: pipeline design practices 55
7.4 Air-valves 55
7.5 Alternative Air-releases 56
7.6 Washouts 57

Chapter 8: PIPELINE DESIGN 58

8.1 Introduction 58
8.2 Pipeline Drawings 58
-Graph profile
-Tracing profiles
-B1 uepri nting
-General plan vfew & key plan
8.3 Design Example: mainline 60
Chapter 8 (cont)
8.4 Design Example: branchilne 68
8.5 Design Example: collection lines 70
8.6 Design Example: combination pipe sizes 71
8.7 Design Example: excessive residual head 73
8.8 Tabulated Procedure 75

Chapter 9: SYSTEM DESIGN & ESTIMATES 77

9.1 Introduction 77
9.2 Design Technique 77
9.3 Pipeline Section 78
9.4 Intake Section 78
9.5 Sedimentation Tank Section 78
9.6 Break-Pressure Tank Section 80
9.7 Reservoir Tank Section 80
9.8 Tapstand Section 80
9.9 Special Component Section 80
9.10 Tool List Section 80
9.11 Total Estimates 80
9.12 Sumary 82

Chapter~10: PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION 83

10.1 Introduction 83
10.2 Project Organization 83
-Role of the overseer
-Initial enthusiasm
—Laying the pipeline
-Division of work
-Establish standards & procedures
-Corrmunicating with the villagers
10.3 Trench Work 81
10.4 Pipe Laying 87
10.5 HOP Pipe Joining 88
10.6 Backfilling 90
-Road crossing
-Shallow trench & embankments
-Steep slopes
10.7 Marking the Pipeline 92
10.8 Rejoining Buried Pipe 93
10.9 Field-constructed HOP fittings 93
10.10 Galvanlzed Iron (GI) Pipe 94
-Cutting
-Threading
-Transporting
-Caulking
-Caution
10.11 Special Problems 95
-Landslides
-Gully crossings
-Stream crossings
10.12 Important Considerations 96

Chapter 11: INTAKE WORKS 99

11.1 Introduction 99
11.2 Site Locations 99
11.3 Excavation, Foundation, & Construction 100
11.4 Catchment of Flow 101
11.5 Srrpenlnn 102
Chapter 11 (con’t)
11.6 Sedimentation 102
-Spring sources
-Stream sources with reservoir
-Stream sources without reservoir
11.7 Service Pipes 103
-Was houts
-Overflows
-Outlets
11.8 Control Valves & Air-vents 104
-Gate valves
-Globe valves
-Ai r-vents
11.9 Roofing 104
-Slate roofing
-CGS roofing
-Concrete slab roofing
11.10 Protective Measures 106
11.11 Multiple Sources 107
11.12 Stream Catchments; dams & basins 108
-Cement masonry dams
-Burlap (jute) embankments
-Spil lways
11.13 Example Designs 112

Chapter 12: SEDIMENTATION TANKS 114

12.1 Introduction 114
12.2 Settling Velocities 114
12.3 Detention Time 115
12.4 Capacity 115
12.5 Tank Specifications 115
-L/W Ratio
-Water depth
-Inlet
-Outlet
-Washout
-Overf1 ow
-Flow Velocity
-Baffles
-Excavation, foundation, & walls
-Reconinended design

Chapter 13: BREAK-PRESSURE TANKS 120

13.1 Introduction 120
13.2 Types of Tanks 120
13.3 Masonry Tanks 120
-Excavation, foundation, & walls
—Inner Dimensions
-Control valves
-Service pipes
-Roofing
-Additional ideas
13.4 HOP Tanks 122
-Advantages
-Di sadvantages
Chapter 14: RESERVOIR TANKS 124
14.1 rntroduction 124
14.2 The Necessity for a Reservoir 124
14.3 Capacity 125
-Schedule 1
-Schedule 2
14.4 Shape 127
-Circular tanks
-Octagonal tanks
-Hexagonal tanks
-Square tanks
-Rectangular tanks
-Special note for CGS—roofed tanks
14.5 Wall Design 127
-Water depth
-Masonry
-External walls
-Partition walls
-Wall Design Table
14.6 Service Pipes 129
-Inlet
-Outlet
- By-pass

-Overf1 ow
-Washout
-Partitioned tanks
14.7 Construction 131
-Site selection
-Excavation
-Foundations
-Wall construction
-Plastering
-Floor
-Finished grading
-Maintenance
14.8 Design Example 135

Chapter 15: PUBLIC TAPSTANOS 140

15.1 Introduction 140
15.2 Tapstand Locations 140
15.3 Flow 141
15.4 Residual Head 141
15.5 Structumal Considerations 142
-Dry-stone tapstands
-Wooden tapstands
-61 pipe
-Multi-faucet tapstands
-Oral nage
-Finishing

Chapter 16: VALVEBOXES 147

16.1 Introduction 147
16.2 Design CharacteristIcs 147
-Secure cover
-Free-draining
-Adequately large
16,3 Masonry Valveboxes 147
16.4 RCC Valveboxes 148
Chapter 16 (con’t)
16.5 61 Pipe Valveboxes 149
16.6 HOP Pipe Valveboxes 149
16.7 Frequently-adjusted Valves 150
16.8 Attached Valveboxes 150

Chapter 17: WATER QUALITY 152

17.1 Introduction 152
17.2 Slow-Sand FIltration 152
17.3 Aeration 153
17.4 Further Reference 153

Chapter 18: HYDRAULIC RAMS 154

18.1 Introduction 54
18.2 DescrIption 154
18.3 Output Calculation 155
18.4 Technical Considerations 156
18.5 Special Arrangements 156

Chapter 19: CEMENT, CONCRETE, & MASONRY 158

19.1 Introduction 158
19.2 Definitions & Terms 158
19.3 Cement 159
-Properties of cement
-Hydration
-Setting
-Hardening
-Curl ng
-Packaging of cement
-Storaqe of cement-
19.4 Water 161
-Quality
-Quantity
19.5 Sand 161
-Sources of sand
-Quality
—Bul king of sand
19.6 Aggregates 162
-Sizes of aggregates
-Crushed brick
19.7 Rebar Reinforcement 163
-Reinforcing bar (rebar)
-Wire-mesh screen
—Spacing of rebar
-Placing of rebar -
-Reinforced (RF)-brick slabs
19.8 Cement Mixing 164
-Proportioning
-Dry-mixing
-Wet-mixing
-Tools & Manpower
19.9 Mortar 165
-Typical mixes
-Volumes of mortar
19.10 Masonry 166
-Brick masonry
—Dressed-stone masonry
-Rubblestone masonry
—Setting of GI pipe
Chapter 19 (con’t)
19.11 Concrete 169
-Typical mixes
-Water
-Volumes of concrete
-Segregation
-Placing the concrete
-Compacting
-Waterproofing floor slabs
-Curing
19.12 Plastering 171
-Spatterdash
-Second coat
-Third coat
-Volumes of plaster
19.13 Floor Slabs 171
-Foundations
-Mortared brick
-Mortared stone
-Reinforced (RCC) concrete
19.14 Roof Slabs 172
-Col umns
—RCC slabs
-Reinforced (RF) brick slabs
-Curing
19.15 Small Slab Covers 176
19.16 Ferrocement Tanks 176
19.17 Water-Proofing Compounds 177
19.18 Cold Weather Concreting 177
Chapter 20: PRACTICAL TECHNOLOGY 179
20.1 Introduction 179
20.2 Screened Intakes 179
20.3 Joining HOP & GI Pipe 179
-Threading
—Expanding
20.4 Imbeddlng Bolts in Masonry 181
20.5 Anchoring Beams to Masonry 181
20.6 Locking down CGS Covers 182
20.7 Fastening Bolts to Beams 182
20.8 Brackets for air-vents 182
TECHNICAL REFERENCES (Bibliography) 184

TECHNICAL APPENDICES 187

Appendix A’ Equation of Continuity &
Bernoulli’s Equation 187
Appendix B; Analysis of Air-Blocks 194
Appendix C: Combination Tflpes Equation 203
Appendix 0: Frictional Diffuser 205
Appendix E: Suspended Crossings 206
Appendix F’ Roofing 216
Appendix 5: Headlosses of a Tank Outlet 220
Appendix H: Gabions 222
REFERENCE TABLES Back endpages
 ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

cm = centimeters m = meters
2 = square centimeters m2 = square meters
cm
cm3 = cubic centimeters m3 = cubic meters
kg = kilogram H = head
kg/cm2 = kilograms per square centimeter = at
LPS = liters per seCond (flow) 0 = dlamter
m/sec = meters per second (velocity) ‘ = inches
LPCPD = liters per capita per day ,f’’ = square-root
GI = galvanised iron (pipe)
. water surface of tank
HOP = high-density polyethylene (pipe) (9 atmospheric pressure)
Q = flow
. HGL = Hydraulic Grade Line
ID = inner diameter
00 = outer diameter
CGS = corrugated gal vanised steel
RCC = reinforced concrete
RF = reinforcement

IMPORTANT NOTICE
The pipeline problems worked out as examples in the text and figures
of this handbook were made using a frictional headloss table for HOP pipe
according to DIN (German) specifications. Since ‘the examples were worked
out, a new frictional headloss table was obtained for hOP pipe manufact-
ured to ISI (Indian) specifications, which are the specifications adopted
by\UNICEF for Nepal. The new headloss tables have been included in the
reference tables at the end of this handbook, but the original examDles
have not been re-worked.
 —l —

PREFACE

This handbook Is written with the intention of collecting together

all the knowledge, theory, and practices necessary for the surveying,
designing, and construction of gravity-flow drinking water systems for
rural cortinunities. Although the book is written specifically for the
construction of such systems in Nepal, most of the principles presented
herein are equally applicable in most locations around the world. Efforts
have been made to organize the material for quick reference, and to pre-
sent it in a manner that allows overseers of both engineering and non—
engineering backgrounds to readily understand.
The stress of this handbook has been in presenting the fundamental
principles of design, illustrated with several general examples of
sucessfully constructed structures, rather than to present strict and
unenlightened “standardized designs”. This is because the author feels
that, due to the typical ruggedness of the Nepali countryside, such standard-
ized designs may not always be perfectly feasible. However, the overseer
who understands the principles of the design can easily modify than to
fit the locations.
This handbook will now replace the “Village Water Systems Technical
Manual” written by Carl R. Johnson in 1975. In the years since that time,
there have been several changes In design policies, new available materials,
and much valuable field experience gained. New ideas, and better under-
standing of the principles and problems inherent in projects of this
type have hopefully made their way into these pages. Johnson’s original
efforts paved the way, and this handbook Is built upon the good foundations
that he created.
Additionally, the author wishes to acknowledge those members of the
Local Development Department, the American Peace Corps, the German Volun-
teer Service, the British Voluntary Service Overseas, the World Health
Organization (WHO), and UNICEF who supported, encouraged, criticized,
advised, and in many other ways helped in the making of this book.

However, this volume is by no means the final tome on this subject.

Creative and inventive overseers will be constantly evolving new Ideas,
new uses for old materials, and new solutions for old problems. It is
hoped that such resourceful persons will pass along their Ideas to UNICEF,
where they can be preserved and disseminated.

-—Thomas V. Jordan, Jr.

Kathmandu, Nepal
March 1980
 —2—

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEMS

This handbook concerns itself with all the knowledge, theory, and
material necessary to survey, design, and construct a coninunity
water supply (CWS) system to meet the drinking water requirements
for rural villages of small-to-
moderate populations. The
systems described herein are
of the gravity—flow type; that
is, the action of gravity is
used to move the water downhill
from a source to the village.
This type of system is shown
schematically in Figure 1—1: a
suitable source is located at
an elevation higher than the
village. An intake structure is
built to collect the water,
which is then piped down to
the village through a buried
pipeline of High-Density
Polyethylene (HOP) pipe. If
needed, a reservoir tank is
built above the village. From
there, the water is distributed
to several public tapstands that
are scattered throughout the
village, via the mainline,
branchlines, and taplines.
Where multiple sources are used,
a collection tank may be built,
and due to the topography of
the land, at certain points
break-pressure tanks may be
required to prevent excessive
pressures from bursting the
HDP pipe. If the source water
is carrying a lot of suspended
particles, a sedimentation tank
may be required to clean the
flow of these.
 —3-

Each of these system components (intake works, pipeline, various

tanks, tapstands, etc.) are discussed in this handbook.

1 .2 FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
The construction of a CWS system in rural villages is often beset
by many problems which prolong, frustrate, or even cancel the project.
And even when these initial problems are successfully circumvented
and the project is completed, the system may soon be broken down due
to misuse or unforeseen circumstances.
The technical problems encountered during construction may be
such things as difficult terrain for pipelaying landslides or
erosions which threaten to sweep away tanks, or water sources which
unexpectedly yield less water than counted upon (or even dry up
completely).
These are problems which are often clear and easily comprehended
by the overseer in charge of construction, who can usually plan a
strategy to overcome them.

Less obvious problems, however, arise from the “human factor.”

Because such projects are comunity efforts, often they become
unavoidably embroiled in local disputes, arguments, politics, and
economics. Here, the problems that arise, are rarely clearly defined
or easily solved. Water rights of the sources, locations of the
tapstands, and division of labor are most often major problems, and
until they are solved (if ever) the future of the system, even if it
is eventually completed, is dim.
Human problems that plague water systems are things such as
neglect (inadequate or zero maintenance), abuse (from children and
curious adults), or deliberate sabotage (by discontented villagers
determined to punish the rest, or by selfish ones who cut open
the pipeline to irrigate their fields). These are all very real
oroblems that have effectively destroyed many water systems.
The technical problems can be grasped and dealt with by the
overseer and consultant engineers, who are trained to recognize and
solve these problems. The human problems, however, must be recognized
and solved by the entire coninunity, which Is often the far more
difficult task.
This hand book tries to address both types of problems: technical
as well as human. Technical theory and construction practices alone
will not build a successful water system. Many times, if the overseer
undeeestimates the Innocent destructiveness of children, or fails to
 —4-

understand some special needs of the villagers, there will be much

lost time, damaged materials, repetition of labor3 and general
feelings of anger and frustration. Wherever possible, this handbook
tries to mention these potential problems,and suggest possible means
to minimize them.

1,3 ORGANIZATION OF THIS HANDBOOK

The material herein is roughly arranged in the order of the three
phases of a CWS project: surveying, designing, and construction of
the system. All dimensions and calculations are in the metric system
of units, except for the GI pipe sizes which are given in inches
(since this is how they are supplied in Nepal). The designs presented
are carefully calculated to yield necessary structural strength and
utility without using an excess of materials. Each system component
is discussed in terms of function and good design characteristics,
and several drawings are given of such structures that have been
sucessfully built. The last pages of this handbook are a series of
reference tables for fast reference and general information.
 —5—

2. VILLAGE EVALUATION AND FEASIBILITY STUDY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The first phase in creation of a CWS system is a visit to the
village by a surveyor, for the purposes of determining the feasibility
of the proposed project. Should he determine that the project is
feasible, the surveyor must then conduct a topographic survey.

Evaluation of a village is both an objective and subjective

process. Objectively, the surveyor determines facts: village
population, locally-available materials, supply of skilled labor,
logistical information, etc. Subjectively, the surveyor determines
feelings: who are the influential people of the village, what are
villager reactions and attitudes towards the project, do they realize
the amount of work that they will be required to do, and will they
do it? I-low real are the needs of the village, and who stands to
benefit?
A project should be considered feasible only if both the
technical factors and the human factors indicate success. To get
accurate and reliabT~answers to the above questions, the surveyor
niist involve himself in discussion with as many villagers as possible.
Relying only upon two or three persons for information Is quite wrong.
me surveyor must get out and walk around the village, meet the
people in public places (such as in teashops, around temples, etc).
Once trie surveyor is satisfied that the villagers are enthusiastic
auout the project, he should proceed with the technical aspects of
surveying the system.
The entire village evaluation and topographic survey can rarely
be done in less than two days. Time must be taken to ensure that a
complete investigation has been made, and accurate results obtained.
When the surveyor finally leaves the village, he should have resolved
in his mind whether or not the project should be undertaken. If he
feels that it should, then he must have all the necessary data for
himself, or another person, to draw up the complete designs and
estimates for the system.

This chapter will set forth guidelines for the surveyor to use
when visiting a village on a feasibility study. The next chapter
will present specific details on how to conduct the topographic
survey.
 —6—

2.2 POPULATION SURVEY

An accurate population survey of the village is absolutely

necessary, since population deterujines water requirements. A village
population, for the purposes of a water system, includes all persons
who will depend upon it for their drinking water. Thus are included
patients in health posts, students living in dormitories, employees
in government offices, etc. Although most rural mountain villages
will not usually have these special populations, they must be taken
into account where they are found.

Field experience has shown that villagers usually have a very

poor idea of their own population, and tend to grossly overestimate
their real numbers. They also sometimes will slant their answers
to suit their purposes. Care must be taken to obtain an accurate
count. Three techniques have proven successful

1) Making a written list of every household and the number of

people living in it.
2) Walking around the village and counting houses, determining
the number of people living in each one.
3) For very large villages, counting every single person in the
village is not really feasible. Instead:
- At each tapstand site, determine the number of houses to
be served;
- Personally survey about a dozen of those houses, and
determine the average number of persons in each,
- Apply that average to determine the number of persons to
be served by that tapstand;
- Total up the total population served by the tapstands.
In any case, discuss with as many villagers as possible these
numbers, especially with those who live in that part of the village.
To rely upon two or three persons alone is easier, but not as accurate.

2.3 VILLAGE ENTHUSIASM AND MOTIVATION

The ability of the villagers to work together and carry out a
drinking water construction project is something that is difficult
to judge in advance. Better estimates of the “motivation factor”
will come with experience. Never-the-less, it is necessary to get
some idea of the motivation, cooperative ability, and potential
 —7—

social and political conflicts while visiting the village. Talking

to people; examining past coninunity construction efforts (such as
schools, temples, etc); inspecting the conditions of paths, buildings,
temples, and public areas (how well are thqy maintained?); and talking
with local government officials, will all yield helpful clues as to
the possible success or failure of the construction effort. The
surveyor should strive to explain to the villagers, as clearly as
possible, the role that they and the government will be expected
to fill.
No matter how technically feasible the project may be, it can
only succeed If the villagers are truly interested in it, and
concerned enough to provide the long—term maintainence necessary
to keep the system in working condition.

2.4 CURRENT. WATER SOURCES

One of the best ways of determining the likely motivation of the
villagers is to examine their current sources of water, and deduce
how helpful a CWS project would truly be. Those villagers living
close to an adequate source of water will be less inclined to work
on the project than those who are not so conveniently located. This
reasoning can be applied to the whole village as well, and the
surveyor can form a good idea how essential a new system will be.

2.5 SOURCE INVESTIGATION

Investigating a source for a water system should not be confined
to only the most convenient source. At this time, water treatment
techniques are not generally practical in Nepal, thus it is necessary
to locate the cleanest source possible, even if it is not the closest
one to the village. Rather than relying upon villager descriptions
alone, the surveyor should personally visit all possible sources.
Quantity and quality of the flows must be defiFinined, means to develop
the intake works must be studied, and water rights must be
investigated.
Before beginning his examination of the sources, the surveyor
should have completed his population survey. From the information
presented in Chapter 4, he can calculate the daily water requirements
of the village. No source is feasible if, in 24 hours, it cannot
provide that much water.
Springs and small streams are the most cormnon sources for water
systems. Whenever possible, a spring should be the first considered,
since springs are generally of better water quality, and easier to
protect against further contamination.
 -8-

Springs: Springs are points where water from an underground

source is able to seep to the surface. Flows are typically less
than 2 LPS, but some can be quite substantial. The flow of a spring
is governed by several factors: watershed collection area, percolation
rate of water through the ground, thickness of ground above the
aquifer (ie- overburden), and the storage capacity of the soil.
Springs are seasonally variable, tending to lag behind the seasonal
rainfall patterns (ie— springs can give normal flows well into the
dry season before tapering off, and may not resume full flow until
after the rainy season is well under way). Due to ground percolation
and filtration, most springs are quite free of the pathonogenic
organisms that cause many health problems; however, some springs flow
through limestone or geologic cracks and fissures in the rocks. In
such cases, filtration effects are minimal, and the flow may still be
contaminated. Also, it is possible that the source is not a true
spring at all , but rather a stream that has gone underground for a
short distance and is re-emerging. Investigation around the source
will reveal the type of spring it is. Figure 2—1 shows the typical
geology of a spring, showing the different levels of ground water
during the dry — and rainy seasons.

Small streams: These are not as desirable sources, especially

when there is human habitation and/or animal grazing areas further
upstream. However, sometimes the water demand of the village cannot
cc met by other sources. Streams are very much seasonally variable,
and also can react strongly ( and quickly) to daily rainfall as well.
When investigating a stream source, study the proposed intake site
carefully, witn an eye towards future erosion. Question the villagers
closely about flood levels of the stream during heavy rainfall.
Big streams and rivers: These are the least-desirable sources,
as they are sure to be grossly contaminated from points further
upstream. They do offer, however, the best sources for hydraulic ram
pumps (hydrams) which can supply villages at a higher elevation and
for which there is absolutely no other feasible source. Refer to
Chapter 18 for technical information on hydrams.

2.6 FLOW-MEASURING TECHNIQUES

In most investigations, accurate flow measurements of a source
will require some earthwork, usually just a simple type of earth bank,
dam, or drainage channel. Thus it is advisable to bring along one
or more villagers with chgging tools and a machete—type knife (for
clearing away underbrush, etc). After the channels or dams have
been constructed, wait a few minutes for the water to achieve steady,
constant flow, before attempting any measurements.
 -9-

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 -10—

Discussed below are three simple methods for measuring the flows
of springs and streams. Alway~measure the flow several times, and
calculate an average readilig. Any measurements which are obviously
deviant should be repeated. Question the villagers closely about
seasonal variations in the flow.
Bucket and stopwatch: Spring flows are most conveniently
measuredWy using a iide-mouthed container (of known capacity) and
timing how long it takes to fill up. A large-size biscuit or
kerosene container (capacities of about 18-20 liters), or a bucket,
is usually available in the village. For the most accurate results,
the capacity of the container should be such that it requires at
least 15 seconds to fill (smaller containers, such as one—liter
drinking canteens, should only be used if nothing larger is available).
An ordinary wristwatch (that has a sweep—second hand) can be used
for timings, but it is best in this case if two persons work together:
one concentrating on the wristwatch, the other filling the container.
The flow is calculated:

Q =4 where: Q = flow (liters/second)

C = capacity of container (liters)
t = time to fill (seconds)

V-Notch weir: The V-notch weir can be used to measure the flow
of large springs and small streams. This weir has a notch angle of
~çJb, and is reconinended for the normal range of flows encountered in
typical village sources. The surveyor may carry his own weir, or
one can be easily made in the village from a wooden board or a sheet
of tin. The weir is placed as a dam, perpendicular to the flow, with
all the water overflowing in the notch. The stream or drainage
channel above the weir should be straight and unobstructed for a
distance of at least 2 meters. Flow is determined by using a ruler
to measure the depth of water overflowing the notch (measured in
centimeters), which is then read off of the calibration curve shown
in Figure 2-2. The dimensions of a 60° V-notch weir are also shown
in the figure.
Velocity—area method: This method requires more work and is
not as accurate at the V-notch weir, yet for particularly wide
streams it can be easier to use. Measure the surface water velocity
of the stream by timing how long it takes a drifting surface float
(such as a block of wood) to move down a measured length of the
stream (this measured section must be fairly straight and free of
obstacles, for a length of 6-10 times the average water depth).
Measure the cross-sectional area of the stream. The measurements
 —11—

‘‘“I

‘---I

3 4 5 ~ 7 8 ~ 10 11 t2 1’, i~ 1 11 11 ia 2~
P (W~TCRDCPTh, CM~

x—1
Y 1.73
—

FIGURE 2~2 V-NOTCH (60° )WEIR & FLOW GRAPH

 —12—

should be repeated several times, averaging the results together.

The average stream velocity is 85% of the surface velocity, and the
flow is calculated:

Q=600 xV xA where: Q = flow (LPS)

V = surface velocity (rn/sec)

2)
A = cross-sectfl area (m

This method of flow measurement is Epplicable to streams of

water depth of at least 30 centimeters. Figure 2—3 illustrates the
velocity-area method of measurement.

D~FTI~ AV~.4GE
CROSS S~CTL
FLO4T A~EA OF
STI~EAM 5~CTJO~4

~rRm~&~ vmt~crry &~% op su~p~c~

v~L-ocrrv
M~ASUQE.D DRIFT D’~1-AMcm~HOUI-D BE ~. -10 TIMES AVE~G.~ DEPTFI
Q’ FLOW CL~
FLOW Q = V~A~850] V 5U~FAcE VELOCITY (METRES/5~C~
A CROSS SECT’L. AREA OF 5T~4M CM2)

FIGURE 2—3 VELOCITY-AREA METHOD OF FLOW MEASUREMENT

 -13-

2.7 SAFE YIELD

The safe yield of the source is typically the minimum flow of

the source during the dry season. The safe yield is the flow of
water that the source can be counted upon to deliver all year round,
and it is this flow that is used in designing water systems. Unless
tne source is measured in April or May (the driest season) the
villagers must be consulted to determine as accurately as possible
what the safe yield of the source is. Should the water flow be
critical, measurements should be repeated during the dry season,
or stand—by sources also selected.

The maximum flows should also be determined by questioning the

villagers. As the safe yield is important for pipeline and reservoir
design, the maximum flow is also necessary for estimating structural
protection of the intake and overflow requirements.

2.8 WATER QUALITY

At this time, practical water treatment schemes are not widely

available, especially for remote project sites. However, if a source
has turbidity (cloudiness),taste, and/or odor problems, these might
be easily remedied by the simple treatment schemes discussed in
Chapter 17.

In any case, the surveyor will have to use his own judgement
about the suitability of a source. Villagers will know through
experience if the water of a source is drinkable, therefore they
should be consulted.

2.9 SOURCE DEVELOPMENT

When investigating a possible source, the surveyor must be

developing an idea about how the intake works will be built. He
should be thinking about methods of protecting the structure against
erosion, floods, and contamination by surface run—off of rain.
What amount of excavation will be called for, and will a dam or
drainage channel be required? What further protection can be
included 7to All
keep these
animals and curious
aspects should villagers fromthought
be carefully tampering with
about,
the
and works
measurements and sketches made in his field book, along with
notes about topography, surrounding areas, etc. To depend upon
memory alone when trying to design the intake works (which could be
several weeks after having last seen the source) is unprofessional
and unreliable Figure 2—4 is a sample page of field notes relating
to a source.
 -14-

UPHILL (STEEF’
SUT STABLE)

CATCIiME1.JT FOR
SOURCB * 1 REQUIRES
~/.i OF ~4LJ-; FOR
SOURCE * 2 REQL.JIRE.5
3M OR WAI_L -

NOTES
I SOURCE * 1 SPRING G 037 LPS ELEV bOOM.
2 SOuRCE *2~5PElNG~022 LP~ ELEV = 998M~.
~ COLLECTIOM TAI~4IC ~ EJ_~V • e~-~ i~
4 5oumc~ AREA ~u~GI_E w/LI-rrLE L.~H1LL CUL-rI-
VATIOP4 OR GRAZIM~3
~ MAINL1P-LE NEEOS i ~M 131 Pl~ CROSSING GIJLLV
G 5URv~.y 8~GuI-J@ SOURCE. *2

FIGURE 2.4 EXAMPLE SOURCE NOTES & SKETCH

 —15—

2.10 WATER RIGHTS

The final aspect of source investigation must include resolving

the water rights of those people currently depending upon that
source for their water. Although It is not the surveyor’s respon-
sibility to become involved in settling this question, it is his
responsibility to make sure all disputes are resolved satisfactorily.
If such problems cannot be solved, he should consider alternative
sources. In the past, some projects have been deliberately sabotaged
by disgruntled villagers who felt they were not being considered
fairly. At such times, there have been unhappy consequences, and
much wasted time, labor, and materials.

2.11 LOCAL MATERIALS, LABOR, AND LOGISTICS

Before leaving the village, the surveyor should sit down and
obtain all the information relevant to the following aspects:
- the full proper name of the village, ward number(s), panchayat,
district, and zone;
- name of nearest roadhead, and distance;

- name of nearest airfield, and distance;

- portering time and fees between roedhead, airfield and village;
- supply of local skilled labor (masons, carpenters, etc) and
wages;
- supply of local materials (slate, wood, bricks, etc) and costs;

- sources of sand and stone;

— schools (number of students) and health posts (number of beds);
- names of those villagers who were helpful and familiar with the
surveyed route;
- accurate population count;
- other necessary information about special needs of the village.
The answers to these above queries should be carefully recorded
in the surveyor’s field book.
 —16—

3. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING

3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter shall present methods of conducting a topographic
survey along a proposed pipeline route. Such a survey can be done
using a theodolite, barometric altimeters, or an Abney hand level.
Each of these methods will be discussed, although the main emphasis
of the chapter shall be on surveying with the Abney level, since
that is the easiest and most—widely used technique.

3.2 THE000LITE SURVEYING

The theodolite is a high-precision instrument, and requires

special training in its use. A two-man team is required, one for
sighting through the instrument at an assistant, who is holding
a vertical scale “rod” several meters tall
1 Although surveying
with the theodolite will yield measurements accurate to within a few
centimeters, it is a relatively slow method. The accuracy of this
instrument is not usually needed for the entire length of a pipeline
survey, though it is sometimes useful to use it to measure the depth
of U-profiles, or for accurate positioning of break-pressure tanks.

3.3 BAROMETRIC ALTIMETER SURVEYING

As altitude increases, the barometric pressure (ie— air pressure)
of the atmosphere decreases. A barometric altimeter measures the
atmospheric pressure, and the corresponding elevation is read directly
off of the instrument.

Normal weather patterns cause the air pressure at any altitude

to fluctuate sligntiy throughout the day. Thus, even if an altimeter
is at a point, the elevation reading may increase and decrease by
several meters tnroughout the day. Such pressure variations must be
measured and accounted for when conducting a barometric altimeter
survey.

Properly done, such a survey requires three persons, each with

his own altimeter. The three altimeters are brought together and
calibrated (for the same altitude reading) at the same time. One
assistant then takes his altimeter to the highest point along the
survey, while the other assistant takes his altimeter to the lowest
point. They remain at those points during the entire time of the
 —17—

survey, and at regular intervals (such as every lb or 30 minutes)

they record the elevation readings of the altimeters, and the time.
The surveyor takes the third altimeter along the route of the pipeline.
Ground distances are measured with a tape measure, and at each
station the surveyor records altitude and time. Later, the true
elevations can be made by adjusting the surveynr’s reading with the
pressure chanyes recorded by the stationary altimeters.

Although not necessarily as accurate, thir type of surveying can

be done with two altimeters: one stationary at the mid-elevation of
the route, while the surveyor carries the othtr,

ihis type of survey is the fastest to conduct, and accuracy

limited only by the accuracy of the altimeters themselves. This
method can be best used for feasibiliLy surveyinq of a system, with
a more careful survey conducted later.

3.4 ABNEY LEVEL SURVEYING

The standard method of conducting surveys for water system
pipelines is using the Abney hand level (technically of the type
known as a clinometer level). It is faster to use than the theodolite,
and although not as accurate, it still yieLds results that are within
acceptable limits needed for this type of survey. It is a lightweight
instrument, easy to use, and of simple construction to make it rugged
and easy to adjust. The remainder of this chapter shall deal with
various aspects of using the Abney, adjusting it, and proper recording
of survey field notes.

3,5 DESCRIPTION
The Abney level is hasiccily a square tube (dimensions of about
16 x l,s x 1.5 cm) with an eyepiece at the observer’s end and horizontal
cross—hair at the objective end. Figure 3-1 shows a typical Abney
level. Near the center of the tube is a 45° mirror, ~.hich reflects
half of the line—of—s ght upwards through an aperture in the tube.
Mounted above the aperture is a bubble level with an index mark
etched at its center. The bubble level is affixed to a movable index
arm, which adjusts against scale graduations on a nickel—silver arc.
Some types of Abney levels have interchangable arcs, offering
different types of scales (such as decrees, percent, etc). For the
purpose of tnis handbook, the degree arc is used.
 -‘B-

3Er acmew—

FIGURE 34 Tv~IC~-
ABMEY LEVEL

MGWITHTHL~M~
10 use the ~bneY, th~instru~tIs held to the eye and 5jghted on
~ target, ~~nteriflg the ~~sshatragainSt the target. The Index arm
Is then adjusted until the bubble (Visible In th~right half of the
fIe1d0~~~ Is center~against the target and the cress_hair
When correctiY adjusteds the targets the crosS air. and the bubble are
 —19—

all aligned horizontally, as shown

in Figure 3-2. The angle of view
(technically known as the vertical
angle) is then read on the arc in
degrees.
If the index Is pre—set at exactly
00, then the level may be used as
a rough carpenter’s level for
construction of walls, beams etc.

3.7 ADJUSTMENT OF THE ABNEY

Like any precision Instrument, the Abney level is liable to
creep out of adjustment from time to time. When used in the field,it
should be checked for levelness each day. No surveyor should ever begin
a survey with an unfamiliar Abney, or one that has not been used for
a long time, without first checking the adjustment. if the Instrument
is ever dropped, the adjustment should be checked before proceeding.
Adjusting the Abney is a quick and simple task. The various
methods of adjustment are discussed below
Two-post method: When checking the adjustment for levelness
in the field, select two trees, posts, or building corners that
are about 7-10 meters apart (refer to Figure 3-3). At Station A,
the surveyor holds the Abney against a mark (located at approximately
eye-level), and with the index of the Abney preset at 0° ,he sights
over to a Station B. An assistant, standing at Station B, moves a
target (such as a pencil, his finger, stick, etc) up or down until
it lies on the line—of—sight. At that point, he makes a mark. Then
he and the surveyor exchange places, and the surveyor sights from the
mark on Station B back towards Station A. The assistant sets a new
mark on Station A that lies on this line of sight. If the two marks
on Station A coincide, then the Abney is truly level, and no
adjustments must be made. If they do not coincide, the assistant
sets a third mark exactly halfway between the two other marks.
Sighting on this mark, the surveyor then adjusts the bubble level
until the bubble comes into alignment with the cross—hair and target
mark.
 -20-

7-1CM
r

Many surveyors set up permanent level sight lines

in their offices or on convenient outbuildings, so that
it is only the work of a mernent to check the Abney arid
adjust it themselves (not needing an assistant at all).

Flat surface method: in addition to adjusting for

levelness, this method ~s also needed to make the further
adjustments of the bubble level and mirror, described later.

A smooth, lesel surface is required. If nothing

1ace a smooth board on a firm sopport,
better
arrangedis :oavailable,
that ~t is~ possible to sight lengthwise along
its surface. Place the Abney lengthwise on the board and
outline its position with a pencil. Cent~r tne bubble
aga4nst the etched Index mark of tre bubble ievel . Reverse
the instrument end for and and plbce it ‘~ith4n the penciled
outline. The bubble should center. If it dc3s not, move
it half-way toward the etched mark 1edjusclng w4th the
index arm), then wedge up the board until tne bubble
centers. Reverse the ins~rum° ntend for end, repeating
the whole procedure untfl the bubble centers when the
instrumeit is in both positions. The pe:’riled position on
the board now provides the level sur?ace required for
making adjustments:
 -21-

Setting the bubble: Set the index arm at 00 . Center

the bubble against the etched mark on the bubble level
by adjusting the mounting screws (turn the screws equal
amounts in opposite directions).

Setting the mirror With the instrument still in

position, place a white surface a few centimeters in front
of the tube so that the horizontal cross—hair can be
clearly seen when sighting through the instrument. The
bubble should center on the cross—hair when sighting
through the instrument. If it does not, loosen the screw
on the right-hand side of the tube and slide it backward
or forward until the bubble centers properly against the
cross-hair. Tighten the screw and check the setting.

Setting the hei ght of the bubble level : Fix the

instrument firmly to the edge of the board, angled downward
about 30° (refer to Figure 3—4). Center the bubble against
the etched index mark.
 -22—

Hold a white card in front of the tube and sight through

the instrument. The bubble should be centered on the
cross-hair. If it is not, adjust the height of the bubble
level by tightening or loosening the mounting screws
equal amounts in the same direction. If the bubble appears
too low, then lower the level by tightening the screws,
and vice versa.
The above information is taken from the Keuffel & Esser
Co. manual no. 80 0204, ‘Topographic Abney Levels’. Refer
to this manual for further information concerning Abney
levels.

3.8 SURVEYING WITH THE ABNEY

Conducting a survey with the Abney requires minimally
two persons, but additional ones are helpful, especially
when surveying through terrain where underbrush must be
cut away to provide clear lines-of—sight. An Abney level,
a 30-meter tape measure, and a field bock are necessary;
a compass may be used if bearings are desired.
The survey is begun at some fixed reference point
(such as the source, or some prominant landmark along the
pipeline route) and proceeds upstream/downstream from that
point, along the route of the proposed pipeline. Villagers
will sometimes lead the survey team along convenient
footpaths, when the actual trenchline will be dug along
a different route; such a technique will create erroneous
ground distances.
The surveying technique is simple: the surveyor
sights through the Abney at a target held by his assistant,
and the ground distance between them is measured. This
distance, and the vertical angle (angle measured by the
Abney) are recorded in the field book. It is important
that the target which the surveyor sights upon must be
the same height above the ground as the Abney, which is
the same as the surveyor’s eye-level. If the assistant
is not as tall as the surveyor, then he sould carry a
target stick cut exactly to the same length as the
surveyor’s eye-level. A red cloth can be tied to the
top of the stick, or the assistant can place his hand
over the end of it, to provide a clear target. It is also
useful for the surveyor to use a forked stick as a stand
to rest the Abney on, to provide a steadier reading
(in this case, the target stick should be cut to the same
length as this forked stick).
Figure 3—5 shows the basic arrangement and calculation
used In trigonometric leveling with the Abney: the
surveyor and his assistant are 28 meters apart (ground
distance), and the vertical angle is —l6° (the negative
 —23-

e=AP4sLE ,~V~ED 6Y ,&BNEY

VERTICAL DI5W4C~ = 6~OUND DI5T4NCE. x 3JN G

~YAMPL~E ILLU5T~ATED beLow.

e~-~G~
CNEG.4TIVE SIGN INDICATES SIGHTTh4G DOWNHILL)
=0 27(~, C FPCA~ TRIGQNOAAETIZIC T,Ae.LE)
GROUND DIS~NCE =28 METERS
VERTICAL DI5T.&NCE 28 .~cO27G 7 73 METERS

I4O~IZOMTAL

FIGURE 3—5 TRIGONOMETRIC SURVEYING WITH AN ABNEY LEVEL

 -24-

angle indicates that the surveyor was sighting downhill).

By consulting a table of natural sines and using trigono-
metry, it is possible to calculate that the vertical
distance between them is 7.7 meters. The reference tables
at the back of this handbook present the natural sines,
and also the elevation changes for various ground
distances and vertical angles.

3.9 FIELD METHODS

At the same time he is conducting the survey, the

surveyor must also be observing the ground over which he
walks. As he proceeds, he must constantly keep in mind
that, at some later time, he or another person will actually
have to dig a trenchline along that route. Thus, notes
must be made about the type of terrain being traversed,
such as stretches of jungle, cultivated fields, footpaths,
gullies, soil conditions (ie- gravel, soft dirt, bare rock,
etc). It is easy to survey across terrain which might
be exceedingly difficult or impossible to lay a pipeline!
The surveyor should make use of as many reference points
as possible, so that if a section of the pipeline needs
to be resurveyed at a later time, a convenient starting
point can be found. Reference points should be permanent
or semi-permanent, suitable examples are prominent trees,
rock outcroppings, etc. If the surveyor carries one or
two bottles of nailpolish, he can paint an identifying
lable onto his landmarks.

Figure 3-6 shows a good, precise format for recording

acLurate and complete notes.

3.10 CLOSING THE SURVEY AND ACCURACY LIMITS

Closing the survey means tying the survey into two
reference points of known elevations, thus providing a
check on the surveyed elevations. For practical purposes
of surveying in the hills of Nepal, closing a survey can
only be done by repeating it entirely, beginning from
the original endpoint and ending at the original starting
point, but not necessarily along the same original route.
Needless to say, this Is a time-consuming process; however
it is advisable to resurvey a few short sections of the
pipeline, especially where elevation differences are
critical (such as crossing over tops of ridges or bottoms
of U-profiles).

An acceptable technique that allows a close check on

the accuracy of readings requires a second assistant. One
assistant is at the new station ahead of the surveyor,
and second assistant is at the 1as~ station behind the
 6RouW~
l~IST ELEV NOT~SREhRR~c5
IpoO
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5otji~c~ ‘, ELEY~,ooO,,,~
i1j;~Q~
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‘~ ~393 © Sire or C~Jie~7,o~JNIC~
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—
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—~— I 0
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~30 +lZ° +~ ~
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C
H 120 ® ‘SITE ~ J~E5EYOIR. -I-l-
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0 -2.° 0 u-
-Ti uJ
> 1 1~2 c~t~
z -J
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—5° —z 0~

~3 ~S5 98a >(

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4V) Z~?- -~ —3
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30 00 0

2~ —
 -26-

surveyor. The surveyor makes a backsight reading on the last station,

the vertical angle of the backsight should be equal (but of opposite
sign) to first sighting. The surveyor then shoots the foresight to
the assistant ahead, and then everyone advances one station. Each
elevation can then be calculated using the average of two vertical
angles.
When a survey is closed, the difference in elevation readings
of the two surveys should agree to within 6% of the original surveyed
elevation change.

Example: The elevation from source to reservoir site of a system

was ori~Tnallymeasured to be 55 meters. The closing survey from
reservoir back to source measured an elevation of 53 meters. The
difference between the two surveys is 2 meters, which is 3.6%, which
is within the allowable limit of 6% (2/55 x 100% = 3.6%).

Accuracy: The accuracy of a calculated elevation is dependent

upon the accuracy of the surveying equipment and techniques. A common
practice, especially when using electronic calculators, is to
calculate elevations to several decimal places (such as 4.679 or
6.341, etc.). Such precision is easy to compute with the
calculator, yet is actually a false accuracy. Calculations to such a
hign degree of accuracy imply that the surveying equipment and
techniques are equally accurate, which definately is not so.

Accepted engineering and scientific practices state that no

instrument is any more accurate than one-half of the smallest scale
division. Thus, an Abney scale calibrated in one-degree divisions may
not be read more accurately than plus/minus 0.5—degree. A tape measure
whose smallest division is in centimeters cannot measure any more
accurately than plus/minus 0.5-centimeter. Although the human eye may
be able to read the scale more accurately than this, the manufacturer
did not design the instrument to be that accurate. Therefore, it is
wrong to do so.
Another constraint on the accuracy of the survey are the conditions
under which it is conducted: field measurements are inherently less
accurate than laboratory measurements.

Under field survey condititons in Nepal, the following standards

of accuracy should be adopted:
vertical angle: plus/minus 0.5-degree
ground distances: plus/minus 0.1 meters (10 cm)
calculated elevations: with extremely meticulous

technique, an accuracy of plus/minus 30 cm can be obtained, but

for general surveying, an accuracy of plus/minus 0.5-meter is
correct.
 —27—

4. DESIGN PERIOD, POPULATION, AND WATER DEMANDS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will present the manner of calculating the daily

water demand of a ~‘illage. The population growth rate for that
regional area of Nepal is used to project the village’s current
population to the future population after 15-25 years. The water
demands of the village are then calculated, based upon the future
population.

4.2 DESIGN PERIOD

Coimmunity water supply systems should be designed and constructed
for a 15-25 year lifespan. The choice of either a 15, 20, or 25-year
design period is made by the surveyor, based upon the amount of
potential change that he can foresee for the village. A remote area,
far from future development efforts, might well be designed with a
25-year water demand projection. However, in an area where a new
highway or airfield is slated for construction, a shorter design
period should be considered, because the long-range water demands
cannot be accurately forecasted.

4.3 POPuLATION FORECAST

Selection of the design period leads directly to an estimate of

the village population for the last year of that period. This
design population Is calculated using the current village population
and the population growth factor for the design period, given in
FIgure 4-1.
Example A village In the Far Western hills of Nepal has a
current population of 436 people. The design period was selected
‘to be 20 years. What is the design population?

Future population = current population ÷34%

= 436 x 1.34
= 584 people

Within the design report, the design period and population

forecast should be carefully Indicated, as should any special
criteria for their selection.
 -28-

1961 -1971
average
annual PERCENTAGE INCREASE
GEOGRAPHIC AREA growth rate 1O-yrs 15-yrs 20—yrs 25-yrs

FAR WESTERN OEVELOPMENT REGION

Mountains 1 .4 14 22 30 39
Hills 1.5 16 25 34 45
Indian border districts 2.3 25 40 56 75
Surkhet Valley 2.3 25 40 56 75
Plains 3.4 40 66 96 130

WESTERN DEVELOPMENT REGION

Mountains 1.1 12 18 25 33
Hills (northern) 1 .6 17 27 38 48
Hills (southern) 2.1 23 36 51 68
Plains 3.7 44 73 110 150

CENTRAL DEVELOPMENT REGION

Mountains 1 .0 11 17 23 30
Hills 1 .6 18 27 38 48
Kathmandu Valley 1.3 13 20 28 36
Plains 3.8 45 74 110 150

EASTERN DEVELOPMENT REGION

Mountains 1.1 12 18 25 33
Hills 1.5 16 25 34 45
Plains 4.1 50 84 120 170

Note: All figures derive from the 1952-54, 1961, and 1971 census data.
The 10—25 year growth figures are based upon 1961-1971 average annual
growth rates, computed by C. Johnson.

FIGURE 4-].
POPULATION FORECAST TABLE
 -29-

4.4 WATER DEMANDS

The total water demands for the village at the end of the design
period is the sum of the per capita demand plus special need demands.

Per capita demand is the water required per person of the projected
village population. A per capita demand of 45 litres per person per
day is the present design standard. This figure derives from World
Health Organization (WHO) studies, and includes allowances for
personal washing, drinking, cooking, and a portion of domestic animal
needs.
When a marginal water source is encountered, and the target figure
of 45 LPCPD (liters per capita per day) cannot be met, then one may
go as low as 230 liters per household per day. This figure is based
upon minimal needs, and assumes 8-10 persons per household.

Special need demands are those required by additional facilities

in the village, such as schools, health posts, government offices,
etc. The amount of water needed daily by these facilities is given
below, based upon WHO ideal target usages:

Facility Daily Demand (liters

Ideally Minimally*
Schools -day students 10 liters/student 6.5
-boarding students 65 liters/boarder 42
Hospitals & Health Posts 500 liters/bed 325
Health clinics (no beds) 2500 liters/day 1625
Government Offices 500-1000 liters/day 325-560
(depending upon size)

*Ninimal figures are 65% of Ideal

The village’s total daily water requirements will be the sum

of the per capita demand plus the special needs demand, as projected
for the end of the design period.

)
 -30-

5. TYPES OF SYSTEMS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
There are several types of gravity-flow water systems, each
type being determined by certain design characteristics. These
systems fall into two general catagories: open systems, and closed
ones.
An open system derives from the concept that the taps can be
left open and flowing continuously all day long, and still provide
constant and steady flow. This means that the safe yield of the
source(s) is sufficient enough to supply all tapstands directly,
without requiring a reservoir tank.
A closed system is one where the safe yield of the source
cannot provide continuous flow to all taps, or where the safe yield
is such that a reservoir tank is necessary to store water for peak
demand periods which the source alone could not meet. All tapstands
on the system must have a faucet, either of the self-closing or
manually—operated type.
Both catagories of systems may require break—pressure tanks,
but an open system will never require a reservoir tank. At all
tapstands, regardless of the type of system, a control valve must
be Installed to proportion and regulate the flow between taps.
From these two catagorles, there are five different types of
systems which can be built, as discussed below.

5.2 OPEN SYSTEMS WITHOUT FAUCETS

This type of system has continual, 24—hour flow from the taps,
with no faucets to shut off the water. The primary advantage to
this system Is that there are no faucets that can be abused, worn out,
broken, stolen, etc. The primary disadvantage arises out of the
copious amounts of wastewater issuing forth all day and night.
Strategic location of taps to make efficient use of wastewater
(such as irrigation of nearby fields, etc) and construction of
non—erodible drainage channels to carry these flows away will
minimize the problems of large wastewater quantities.

5.3 OPEN SYSTEM WITH FAUCETS

The problems of copious wastewater flows from an open tapstand
can be eliminated by installing faucets on some of the tapstands.
Provisions must be made for handling overflow water from the lowest
break-pressure point (i.e. reservoir tank, break-pressure tank, etc.),
since excess water will overflow at that point.
 —31—

This type of system is one of the more desirable types, since it

requires no reservoir tank, provides more than sufficient water for
the villagers, and has minimal wastewater problems.

5.4 CLOSED SYSTEM WITH RESERVOIR

A reservoir tank is required when the peak water demands of the
village cannot be met by the source alone. The reservoir stores wate
from low—denand periods(such as overnight) to supplement the source
flow during peak demand periods (such as early morning). A reservoir
system is able to provide water at any time demanded, but depends
upon faucets and pipeline being well maintained (a broken faucet or
a leaky pipeline will not allow the reservoir to fill).

A reservoir system may actually be less expensive to build than

an open system, since usually a smaller pipe size can be used between
the source and reser.voir. The savings in pipe cost can offset the
cost oLthe tank (refer to Section 5.7).

5.5 CLOSED SYSTEM WITH INTERMITTENT SERVICE

There are some topographic situations where the yield of the
source and geography of the terrain act in such a way that the system
must be designed with one (or more) break-pressure tanks located
downstream from the reservoir tank. This arrangement has required an
intermittent supply system: except for a few hours each day (ie- in
the mornings and evenings), the water is shut off at the reservoir
tank to allow it to refill. Without doing this, the tank would never
refill, since it would be constantly draining out through the lower
break—pressure tanks.

This intermittent system is the least-desirable type to build.

Hydraulic problems, such as air entrapment, can complicate the
draining and refilling of the pipeline each day; there will be
increased wear on the control valves at the reservoir; support of the
system caretaker requires considerable village organization; negative
pressures in the pipeline during system shut-down can suck in polluted
groundwater via small leaks; and since the entire water demand period
is compressed into just a few hours (rather than spread out over the
full day), the taps must be designed to deliver greater flows, which
in turn requires larger pipe sizes and substantially increases the
cost of the system.
Fortunately, it is possible to avoid intermittent systems by
installing float—valves (also known in Nepal as “ball-cocks”) in
the downstream break-pressure tanks.

5.6 CLOSED SYSTEM WITH FLOAT-VALVES

As mentioned above, there are some situations where it is
inescapably necessary to install break-pressure tanks downstream from
the reservoir.
 —32-

Float—valves are installed in these break—pressure tanks, and

act on the same principle as those comonly used in household toilets.
These valves automatically adjust the flow in the pipeline to exactly
match the amount demanded by any open taps. When all taps are closed,
the break-pressure tank fills with water, lifting the float and
gradually closing the valve until the flow is cut off. This allows
the upstream reservoir tank to refill.
Sturdy-quality float-valves are now becoming part of the standard
supplies provided by UNICEF for water supply projects in Nepal.
Locally available float-valves (usually manufactured in India),
although not of high quality, can also be used and offer the advantage
that, if broken, they can be easily and inexpensively replaced by
the villagers themselves.

5.7 OPEN SYSTEM VS CLOSED SYSTEM

The decision to build a system as either open or closed is
governed by several factors: pipeline profile, safe yield of the
source, design population, and availability of construction materials.
In some instances, the decision is an obvious one, and in other cases
the designer must evaluate the economics of both types before making
a decision.
As mentioned above in Section 5.4, a reservoir system may be a
more economical system than an open system. An open system will
usually require a large-size pipe between the source and the village,
whereas if a reservoir tank was constructed, then a lot of that
pipe could be replaced with a smaller-size. The designer should
always investigate both of tnese alternatives if it is possible that
a system may be built as an open one. However, sometimes tte specific
pipe sizes, or enough cement,may not be quickly available, in which
case the alternate system may have to be built if delays In
construction are to be avoided.

5.8 LIMITED EXPANSION

One aspect with which planning and designing a water project is
concerned is the extendibility of the system. Although the population
is projected through the end of the design period, the physical growth
of the village may expand in such directions that the villagers may
wish to add one or two more tapstands to the system at some future
date. It is also possible that the village’s population growth may in
fact be much greater than initially assumed, resulting in the design
water demands long before the end of the design period. This
section discusses possible means of limited expansion of the system
to resolve these problems, provided that preparations are made
during the initial survey, design, and construction of the system.
These expansion possibilities are only aimed at meeting these
unexpected needs for the duration of the initial design period. It
is presumed that by the end of the original design period,
 —33—

the condition of tne system and the new village water needs will
require a major overhaul of the system, or even construction of an
entire new one.
Additional taps: The need for additional taps can be minimized
by trying to predict in which directions the village is likely to
expand in the future, and locate tapstands accordingly. Although
this anticipation of the future will rarely be easy to make, the
geography of the land around the village will sometimes set limits
on expansion (such as rivers, cliffs, direction of ridges and hills,
etc.).
If additional tapstands are needed, no changes in the pipeline
will be necessary if the villagers are willing to slightly reduce
the flow from the other taps to make water for the new taps. De-
creasing the flow of four tapstands by 20% will allow the addition of
a fifth one to the line. The system designer should indicate in the
design report just where additional tapstands may be added, and what
flow re-adjustments would be necessary. This information should be
in the project file at the LDD office, and also should be discussed
with the village leaders.
Increased water demands: This problem can only be solved if
there is another water source located above the intake or reservoir
level so that the flow from the new source can be added to the
,

existing one. In the future, water purification schemes may become

available to many projects, thus a near—by water source which is
currently unacceptable may some day be able to be added to the
system. Despite such increased flows, additional water storage capa-
city may be required. This can be accomplished by either of two
metnods: select the original reservoir site so that a second tank
may be constructed next to it and cross—connected; or alternatively,
design the first tank such that its walls can be raised enough to
add another 30—50 centimeters of water depth to the tank.
Again, the design report should indicate just how future
expansion of storage capacity has been planned for.

5.9 PHASED EXPANSION

Expansion of a system does not necessarily have to remain within
the domain of the original system. There may be a small ward or
village close at hand which, currently, has its own adequate water
supply and does not have to be Included In the system initially.
After a number of yearss however, that small population may have
outgrown its water source, and then consideration should be given
as to how the original system may be extended to incorporate it.
The best way to accomplish this is to plan for it when initially
preparing the system design. Certain pipelines of the system would
have to be of a larger size than otherwise necessary, and the reser-
voir should be designed so that it can be expanded as discussed above.
 —34-

Branchpoint tees and/or control valves for the future extension may
be installed at the time of initial construction. The design report
should indicate after how many years it is intended to extend the
system, and the matter discussed with the LDD regional engineer and
village leaders.
 —35—

6. HYDRAULIC THEORY

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the basic hydraulic principles that govern the
behavior of gravity-flow water systems will be presented. It will
not be possible to understand this material in a single, cursory
reading, yet full understanding of these concepts is necessary before
any person can properly design such a system. The designer should
read, study, and repeatedly refer back to this chapter until he is
satisfied with his knowledge of these principles.
The next chapter shall discuss special strategies in designing
a pipeline section where there are potential air—blocks.

6.2 ENERGY
To move water, whether moving it uphill, downhill, or horizontally,
requires energy. As Its name implies, in a gravity—flow water system
the source of energy is the action of gravity upon water.

A gravity-flow water system is “powered” by gravitational energy.

The amount of such energy in the system is determined by the relative
elevations of all points in the system. Once it has been constructed,
all points in the system are ininovably fixed (ie— buried into the
ground) and their relative elevations cannot change. Thus, fo~
any BysteTJ7, there is a fixed, specific qio2fltit,y of gravitational
energy available to move water.

As water flows through pipes, fittings, tanks, etc, some energy

is lost forever, dissipated by friction. Due to the changing topo-
graphic profile of the system, at some points there-may be a minimal
amount of energy (ie- low pressure), while at other points tnere
may be an excessive amount of energy (ie— high pressure). A poorly
designed or constructed system will not conserve energy properly
enough to move the desired quantities of water through the pipeline.
The purpose of pipeline design, therefore, is to properly
manipulate frictional energy losses so as to move the desired flows
through the system, by conserving energy at some points and burning
it off (by friction) at other points. This is accomplished by
careful selection of pipe sizes and strategic location of control
valves, break—pressure tanks, reservoirs, tapstands, etc..

6.3 HEAD: The Measure of Energy

On the Earth’s surface, freshof water
waterweighs I gram persquare
cubic and
centimeter ( 1 g/cm3) A column one centimeter
 -36-

100 centimeters high (1 x 1 x 100 cm) would therefore weigh 100 grams.
The same column 1000 cm high would weigh 1000 grams (1 kilogram). The
area at the base of this column is one square centimeter (cm’) and supports
the entire weight of
9e column. Therefore, the pressure at the base of
this column is 1 kg/cm . The same column 20 2meters high30(2000
a column cm) exerts
m high would
aweigh
pressure
2 kgs,of and
3 kg/cm2 column 43of meters
exert a a pressure high exerts a pressure of
2 kg/cm
4.3 kg/cm2, and so on.

In hydraulic work, rather than repeatedly calculate water pressures,

it is an easier practice to simply report the equivalent height of the
water column. Technically, this is called the head, and represents the
amount of gravitational energy contained in the water. In the metric
system of units, head is always measured in meters.

By this practice, a water pressure of 1 .4 kg/cm2 is reported as

14 meters of head; a pressure of 4 kg/cm~is 40 meters of head;
5 kg/cm’ is 50 meters of head, etc.*

6.4 FLUID STATICS: Water at Rest

Any person who has ever dived to the bottom of a lake or swirming
pool quickly learned that the water pressure increased as he descended
but that swirmiiing horizontally at a constant depth produced no change
in pressure. This comon experience serves to illustrate a major
principle In hydraulics:
Water pressure at some depth is directly related
to the vertical distance from that depth to the
level of the surface, and is not affected by
any horizontal distances.
Consider the system shown in Figure 6—1 The water pressure at
.

point A is determined by the depth of water at that point. The pressures

at points B and C are likewise determined by the height of the vertical
distance from those points to the level of the water surface:
Water
Point Pressure Head
A 1 kg/cm2 10 meters
B .2 kg/cm2 20 meters
C 3.5 kg/cm2 35 meters

* the pressure exerted by other fluids, such as mercury, oil, etc, can
also be reported as equivalent heads of that fluid. Barometric
pressure, for example, is often measureWli “millimeters of mercury”.
 -37-

2
0

J
ki

FIGURE 6-1 . STATIC EQUILIBRIUM

In a pipeline where no water is flowing, the system is termed being

in static equilibrium. In such systems, the level of the water surface is
called the static level, and the pressures are reported as static heads.
If small tubes were inserted into the pipeline, as shown in
Figure 6-1, the water level in each tube would rise exactly to the
static water level. The height of water in each tube is the pressure
head exerted on the pipeline at that point.
Since no water is flowing, there is no energy lost to friction and the
static level Is perfectly horizontal.

6.5 FLUID DYNAMICS: Water in Motion

Now suppose that the control valve at point C in Figure 6-1 is
partially opened, allowing a small flow of water through the pipeline
(and also assume that the tank refills as fast as it drains, so that
the surface level remains constant). The water levels in each glass
tube decrease a bit. As the valve is opened further and further to
allow greater flpws through the pipeline, the water levels in the
tubes drop even lower, as shown in Figure 6-2.
 C.ON1RbL VALVE op~r4E~ FUQTI4~.
~ EVEN G~E.~rEP.
FIGURE 6—2 DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
 .39-

It can be seen that the water heights in these tubes form a new
line for each new flow through the system. For a constant flow, the
line formed by the water heights will remain steady. The system is now
said to be in namic e uilib turn. The line formed by the water levels
in the tubes is ca e t e rau Ic rade line, cormuonly abbreviated as
HGL. A different flow esta ishes a d fferent dynamic equilibrium,
and a new HGL.

6.6 HYDRAULIC GRADE LINE LHGLJ

The HGL represents the new energy levels at each point along the
pipeline. For any constant flow through the pipe there is a specific,
constant HGL. The vertical distance from the pipeline to the HGL is
the measure of pressure head (ie- energy), and the difference between
the HGL and the static level is the amount of head lost by the friction
of the flow.

The water pressure at air/water interfaces (such as the surfaces

in tanks or discharges at tapstands) is zero. Thus, the HGL must
always come to zero wherever the water comes into contact with the
atmosphere.

Since frictional losses are never recovered, the HGL always

slopes down along the direction of flow. The steepness of the slope
is determined by the rate at which energy is lost to friction. Only
under static conditions is the HGL perfectly horizontal , although for
practical purposes the HGL may be plotted as horizontal for extremely
low flows in large pipes (where the headloss is less than 1/2—meter
per 100 meters of pipelength). For practical purposes, the HGL will
never slope upwards.
Appendix A gives a more mathematical discussion on the HGL, with
relevant examples of how it applies to a gravity-flow water system.

6.7 FRICTION: Lost Energy

As mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, a system has a

specific amount of gravitational energy, determined by the relative
elevations of points in the system. As water flows through the pipe-
line, energy is lost by the friction of the flow against pipe walls,
or through fittings (such as reducers, elbows, control valves, etc),
or as it enters/discharges from pipes and tanks. Any obstruction
to the flow, partial or otherwise, causes frictional losses of energy.

The magnitude of energy lost due to friction against some obstacle

is determined by several factors. The major factors would be the
roughness of the obstacle, and the velocity of the flow. Minor
factors would include water temperature, suspended particles,
dissolved gases etc.
 -40—

The diameter of the pipe, and the amount of flow through it, determinE
the velocity of the flow*. The greater the flow, the faster the velocity,
and the greater the frictional losses. Likewise, the rougher the surface
of the obstacle, the greater the frictional losses.
Frictional losses are not linear: doubling the flow does not neces-
sarily double the losses: usually, losses are trebled, quadrupled, or
even greater.

6.8 VALVES: Variable Friction Devices

An excessive amount of energy (ie- high pressure) can cause the pipe
to burst. One method of controlling excessive amounts of energy is to
install control valves at strategic points throughout the system. A
valve is a device which can be adjusted to create greater frictional
losses as the water flows through it. There are two types of control
valve : \gate valves, and globe valves. Both are shown below in
Figure 6-3:

GATE VALVE GLOBE VALVE

FIGURE 6—3 CONTROL VALVES

Gate valves: Gate valves serve as on/off control valves, for the
purpose of completely cutting off the flow. Generally, they are located
at the outlets of intakes, reservoirs, strategic break—pressure tanks,
and at major branchpoints. They are not recorrrnended (or use in regulating
flow (ie— partially open or closed) since the water will erode the bottom
edge of the gate and result in a leaky valve whenever it is meant to be
closed. Directdon of flow through the valve is unimportant.

flow, velocity, and pipe size are all related by the Equation of Continuity
presented in Technical Appendix A.
 -41-

Globe valves: These valves are designed for regulating flow through
the system. They are best located near discharge points, so that it is
easier to measure the flow through the valve. They are generally located
at discharge points in reservoirs, strategic break—pressure tanks, and
at every tapstand*. Direction of flow through a globe valve is important:
there is an arrow stamped on the valve that indicates the proper direction
of flow, and care must be taken to see that the valve is installed correctly.

6.9 FRICTIONAL HEADLOSS FACTORS

It is obvious that to properly design a system, the designer must be
able to determine how much energy will be lost to friction by the time the
flow reaches various critical points in the system. Frictional headloss
tables are used for this purpose. The coninon method is to report the
amount of frictional headloss per unit length of pipe, for a specific
flow. Typically this would be expressed as “meters of headloss per
100 meters of pipelength”, or as “m/lOOm” or ‘%“.

The frictional headloss tables for both HDP and GI pipe are given
at the end of this book. These headloss factors are never perfectly
accurate since frictional losses are affected by many different factors
which may vary from system to system. For this reason, it is necessary
to always include a margin of safety when plotting the HGL (see Section
6.13).
Example: What are the frictional headlosses in the pipeline
section bilow?
a) 135Om of 32m HDP @ 0.45 LPS:
Frict’l headloss factor = 2.56m/lOOm
1350 x 2.56/100 = 34.6 meters headloss
b) 730m of 2” GI pipe @ 1.30 LPS:
Frict’l headloss factor = 1.84%
730 x 1.84/100 = 13.4 meters headloss
c.) 2075m of Class IV SOrmii HDP @ 1.40 LPS:
Frict’l factor = 3.22%
2075 x 3.22/100 = 67 meters headloss
Frictional headlosses can be rounded off to the nearest 1/2—meter,
or even to the nearest meter.
Frictional headlosses of flows through fittings such as elbows,
reducers, tees, valves, etc, are given as equivalent plpelengths.

~ the 1/2” globe valve used on tapstands is known in Nepal as a

corporation cock.
 -42-

6.10 EQUIVALENT PIPELENTHS OF FITTINGS

A pipeline fitting (such as an elbow, tee, valve, etc) acts as a

concentrated point of frictional losses. The amount of headloss in the
fitting depends upon the shape of the fitting, and the flow through it.
The headlosses are computed by determing the equivalent length of pipe
necessary to create the same amount of headloss. For fittings, this Is
cormnonly given as the L/D Ratio (length/diameter). The L/D ratios for
various fittings are given below:

Fitting L/D Ratio

Tee (run-side) 68
Tee (run—run) 27
Elbow (90° ,short-radius) 33
Union 7
Gate valve (fully open) 7
Free entrance 29
Screened entrance 150

Example: What is the equivalent pipelength of a 1—1/2” GI elbow?

14/2” x 33 =.50” = 126 cm = 1.26 meters
Where fittings are located at isolated points along a long pipe—
length, the amount of headloss they generate Is considered minor com-
pared to the normal headloss through the pipe. Such headlosses do not
have to be shown on the plotted HGL when the plpelength is more than
1000 diameters. For the coninon pipe sizes used in CWS projects, these
losses can be ignored if the pipe section is longer than:

2Om HDP: 20 meters

32ngn HDP: 32 meters
SOrm IIDP: 50 meters
63rm HDP: 63 meters
9Ommi HDP: 90 meters

When several fittings are located close together, however, the

total headloss is actually greater than the sum of Individual head—
losses through each fitting. Thus, special concern must be given to
selectIng the proper pipe sizes for the GI plumbing of a tank outlet
This is explained in Technical Appendix G.
Since a valve is adjustable, it can be set for any equivalent
pipelength. This is discussed further in Section 6.’3 and Figure 6—7,
 -43-

6.11 PLOTTING THE HGL

To illustrate the basic principles of plotting the HGL, the simple

system of Figure 6.4 will be used. In this example, the pipe sizes have
already been selected. The desired flows out of each tap are 0.225 LPS,
the safe yield of the source is 0.50 LPS. The elevations and plpelengths
are given for the source, Tap ~ 1 and Tap # 2.
The HGL Is plotted in sections (technically called reaches)
between strategic points in the system.
First reach: In this example, the first reach is from the intake
to the end of the 50mm HDP pipe section. The desired flow through this
reach is 0.45 LPS (ie- the sum of the tap flows), and since the safe
yield of the source is greater than 0.45 LPS, no reservoir tank Is
required (ie- the system can be built as an open system, with or without
faucets).
340m of 50mm HDP @ 0.45 LPS
Frict’l factor = 0.30%
340 x 0.30/100 = 1 meter headloss

This is plotted on the profile.

The second reach ends at the first tap, 480 meters of 32mm HDP pipe.
The desired flow is still 0.45 LPS.
480m of 32mm HDP @ 0.45 LPS
Frict’l factor = 2.56%
480 x 2.56/100 = 12 meters headloss
The residual head at Tap # 1 is therefore 13 meters (refer to
Chapter 15.4 for standards on acceptable residual heads for tapsoands).

The third reach is from Tap # 1 to the end of the 32m HDP pipe
section: 500 meters of pipe. The desired flow in this section is now
only 0.225 LPS (ie— flow for just the remaining single tap).
500m of 32mm HDP @ 0.225 LPS
frict’l factor = 0.78%
500 x 0.78/100 = 4 meters headloss
The HGL at this point is now 17 meters below the static level,
meaning that a total of 17 meters of head has been lost to friction
by the flow between the source and end of this reach.
Iii

lAP * 2
ELEY~O~
~MI~- ~
TAD p4-OW -0 22~LAP,

MAINLINE P1Pf LfN6TH (i’A)

f’~ FRICTIOt~&LHEDLOS5E5/Iooi~ 1
I(2o~w~ Q’o 0 ~o‘.em
4ooqZ~
I
I 32 MM O7~% 2-56%l

L~ -

FIGURE 6_LI PLOTTING THE HGL (EXAMPLE SYSTEM)

 -45—

The final reach is 280 meters of 20mm HDP pipe, carrying a flow
of 0.225 LPS.
280m of 2Dm HDP @ 0.225 LPS
frict’l factor = 12.0%
280 x 12/100 = 34 meters headloss
The residual head at Tap # 2 Is 9 meters.

Observe that the HGL only changed slope at points of—new pipe sizes
and/or new flows. To allow only the desired 0.225 LPS out of each tap,
globe valves must be Installed in the tap pipeline (tapline) and adjusted
so that precisely the 0.225 LPS comes out of the faucets. When adjusted
like that, the valve for Tap # 1 will be burning off 13 meters of head,
and the valve for Tap # 2 will be burning off 9 meters of head. The effects
of residual heads are discussed in Section 6.13.

6.12 REQUIRED HGL PROFILES

The plotted HGL of Figure 6-4 represents the hydraulic profile
of the system specifically when both taps are open. Naturally, there will
be a different profile if just Tap # 1 is open, or just Tap # 2 is open,
or if both taps are closed (ie- the static profile). Normally, it is not
necessary to calculate the HGL profiles for the various combinations of
open/closed taps In a system. The HOL should only be plotted for the two
extremes: all taps open, and ‘all taps closed. As can be seen in Figure 6—4,
both of these cases have been plotted on the single profile. This allows
the designer to easily determine points of high and low pressure in the
system, to ensure that they are within allowable limits (as will be
discussed in Sections 6.14 6.16).
—

6.13 RESIDUAL HEAD: Excess Energy

The significance of residual heads at tapstands, reservoirs, and
break-pressure tanks must be understood by the designer before a proper
system can be planned.
Residual head is the amount of energy remaining in the system by
the time that the desired flow has reached the discharge point. It
represents excess gravitational energy.
Installing a control valve at the discharge point will burn
off residual head. (For tins purpose a globe valve, not a
gate valve, should be used).
Whilst tnis will reduce the quantity of flow, it may produce
more desirable pressure characteristics within the pipeline.
 -46-

A more specific discussion on design residual heats follows:

When plotting the HGL for a flow which discharges freely into1 the
atmosphere (such as into a tank or out of a tap), the residual head at
the discharge point may turn out to be eitner positive or negative, as
shown in Figure 6—5:

FIGURE 6-5 EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE & NEGATIVE RESIDUAL HEADS

Negative residual head: This indicates that there is not enough

gravitational energy to move the deisred quantity of water, hence this
quantity of water will not flow. The HGL must be replotted using a
smaller flow and/or larger pipe size.
Positive residual head: This indicates that there is an excess of
gravitational energy; that is, there is enough energy to move an even
greater flow through the pipeline. If allowed to discharge freely, a
 -47—

positive residual head means that gravity will try to increase tne flow
through the pipe; as flow increases, the frictional headlosses will
decrease tne residual head. The flow will Increase until the residual
h,ead is reduced to zero.

Natural flow: When the residual head of a pipeline discharging

freely into the atmosphere is zero, then the maximum amount of flow is
moving through the pipe. This is the natural flow of the pipe, and Is
the absolute maximum flow that can be moved by gravity. The natural flow
of the pipe can be controlled by selective pipe sizing.
Figure 6—6 shows the calculation of the natural flow of an example
pipeline.

~i~ric

fl(AMPL~
i~m~NATURAL (MAXIMuM)
FLOW THROUGh THE PIPELINE
I.’ 5ECTION SHOWN. WHERE

H’ ~OM
L~ 472 M
PIPE’ CLAS5 III a2MJ.~.HDP.

L
~L’N
(PIPELENGTH.MET~R5) -
THE NATURAL FRICT’L FACTOR
NOT~5: FN’ _______ = 0

1.W’ VERTiCAL E EVd4TIC*l BETWEEN ~Pm~ AND

LOWER. ~EEAk.- PKE~URE P0INT5 (I E MAX P~%~ ThE PRJCTL 11&.DLOS$ TABLE,
4vAILABLE HE.ADLO5S) ir IS DETERMINED TI4ATA IIEADLOSS
FACTOR OF io-~/ioo m FOR CLASS

2 FREE DI5CHARGE OP FLOW INTO LOWER. ~ 32mm IlbP PIPE 00.URS FOR
4 FLOY,( OF 100 LPS

FIGURE 6-6 CALCULATION OF THE NATURAL FLOW OF A

PIPELINE

If the natural flow of a pipeline is greater than the safe yield,

then the pipe will drain faster than it can be fiLled, and the result
will be that the pipe will not flow full. In such a case, the HGL will
lie on the surface of the water inside the pipe. A non—full flowing pipe
is not under any pressure (except where the pipe flows full in U—profiles).
If there are no tapstands located along a pipeline section that is not
flowing full, then this is of no consequence.
 -48-

However, if there is a tapstand, then it is very Important that the

pipeline be kept flo~ing full (ie— under pressure) to ensure the proper
functioning of the tap.
Pipelines that otherwise will not flow full must have a control valve
at the discharge point. This control valve will burn off the residual
head, rather than allowing the flow to increase too much. The control
valve is adjusted until the desired flow is discharged; at that setting,
It is burning off exactly the correct amount of head.
In practice, control valves are adjusted under the hydraulic
conditions where all taps are opened. As mentioned earlier, different
HGL profiles will occur when different combinations of taps are opened
and closed. For each possible combination, new residual heads will occur
at the discharge points. Since It is not desirable to have the villagers
constantly re-adjusting control valves every time a tap is opened or closed,
the actual discharges will fluctuate. However, such fluctuations will be
small and are negligible.
The amount of frictional headloss of flow through a valve is
reported as the equivalent pipelength of the valve (see Section 6.10).
Figure 6—7 given an example of calculating the equivalent pipelength
of a valve, and calculates the fluctuating flows for the example system
of Figure 6-4.

Since every tapstand requires some amount of residual head, then

it is obvious that every tapstand requires a control valve. Control
valves at discharges into reservoir or break—pressure tanks are only
required where it is necessary to keep a specific flow in the pipeline,
or to keep the upstream section of the pipeline flowing full (due to
tapstands or branchpoints along that section). Without the control
valves, the desired flow cannot happen in the pipeline, and the real
hydraulic profile will not match the plotted HGL.

6.14 MAXIMUM PRESSURE LIMITS

As discussed already, it is seen that pipe sizes are selected
because of frictional headloss considerations. However, there is yet
another consideration which determines what ~p~of pipe must be selected.
This consideration is pressure, and will dictate whether Class III HDP pipe,
Class IV HDP pipe, or galvanized iron (GI) pipe must be used. The choice
is determined by the maximum pressure that the pipe will be subjected to
(these maximum pressures are always the result of static pressure levels).
The maximum pressure limits for each of these pipes is discussed below:
2 (60 meters
Class This
Ijj~pipe: Maximumpipe
pressure
used inrating 6 kg/cm
of head). is the standard Nepal =where pressures do not
exceed 60 meters of head. Since the other classes of pipe are much more
expensive, the system should be designed to use as much Class III as
possible.
Class IV HOP i e: Maximum pressure rating = 10 kg/cm2 (100 meters
of heäEff. This c ass is used where pressure exceed 60 meters of head but
not 100 meters. Its wall thicKnesses are greater, which allow it to
 -49-

TAP OPEN
First Reach (Source--Tap)
Q 0.78 LI’S
L 10Dm of 50flin HOP + 15Dm of 32riun HOP
Headlosses= im (5C~iinHDP section) + 1Dm (32m HOP section)
Residual head @ Tap= 14m; Tap f1ow~0.225 LPS
Second Reach (Tap--Tank)
Q= 0.55 LPS
L~35Dm of 32niii HDP
Headloss 13m
Residual head 0 Tank discharge= 3Gm
This residual head at the tank discharge will be exactly burned
off when the control valve at the discharge is adjusted to allow
precisely 0.55 LPS into the tank. At this setting, the equivalent
pipelenqth of the valve is 974m (ie- the length of 32nin HOP pipe
required to burn c’ff exactly 3Gm of head at 0.55 LPS flow).
TAP CLOSED
The equivalent pipeline of the system Is:
10Dm of 5(~iin HOP
50Dm of 32nin HOP
974m of 32rmi HOP (the equivalent plpelength of the valve)
To learn the new discharge flow into the tank, it Is necessary to
calculate the natural flow of the equivalent pipeline (ie— the flow
at which 6Dm of head will be burned off by 10Dm of 50nin HDP + l474m
of 32nin HOP). By trial—and-error calculations and interpolations
from the Frictional Headloss Table, the flow is found to be about
0.575 LPS. At this flow, the headlosses are:
10Dm of 5Dmn HDP @ 0.46 rn/lOOm = 0.46rn
50Dm of 32ITTn HOP @ 4.05 rn/lOOm = 20.25m
974m of 32m HDP equivalent pipelength 0 4.05 rn/lOOm =39.44rn
TOTAL HEADLOSS =60.15m
Thus, when the tap is open, the discharge into the tank will be
0.55 LPS. and when the tap Is closed, the discharge will be slightly
less than 0.575 LPS.

FIGURE 6-7 EQUIVALENT PIPELENGTH

 —50—

withstand greater pressures, but it is much more expensive than Class III
and therefore should not be used except where pressure requires it (it should
not be used because of more suitable headloss factors).
kg/cm2is (250 meters of head).
61 pipe:
Galvanized Maximum
iron pipe used pressure rating = in25 Nepal
in CWS projects manufactured in India.
61 pipe is used where pressures exceed 100 meters of head, or where proper
burial of the pipeline is not possible. Current LDD policies set limits
on the amount of GI pipe to be used In a project, therefore consultation
with the regional engineer is necessary when a system appears to require a
lot of 61 pipe.
In all the above pressure ratings, for HDP pipe as well as 01 pipe,
there Is a large safety factor. Thus, the above pressures can be safely
exceeded by a few meters, but only when absolutely necessary. In the case
of HOP pipe, the manufacturers state that the working lifetime of the pipe
Is 50 years when It is properly joined, buried, and pressures do not exceed
the class rating. In the case of 61 pIpe, the safety factor is even larger,
but It must be ~pt In mind that the pipe corrodes over the years, reducing
waiP thicknesses and therefore reducing its strength.

6.15 U-PROFILES & MULTIPLE PIPELINES

A special pressure problem to many systems in mountainous regions is
the U—shaped profile, similar to the example below:

-
StATIC

LIMiT OP
UMITOF&LASSIII hOP PIPE.
/

CLASS & HOP PIPE

1oo~ /

CL.~51I[ I4DP .455 61 PIPE CLASS CLASSnI IIDP

~& 140P HDP

FIGURE 6-8 EXAMPLE OF U—PROFILE

 -51—

It is apparent from the figure above that, under static conditions,

the pressures in U—profiles can be quite high. Sections where the pressures
exceed 60 meters of head will require Class IV HOP pipe, and where there is
more than 100 meters of head GI pipe will be required.
Although Class IV is usually available in all sizes, there may be
times when a particular Class IV size cannot be had. In such cases, it is
possible to select a combination of smaller pipe sizes to be put down In
parallel that will provide suitable headlosses (such a combination may be
even less expensive than a single larger pipe size). Figure 6.9 gIves the
procedure for determining how the flow will divide itself between two pipes
of unequal diameters.

The pressure at Junction A must be HOP (both of Class IV series).

equal for all three pipes, since Consulting the frictional head-
they are all joined at a comon loss table for these two pipe
point, and likewise the pressure sizes, It can soon be determined
at Junction B must also be the that the only way that the flow
same for all pipes. This implies can divide Itself Is approximately
that both pipes in the multi—pipe as follows:
section must lose equal amounts of
head. As these pipes are equally
long, then there must be an equal C’ass IV 32nin HDP @ 0.225 LPS
5Gm HOP @ 0.75 LPS
rate of frictional headloss in
both pipes. Thus, the flow will
automatically divide itself be— It can be seen that for the above
twien the two pipes such that flows, the frictional headloss
each pipe has a frictional head- factor for both pipes would be
loss factor equal to the other. approximately 1 .1 m/lOOm.
In the example drawn above, a flow This same principle applies also
of 1.0 LPS will flow through a to multi—pipeline section of
multi-pipeline of 32rmn and 50m three or more pipe sizes.

FIGURE 6-9 DIVISIC*4 OF Fw~BEm ei ~ OF UNE~iALSizEs

 —52—

6.16 MINIMUM PRESSURE LIMITS

It is possible when plotting a HGL to discover that, due to the topo-
graphical profile of the pipeline, the HGL will actually tigo underground;”
that is, it will cross below the goundlevel profile and pass some distance
underground before emerging again. An example is shown in Figure 6—10:

‘S The pressure in the pipe

along the section where the HGL
Is underground is a negative
pressure (measured as “negative
head”). Negative pressure in
the pipeline means that the
water is being siphoned through
(ie— sucked from below rather
than pushed from above), a
condition that is undesirable
in CWS systems. Such negative
pressures can suck in surrounding,
1404. PLOTrED FOR SOME
SPECIPIC F1~bW Th~UGH polluted groundwater via leaky
A 51M61.E PIPE SIZE joints. Large negative pressures
can also cause problems with
dissolved air in the water (such
air can come out of sol ution in
the water and form trapped
pockets of air at high points
in the pipeline; more on air—blocks
FIGURE 6-10 in the next chapter).
IMPROPERLY—DESIGNED HGL

Therefore, as a general
standard design, do not design
any system where the HGL will fall
less than 10 meters above the
ground, except when unavoidable.
Never allow the HGL to go under-
ground at all.
1464. PLOTTED ~R MA%~FLOW
ThED4JSI A conwmgcIOeIop
Figure 6-11 shows the ~ipt SIZES lb KEW IT MINI-
same profile, with pipe sizes MALI-V ICin A3O,’E 6~OUt4D
selected to keep the HGL at PRO9LE.
least 10 meters above the
ground.

FIGURE 6-11
PROPERLY-DES I GNED HGL
 -53—

6.17 VELOCITY LIMITS

The velocity of flow through the pipeline is also another matter of
consideration. If the velocity is too great, suspended particles in the
flow can cause excessive erosion of the pipe; and if the velocity is
too low, then these same suspended particles may settle out of the flow and
collect at low points in the pipeline, eventually clogging it if left
unattended. The recomended velocity limits are
maximum: 3.0 meters/second
mInimum: 0.7 meters/second
The corresponding flows for the various sizes and classes of HOP
pipe are (in LPS):
32mm 50mm 63rm 90mm
fl j~flfTIfl jJJflTI~ 1jflflI~
Maximum: 0.60 1.85 1.62 4.64 3.96 7.33 6.27 15.00 12.76
Minimum: 0.14 0.43 0.38 1.08 0.92 1.71 1.46 3.50

The frictional headloss tables indicate low flows with an asterisk

(*), and do not give headloss factors for flows greater than the rec-
comended onts.
When a pipelIne carries a low flow, provisions must be made for
sedimentation problems: a sedimentation tank should be built at the
intake site, and washouts located at strategic low points to allow
flushing out of settled matter. Refer to Chapter 12 for information on
sedimentation tanks, and to Chapter 7.6 for information on locating
washouts.

6.18 SUWIATION
This chapter has presented the design methods needed to select
pipe sizes and classes, and how to arrange the pipe to keep the HGL
within acceptable limits above the ground profile. One more final con-
sideration, that of air—blocks, must be discussed. This will be
done in Chapter 7; and then Chapter 8 will present the specific
procedures for turning a topographic survey into a properly designed
- system.
 —54-

7. AIR—BLOCKS & WASHOUTS

7.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter considers the details of determining whether or not a
pipeline is likely to be affected by trapped pockets of air which could
interfere with the flow. If the designer determines that his system
is a likely victim of air-blocks, he can then refer to Technical Appendix B
for the analysis and procedures needed to deal with these air—blocks.

The chapter also discusses washouts, which allow settled sediments

to be periodically flushed out of the pipeline.

7.2 AIR-BLOCKS, Introduction

An air-block is a bubble of air trapped in the pipeline, whose size
is such that it interferes with the flow of water through the section.
When the pipeline is first constructed, or subsequently drained for
maintenance purposes, it is “dry”, that is, all points within are filled
with air at atmospheric pressure. When water is allowed to refill the
pipeline, air cannot escape from certain sections and is trapped. As
pressure builds up, these air pbckets are compressed to smaller volumes.
In the process, some of the hydrostatic pressure of the system is absorbed
by compressing these air pockets, reducing the amount of energy available to
move water. If too much energy is absorbed by compressing air, then no
flow will reach the desired discharge point until something is done about
the air—blocks.

Generally, there will be no problems of air—blocks in a system where

a tank is located at an elevation lower than the air-blocks, as long as
the air-blocks are at least 10 meters below the static level. This Is
shown in Figure 7-1 below:

SOuRCE
STAnC

SQEATEQ ~n1Al~4
10 A%ETffRS

FIGURE 7—1 PROFILE WHERE AIR—BLOCKAGES WELL NOT

INTERFERE WITH FLOW
 —55—

Air-blocks analysis should be done in U—profBe systems similar to

that shown in Figure 7—2 below:

5OU~

FIGURE 7-2 PROFILE WHERE AIR—BLOCKAGES

MAY INTERFERE WITH FLOW

7.3 AIR—BLOCKS: Pipeline Design Practices

These are guidelines for arranging pipe sizes In such a way so as to
minimize trapped air and potential air—blocks. Only after such an arrange-
ment has been analysed and found inadequate should air—valves be installed.
1) Arrange the pipe sizes to minimize the frictional headloss
between the source and first air-block.
2) Use larger—sized pipe at the top, and smaller—sized pipe at the
bottom of the critical sections where air is going to be trapped (sections
BC and OE In FIgure 7—2). Pipe sizes elsewhere do not affect the air—blocks.
The TMhigher” air—blocks (le— closer to the static level) are
3) critical
the more ones. Eliminate or minimize them first.

7.4 AIR-VALVES
Mrvalves provided by UNICEF are sturdy devices, and operate
automatically. Maximum pressure rating is 60 meters of head. Details
of installation are shown in Figure 7—3.
 —56—

VALVE

• W4”~’V’El ~puc~
1 64 5MORT MI~PL~
• I”~3Zmm. 64/KOP
BRASS UNION

HDP PiPE ~ FTrTIN6.

FIGURE 7-3
DETAILS OF AIR-VALVE & INSTALLATION

7.5 ALTERNATIVE AIR-RELEASES

At times when the above
air-valves are not available,
there are two alternative
methods for allowing trapped
SMALL bRASS ØQ air to be released from the
~
~ALJJ~J~ ~4A;LHOl~E pipeline: install a normal
control valve, or puncture
the pipe with a nail and
seal it off with a brass or
aluminum screw. Although
these alternative methods are
not as expensive as an air-
~ ScREm4w MOP V~4T valve, they are not automatic,
and require manual operation
“COQPo~~ONCO~ by the villagers. At times
U when the pipeline is being
61 s*~gr
Mippt-m refilled with water, the
~‘2~im 64/HOP valve Is opened (or the
6R455 UNION screw is removed), allowing
PP PIPE trapped air to escape. To
discourage tempering with
these air-release devices,
they should be well buried
(removing the handle from
the valve will also keep
FIGURE 7-LI unauthorized persons from
opening it).
ALTERNATIVE AIR RELEASES
 —57—

7.6 WASHOUTS
Over a period of time, suspended particles carried in the flow will
tend to settle out, particularly at low points in the pipeline or where
the flows are low enough so that the flow velocity drops below 0,7 meters/
second. Reservoirs usually allow most of these particles to settle,
but pipeline sections upstream from the reservoir do not benefit from
this. Break—pressure tanks do not allow any sedimentation to occur,
since flows through these are extremely turbulent.
Washouts should be located at the bottom points of major U—profiles,
especially those upstream from the reservoir tank. The number of washouts
in a system depends upon the type of source (a stream yields more suspended
materials than a spring), whether or not there is a sedimentation tank and/or
reservoir, and the velocity of flow through the pipeline.
The washout pipes should
be of the same size as the
pipeline at that point. Endcap—
type washouts will require that
the pipeline will be completely
drained before the end—cap can
be replaced (since it is impos-
sible to put it back on while
there is water gushing out of
it), which is not so with a
washout that has a gate valve
(a globe valve is definately
not suited for this type of
work). ~Handles should be
removed and valves well buried
to discourage tapering.
Endcaps should be torqued
lightly with a wrench (so
that they cannot be removed
by hand) but not extremely
tightly, since they will
tend to rust onto the pipe
and be very difficult to
remove at a later time. Figure 7—5 shows some washout designs.
 -58-

8. PIPELINE DESIGN

~l INTRODUCTION
The concepts of hydraulic theory, descriptions of various factors
which influence flow, techniques for determining pressures and the HGL,
have all been presented so far. In this chapter, all of it will be
brought together to show how it is practically applied in the design
of a real system.
The pipeline design phase begins with the graphic plotting of the
topographic survey (from the initial survey of the system) and ends
when all sections of the pipeline (Ie— mainline, sourcelines, branch—
lines, and taplines) have been designed in their final form. Blueprints
are then made of the design.
This chapter will present standards and guidelines for preparing the
pipeline drawings, example designs for mainlines, branchlines, source
collection lines (ie- for systems with multiple sources), and a pIpeline
section of combination pipe sizes.

8.2 PIPELINE DRAWINGS

The purpose in plotting the profile is to create a visual easy-to-

,

understand picture of the topographic elevations along the pipeline.

Because the profile contains so much InformatIon on it, it is necessary
that it be carefully laid out so that it is not cluttered, sloppy,
difficult to read, or incomplete.
Graph profile: The profile is initially plotted on graph paper of
centimeter divisions. Vertical scale should be either 1 cm = 5 meters
or 1 cm = 10 meters; horizontal scale 1 cm = 50 meters or 1 cm = 100
meters. Each sheet should contain a title block (as shown in Figure 8—1)
and the axes laid out as shown in Figures 8.2 and 8.4. The profile,
title block, axes, and tapstand sites ‘are done in ink, but tank
locations and NGLs are worked in pencil until properly designed, and
then inked. The designs must be approved by the LDD regional engineer.
Tracing profile: When the pipeline design is finished and approved
it is traced onto tracing paper. Dark—color ball—point pens, soft-tip
markers, or drafting pens should be used. Lettering must be neatly
printed. All tanks, taps, washouts, air-valves, branch points, strategic
points, etc, should be labeled with distance and elevation. Tapstand
flows must be indicated if they are not the standard 0.225 LPS. Pipe
sizes and lengths must be indicated.
Blueprinting: When the final tracing is completed, it is ready
for blueprinting. A sheet of aninonia—sensitized paper, slightly larger
than the tracing paper, is laid out on the tracing paper and then both
are rolled through a fluorescent—tube light box. The anrionia paper is
then slipped into another air—tight box, where It is exposed to arimionia
 —59-
I ~CM -J
-l

-
2

1
ormacr. ZC4E

~rR:
I

~tft
•1

~TE:
I

DESIGN ~VI0N
I

~4iLY DEMAND
1

VERTICAL. i-CM -

FIGURE 8—i TITLE BLOCK

~7 800
9 2

____ ___ I

‘100 • ~00 ‘300 ‘4oo

PtPELENGTH (MET~)

5~T~
MLRVAT10N

~cn~ _____ M. 4 ___ 1~M

PIPU lEE _______________________

63MM. HoP. ~hiM limP ~oMM HOP
______________ ~-, 63MM HoP
~ l.INSTH 17~hi. I~DM 1O~M
__________________ 203 M

A1_I~ PIPe. CLAM ~ HOP EXCEPT WHE~ INDICATED

FIGURE 8,2
PORTIoN OF SAMPLE DESIGN SHOWING PRQFILE AXES
 - 60-

vapors for a few minutes to “develop” the blueprint. Size of a blueprint

page should be about the same as the graph paper size (larger—sized sheets
are awkward to handle). The total number of copies of each blueprint is
determined by LDD, so consult the regional engineer.

General plan view & key plan: In addition to the profile design,
blueprints should be made of the general plan of the system, which shows
the rough layout of the system, with village landmarks indicated. A key
plan of the system is also made, showing the relative arrangements of tanks,
control valves, branchlines, tapstands, etc. An example is shown in
Figure 8—3.

NOTE: Since these design examples were worked out, new frictional headloss
tables for HDP pipe were obtained. The new tables are now in the back
of this book, and are not the ones referred to in the following examples.

8.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE: Mainline

Figure 8-4 will be used as the design example of a mainline. The
basic procedure for designing a pipeline is to divide it at strategic
points (usually tanks and tapstands). The pipelire section between each
of these points Is called a reach. For each reach, determine the desired
amount of head to be burned off, and the length of pipeline, and with
these determine the desired frictional headloss factor. From the
Headloss Table, select the pipe size which Is closest to that desired
frictional factor. If no size is suitable, then using two different
pipes in the reach can be done. ~Themethod for determining the length
of these combination pipes is given in Section 8—6.

When designing the pipeline, the designer can begin at the source
and plot his way downstream, or begin at the end and plot his way
upstream, or begin at the ends and plot towards the middle, depending
upon his intuitive feelings. With experience, he will develop more
intuition at where to best begin. In this example, however, plotting will
begin at the source and proceed downstream.
Reservoir calculations:

Safe yield of source = 1 .40 LPS

Demand by 6 taps @ 0.225 LPS = 1.35 LPS
Therefore reservoir tank not required

Preliminary pressure analysis:

This profile contains a major U—profile, so it is best to

begin by examining it there. If Class III pipe were used along the bottom
of the U-profile, the pressure in the pipeline would exceed 60 meters
of head before the flow could make it back out of the U—profile. Therefore,
Class IV pipe must be used, with a break—pressure tank located 100 meters
above the bottom of the U-profile. This tank would therefore be located
at ML-600, elevation of 900 meters. The Class IV pipe would have to
begin at ML—87O (which is at an elevation 60 meters below the break—pressure
tank) and run until ML-1720.
 —61—

EOUPCE #2
SOaLE# I

r*~ac,

TAP* 1

Ix’
~t-ICE POST

54-I’VA TmMPLE

COLLECTION T4NIC,

VALVE BOX

~2o
TAD 4*‘5
NOTES:
1 ALL PIPE CLASS lit ‘lOP, SIZE IN MM
2- ALL cON1fl)I~ VALVES SHOWN ARE SATE VALVES OP COQRESPOt-’C)ING PIPE SIZES
a sma. DE5ISNS FOR LNThKES. COLLECTION TANK, RESEEvOIQ, E
4 VAL~VE6OXOETAIL.5

FIGURE 8—3 PLAN VIEW & KEY PLAN OF EXAMPLE SYSTEM

 —63—

From the break—pressure tank to the source Is 100 meters of elevation.

It would be possible to use Class IV in this section, but it actually is
less expensive to install another break—pressure tank and use Class III
pipe. Thus, another break—pressure tank will be required 60 meters lower
than the source. This would put it just downstream from Tap #1 (for the
sake of convenience, let’s locate the break—pressure tank 5 meters lower
than the tap, which would place it at ML—400). This will be break—
pressure tank #1 BT #1 and the next one downstream will be break—
,

pressure tank #2 BT #2
A third break-pressure tank must be 60 meters lower than BT #2,
which puts it at an elevation of 84Dm, between Taps #2 and #3.
The next break-pressure tank (BT #4) must be 60 meters lower than
ST #3, which puts it at an elevation of 78Dm, between Taps #3 and #4.

From ST #4, there is 80 meters of vertical distance to the last tap,

which would require either another break—pressure tank or Class IV pipe.
In this case, it is rather likely that 2Onin HDP pipe will be used to
reach the last tap, and such pipe is provided only in Class IV. So for
the time being, the design will proceed assuming that no break—pressure
tank will be required (this will hive to be specially checked once the
total design is completed, however).
So the four break—pressure tanks have been tentatively located as
follows:
BT #1: ML-400, elev 95Dm
ST #2: ML—600, elev 90Dm
ST #3: 141—2240, elev 84Dm
ST #4: ML-2540, elev 78Dm
and Class IV pipe: ML—870 (elev 84Dm) — ML—l720 (elev 84Dm)
Now, the pipeline will be designed, reach—by-reach, beginning at the
source.
First Reach (Source - Tap #1)
Design flow = 1.35 LPS (flow for 6 taps)
Pipelength: 380 0 = 380 meters-

100Dm (elev of HGL @ source)

—955m (elev of Tap #1)
—lbm (desired residual head @ Tap #1)
3Dm DESIRED FRICTIONAL I1EADLDSS

desired headloss = 30/380 x 100% = 7.89% (desired frictional

plpelength headloss factor)
 —64-

Consulting the HOP Frictional Headloss Table (at the back of this
Handbook) for a flow of 1.35 J..PS, it is seen that the headloss factor
of 32mm HDP pipe is too high (l8.15%)while that of SDrmn HDP pipe Is too
low(2.08%,). Thus, a combination of both of these pipe sizes is needed
to produce exactly the desired headloss. Calculations* indicate the
following lengths are needed:
243m of 5Dm HDP 9 2.08% creates Sm of headloss
137m of 32rimi HDP 9 18.15% creates 25m of headloss

3Dm TOTAL HEADLOSS

Elev of HGL @ Tap #1 = 97Dm

Second Reach (Tap #1 ST #1) —

Design flow = 1.125 LPS (flow for 5 taps)

Pipelength: 400 380 = 2Dm
-

97Dm (elev of HGL 9 Tap #1)

-95Dm (elev of ST #1)
—1Dm (desired residual head 9 ST #1)
1Dm DESIRED FRICTIONAL HEADLDSS
10/20 x 100% = 50% desired frict’l factor

Consulting the Headloss Table, it is seen that no factor is given for

this flow for 20mm HOP pipe (because the flow velocity would be too high),
therefore there is no choice but to use 32mm HOP pipe:
2Dm of 32mm HOP 9 12.6% creates 3m of headloss

actual residual head = 17m (acceptable)

ST #1 must be constructed with a globe valve at its discharge, adjusted

to allow exactly 1.125 LPS flow. For convenience sake,a gate valve can be
installed on the outlet of the tank, permitting the downstream pipeline to
be shut down without cutting off the flow for Tap #1
The HGL is now at the surface level of the water in the tank, at
95Dm elevation.
Third Reach (ST ~l BT #2)—

Design flow = 1.125 LPS

Pipelength: 6DO 20Dm - 400 =

Since there are no tapstands along this reach, there is no reason why
the pipe must flow full. Select the smallest size that will allow the
design flow through:

* see Section 8-6 for cbmbined pipe calculation example

 -65-

95Dm (elev of HGL 9 ST #1)

-90Dm (elev of ST #2)
Dm (desired RH 9 ST #2)
5Dm MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE HEADLOSS

50/200 x 100% = 25% maximum allowable frict’l factor

32mm HOP is the smallest pipe size that has a frictional factor less
than 25%, so this is the pipe size to be used. Since there is no need
to maintain pressure in the pipeline, the pipe is allowed to discharge
freely into ST #2. Gravity will drain the line faster than it will fill,
so it wont flow full.

Fourth Reach (ST #2 - Tap # 2)

Design flow = 1.125 LPS
Pipelength: 1980 - 600 = 138Dm (including 85Dm of Class IV)

90Dm (elev of HGL 9 ST #2)

-872m (elev of Tap #2)
-7m (minimum desired RH 9 Tap #2)
21m MAXIMUM DESIRED HEADLOSS

21/1380 x 190% = 1.52% desired frict’l factor

This reach will require 53Dm of Class III pipe and 85Dm of Class IV
pipe. Once again, combination pipe sizes are required. Class III 50mm
HOP pipe will be used for the entire Class III length:

53Dm of 5Dm HOP 9 1.40% creates 7m of headloss

(therefore only l4m of allowable headloss left)

The proper combination of Class IV pipe is:
567m of bOrn HOP 9 2.12% creates l2m of headloss
283m of 63mm HOP 9 0.70% creates 2mof headloss
l4mof total headloss

Thus, the pipe arrangement for the entire reach is:

27Dm of Class III 5Dm HOP pipe

567m of Class IV 5Dm HQP pipe
283m of Class IV 63rmn HOP pipe
26Dm of Class III SDmm HOP pipe

Elev of HGL 9 Tap #2 = 879m

A washout is located at the bottom of the U—profile, since it is a

major low point in the system, and there is no reservoir tank to allow
sedimentation to occur. The presence of a washout does not affect the
hydraulic profile of the system (except when the washout is opened.).
 —66-

Fifth Reach (Tap #2 - BT #3)

Design flow = 0.90 LPS (flow for 4 taps)
Pipelength: 2240 — 1980 = 26Dm
879m (elev of HGL 0 Tap #2)
-84Dm (Elev of BT #3)
-1Dm (desired RH at BT #3)
29ni DESIRED HEADLOSS

29/260 x 100% = 11.2% desired frictl factor

The only pipe size which gives a close frictional factor is 32mm HDP:

26Dm of 32mm HOP 9 8.9% creates 23ni of headloss

actual residual head = 16m (acceptable)

ST #3 must have a globe valve at its discharge so that the exact

desired flow of 0.9 LPS comes through. A gate valve may be installed on
the outlet to cut off downstream flow without effecting the upstream taps.
elev of HGL 0 BT #3 = 84Dm

Sixth Reach (Tap #3 -

Design flow: 0.90 LPS
Pipelength: 2330 - 2240 = 9Dm
84Dm (elev of HGL 0 ST #3)
-828m (elev of Tap #3)
-7m (minimum allowable RH @ Tap #3)
Sm MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE HEADLDSS

5/90 x 100% = 5.56% Maximum allowable frict’l factor

For this flow, SDriu-n HOP pipe must be used:

9Dm of 5Dm HOP 9 0.99% creates 1 meter of headloss

actual residual head = llm (acceptable)

elev of HGL 0 Tap #3 = 839m

Seventh Reach (Tap #3 - BT #4)

Design flow: 0.675 LPS (flow for 3 taps)
Pipelength: 2540 - 2330 = 21Dm

839m çelev of HGL 0 Tap #3)

-78Dm (elev of BT #4)
-lOm (desired RH 0 BT #4)
49m DESIRED HEADLOSS
49/210 x 100% = 23.33% desired frict’l factor
 —67—

Again there is no choice but to use 32ni~i HOP:

21Dm of 32m HDP @ 5.3% creates urn of headloss

actual residual head 48m (acceptable)

This residual head Is getting close to the maximum allowable limit of
56 meters. High residual heads thcrease wear and tear on control valves,
reducing their lifetimes and requiring more frequent replacement.
elsv of HGL @ BT #4 = 78Dm
Eighth Reach (BT #4 — Tap #4)
Design flow: 0.675 LPS
Plpelength: 2740 - 2540 =

78Dm (elev of HGL @ BT #4)

-744m (elev of Tap #4)
-l5m (desired RH @ Tap #4)
2lm DESIRED HEADLOSS

21/200 x 100% = 10.5% desired frictional factor

Again, there is no choice but for 32n~nHDP:

20Dm of 32nri HDP @ 5.3% creates lim of headloss

actual residual head = 25m (acceptable)
elev of HGL @ Tap #4 = 769m
Ninth Reach (Tap #4 Tap #5)
—

Desired flow: 0.45 LPS

Plpelength: 2860 2740 = 12Dm
-

769m (elev of HGL @ Tap #4)

-726m (elev of Tap #5)
-15m (desired RH @ Tap #5)
28m DESIRED HEADLOSS
28/120 x 100% = 23.33% desired frictfl factor

A combination of 32nrn HDP and 2Dniii HDP pipe sizes are used:

67m of 20mm HDP @ 40% creates 27m of headloss

53m of 32rirn HDP @ 2.56% creates lm of headloss

actual residual head - 15rn (perfect~)

elev of HGL @ Tap #5 = 741m
 -68-

Tenth Reach (Tap #5 - Tap #6)

Design flow: 0.225 LPS
Pipelength: 3280 - 2860 = 42Dm
741m (elev of HGL @ Tap #5)
-70Dm (elev of Tap #5)
-iSm (desired RH @ Tap #6)
26m DESIRED HEADLOSS

26/420 x 100% = 6.2% desired frictional factor

A combination of 32mm HOP and 20mm HDP is needed:

218m of 32mm HOP @ 0.78% creates 2m of headloss

202m of 20mm HOP 8 12.0% creates 24m of headloss

actual residual head = 15m (perfectfl

In this last reach, it can be seen on the profile that the final
l6ni of 32mm HOP pipe will be exposed to a static pressure greater than
6Dm of head. However, the maximum static pressure on this pipe would
only be about 66m of head, which is a tolerable amount. However, the
designer may also use Class IV 32niii HOP for some or all of this reach, or
install another break-pressure tank. If he is not sure, the designer
should consult with the LOD regional engineer.

Final Check

Once the designer has tentatively completed selecting pipe sizes,

he must go back over the design, checking that at no point the pressures
under static conditions are excessive. When this Is done, tie inks in the
final HGL and tank locations, then gets the design approved by the LDD
regional engineer.

8.4 DESIGN EXAMPLE: Branchline

Figure 8-5 is an example profile of a branchline with two taps

(not related to the design example of Figure 8—4). In this example, the
mainline has already been designed, so that the residual head of the
branchpoint is known, as is the static level
 —69-

LII
I-
III

a~ ~ ~O ‘0= ‘20 ‘40 I~0 I~Q 300 220

eLRAt4Ct1LJN~ C PIPELENGTH (M)

FIGURE 8—5
DESIGN EXAMPLE: BRANCHLINE

Branchline “C”, First Reach (Bpoint - Tap~J

Design flow: 0.45 LPS (flow for 2 taps)
Pipelength: 72 — 0 72 meters
839m (elev of HGL 8 bpolnt)
-811m (elev of Tap #8)
-l5m (desired RH 8 Tap #8)
13m DESIRED HEAOLDSS

13/72 x 100% = 18.1% desired frict’l factor

P combination of 32mm HOP and 20mm HOP pipes is needed:

42rn of 32mm HOP 8 2.56% creates lm of headloss

30m of 20nin HDP 8 40% creates 12m of headloss
actual residual head = 15m (perfect’

elev of HGL = 826m

 -70-

Sranchline “C”, Second Reach (Tap #8 - Tap #9)

Design flow: 0.225 LPS
Pipelength: 220 72 = 148m
-

S26m (elev of HGL 0 Tap #8)

-777m (elev of Tap #9)
-ibm (desired Rh @ Tap #9)
34m DESIRED HEADLOSS

34/148 x 100% = 23.0% desired frict’l factor

The only possible choice is 2Dm HDP:

148m of 20mm HDP 9 12% creates iBm of headloss
actual residual head = 31m (acceptable)

The final pressure check for static conditions indicates that no

pressures exceed the pressure ratings of the pipes, If there was such
a point, then either break-pressure tank #2 (on the mainline) would have
to be moved down (and thus require re—designing the mainline once more)
or installing a break—pressure tank along the branchiine itself.

8.5 DESIGN EXAMPLE: Collection Lines

It is not uncommon to have a system which must combine several small
sources to obtain a useful safe yield flow. In such cases, it is easiest
to bring the individual sourcelines together at a common collection or
sedimentation tank. This tank, of course, acts as a break—pressure point
and the KGL would have to be plotted as such. If the sources were at
different elevations, there would be no problem of hydraulic Interference
between the sources.

However, it is not always possible to install such a break—pressure

point. In such cases, the sourcelines are joined together directly to
the mainline, as shown in Figure 8—6 below:
 -71—

With this type of junction, if the sources are at different

elevations then it is possible that the pressure from one will interfere
with the flow from the other.
The principle of properly joining the sources at a conron point is to
realize that the flow from each source will be such that there will be
only one possible residual head at the junction. Thus it is necessary
to design the sourcelines in such a way that they all meet at a comon
residual head at the junction.
Procedure: Plot the HGL from a single source to the junction.
Then silect the other pipe sizes of the other sources so that, for the
desired flow out of each source, the HGLs all Intercept the HGL of the
first source; that is. they all have an equal residual head. From
that, point, continue plotting the HGL for the mainline using the total
flows.

8.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE: Combination Pipe Sizes

When designing a pipeline section. there may be no s4ngle pipe
size available that gives the desired frictional headloss factor. In
that case, a combination of pipe sizes is used: one pipe which is
“too small” and one which is “too large”. The lengths of each pipe
 —72-

must be long enough so that the sum of the headloss of each is equal to
the total desired headloss. Refer to Figure 8-7:

Since the total pipelength, design flow, and desired headloss are
all known, the lengths of the two pipe sizes can be determined by the
following equation:

lOOK - (Fl x L) Where: H = desired headloss (m)

X= Fs—Fl L = total pipelength (m)
X = small—size pipelength (m)
Fl = frict’l factor, large pipe (%)
Fs = frict’l factor, small pipe (%)

When the length of the smaller-sized pipe is calculated, it is then

subtracted from the total pipelength to determine the length of the
larger—sized pipe. See Technical Appendix C for the derivation of the
above formula.
 -73—

8.7 DESIGN EXAI’lPLE: Excessive Residual Head

There may be points in a system where the residual head at a discharge
point Is exce~slve1y high (ie— greater than 56 meters). This can
particularly happen to tapstands located in positions such as shown in
Figure B-B:

For such cases, it is possible to install a device which creates

high frictional losses in only a short length of pipeline. This sort of
frictional diffuser can be easily manufactured in the field, using HOP
pipe and fittings. A design for this is shown on the next page.
 -74—

20At4i -50MM- HOPS 5CM.

HDP EMDCAP

A HEa&TtDSMALL

APP2~XIMATE_f4f~j.O55:
H - 349 ~ ~A4tfl’ QH HEADt.0S5
zFLOW CM)
(1P5)

FIGURE 8—9
FRICTIoNAL DIFFUSER

The orifice in the endcap Is

made using a hot 3” nail to melt
a hole. For a flow of 0.225 LPS,
this diffuser will create ap-
proximately 20-25 meters of
headloss. Adding more holes
decreases ,the headloss; if the
headloss of a single diffuser
is not enough, add a second
one. The pipe section must
be of Class IV HOP if the
diffuser will be subjected
to a static pressure greater
than 60 meters of head.
The diffuser is instal-
led just upstream of the
tapstand, as shown in
Figure 8—10:

FIGURE 8-10
INSTALLATION OF DIFFUSER
 —75—

Refer to Technical Appendix V for details on calculating the

headlosses through an orifice, for designing similar frictional
diffusers.

B.8 TABULATED PROCEOURE

Figure B—il shows a tabulated format proce4ure developed by LOO to
organize the design of a pipeline. The format shown helps to keep the
different numbers from becoming confused, and allows precise planning
of the pipeline in each reach.
However, this procedure is not fool—proof. It is still necessary
to plot the resulting HGLs on the graph profile, to determine that
pressures and residual heads are within allowable limits at all points
in the reach.
 Li3OM (V
‘~022çLp5 1

Q 0 225L~PSI
LI~O4~

—1
>
C
r REACH ® ) ® © ®
-4 FLOW P4P Lo~43r~lPt P~ FRICT ~ HEAD H6I. c~’ E1$VATION 146L ~ RESIDUAL
1•11 -n (LP5) Cm) 5IZE F,~1OR LC~ STAT1ONI WSr4F1ONU 5TATICt’III }IEADOF5TA-
5t~TlON ~TAi1ON
C) I IT
~ C
m ~ INTAI~.f ~S~~lR 020 i300 31MM — - — 905 —
Cl) lii
0) 00 RES T/W~1 i i25 g~ ,m~i 1.Llr/. 12/,4 905 ~5 9 -4
0~.
I-’
TAP# 1 Bpi- 0 90 230 50MM 0.997. 2fl% ~93 ~8o 991 11 IIGI. REDUCED ID 9~0M
>(
BPi~ JI 090 200 50M/,4 099% 21,\ 88o 8G5 ~79 13
-D
I-
‘ii
Ji J2 a 4~ ~350 32MM 2.56~~ 9M ZSi ‘835 892 47
,J2 T2 0225 i30 20MM I2.0~ 16M 9Z2 830 866 36 0 K

~J2 T3 0 225 250 20MM 12.07. 30M 882 915 952 37 0 K

JI * 045 620 32MM 2.567~ i~M ‘8~ ~E 1 C0M8D.IATION cc

P~2MM ~ 20MM 14D0
~3 045 50 20MM 12-0% (..M Z20 856 36 ~

J3 T4 0225 190 2OM,4~ 1W7. 22/4 ‘85~~ 765 g.3Ut GO MEW F~T’L DlFF~ER

J3 T5 0 225 200 20MM 12•0~ 24M 95~ 910 932 22 0 i~.

1OTAL = 4310 M.
 -77—

9. SYSTEM DESIGN & ESTIMATES

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Once the profile has been plotted and the final pipeline sizing has
been approved, the designer enters the next phase of planning the project:
the extensive designing of the system components (such as intakes,
reservoir tank, break-pressure tanks, tapstands, etc) and preparing the
detailed estimates of material, labor, and money that will be required
to Implement the project.
In the past, most CWS projects in Nepal have been surveyed, designed,
and constructed by the same person. This allowed for a fairly Informal
manner of designing a system, since the actual construction overseer was
intlutately familiar with th. thoughts of the designer~ Detailed plans
were not so necessary, as long as he kept the rough design notes and
calculations that he had made.
However, there is now an Increasing trend in Nepal towards turning
over the completed project design to a fresh person who will be the one
who oversees Its construction. In these cases, the overseer cannot
get by with just an estimate sheet and a few cryptic notes in an
unfamiliar format. Designers are now required to be more professional,
and their designs more detailed, so that a person unfamiliar with the
project can take over with minimal loss of information. Unless the
designer specifically details just how he Intended the system to be
constructed, the overseer cannot be expected to build the system
according to the designer’s materials and cost estimate.
Because of the knowledge and experience that is building up,
100 will soon be able to create standardized designs for most components
of a system. Such standardized designs will detail plan specifications,
material requirements, labor estimates, etc, and will greatly reduce the
task of the designer. However, certain components of the system, such as
intakes, will always have to be “custom-designed” for each individual
system. Therefore, the designer Is still required to develop a clear,
professional technique for passing his ideas along to the overseer.

9.2 DESIGN TECHNIQUE

It Is the designer’s responsibility to prepare a complete record of

his designs for the system, which can be given to the overseer. Such a
record must include drawings, calculations, and estimates for each
Individual component of the system. With such records, the overseer is
able to compare actual construction requirements against the estimates,
and modify accordingly. If some unexpected problems come up during
construction, the overseer can judge exactly what new materials he will
require to overcome them.
 —78—

A small exercise book or notebook, of the type comonly used by

students, is perhaps the best way of keeping all project notes and
calculations contained in one place. The designer shoulo divide the
nocebook into sections, each section devoted exclusively to a single
ccmponent of the system. The final section is for totaling up all the
materials, labor, and cOsts.
The contents of each notebook section should contain the information
listed in the following discussions.

9.3 PIPELINE SECTION -

Sub—divided into mainline, branchlines, taplines, etc. A record of

all GI and HOP pipe sizes and lengths; all fittings (tees, elbows, reducers,
unions, etc). Washouts and airva-lves. Control valves and valveboxes. A
rough key plan of the pipeline. Trenchiine calculations (volume & labor
of excavation). Required tools. See Figure 9-1 for a sample estimate.

9.4 INTAKE SECTION

Sketches of each source area, showing locations of structures. Rough
design drawings of each structure (such as intake, collection tank, etc).
Construction calculations (volumes of excavation, sand, cement, gravel,
stonq, brick, slate, etc). Labor (skilled/unskilled). Specific diagram
of pf~esand valves (with size and lengths). Roofing details. Required
tools. Special instructions. If the intake works are parttcularly complex,
a separate blueprint should be prepared. See Figure 9-2.

9.5 SEOINENTATION TANK SECTION

Only required if there is a sedimentation tank. Design flow,
detention time, capacity calculations. Rough design plan. Calculations
(excavation, materials, labor). Specific details of pipes and fittings.
Roofing details. Required tools. Special instructions. If very big
or complex, prepare blueprints.
 -79—

To PIPE FITTIN6S
~iL-
0 MI,• 5W CJ~3~
~ ~o3m.’I HOP (~,L4o,,,) ç~3mm ~ (r~pi)
~L~mIfl (T~pa)
~L

~ss 331 So,.~HOP

~m-5Ho ht~-~c~ (l~0n~) ~3~50yy,m
F~U(E.r

~-‘8oot~-’8Q~l~’ G1 (~Tfl’~

I~7~ OThn~~~ET~ ~
~L-?~° %
tI~J-)&~O~ ~ ~1~Et ~ ~
(5Orr~.n ~Et E~\TY~~t~
tlt
1-IOoo ~-i~o c~’~s
~ ~ 5o,~3arnrn 1tc~UC.E~c

3Zrn’-~ k~. (Tap 3~

32.nun ~t
-~ -0 - 2o0 C~os~
~ ~ ~thP
Z0mmHDP(23~n’)
(~0Or~ ~ ~ ~ ~
P~-20 a ~-L~3o ~

2o.,,,,, tee. (Tc~p5)

FIGURE 9-1
EXAMPLE PIPELINE ESTIMATES

~.4C*~F1LLWRN GRA~ L.
~ S1DNE TUE”
SEAL W~TIICONCWETE SLAB 12CM 7NI~I

FIGURE 9—2
EXAMPLE ROUGH—DESIGN PLAN
 -80-

9.6 BREAK-PRESSURE TANK SECTION

Sub-section for each design of break—pressure tank In the system
(ie- masonry, HDP, float-valve, etc). Each sub—section should include
estimates for the individual design, and for the total number of such
designs. Basic drawing of each type. Construction calculations
(excavations, materials, labor). Specific arrangements of pipes and
fittings. Roofing details. Required tools. Special instructions.
See Figure 9—3.

9.7 RESERVOIR TANK SECTION

This is the most important section of the design notebook, since
no other single component will consume so much material and labor.
Careful drawings of the design are required (wall dimensions, floor
construction, pipe arrangements, roofing, etc). Construction calculations
(excavation, materials, labor). Required tools. Special instructions.
A separate blueprint should be prepared. For an example design and
estimate, refer to Chapter 14.8

9.8 TAPSTAND SECTION

As with break—pressure tanks, a sub-section for each different
tapstand design. Estimates for each individual design, and for the
total number of such designs. Drawings of each type of tapst,and. Volumes
of cement, sand, gravel, brick, stone, slate. Labor (skilled and
unskilled). Pipe sizes, lengths, and fittings. Required tools. Drainage
details. See Figure 9-4.

9.9 SPECIAL COMPONENT SECTION

For special components of the system: suspended crossings, gully
crossings, pipeline valveboxes, frictional diffusers, etc. For each
of these, detailed drawings and estimates are required.

9.10 TOOL LIST SECTION

Every different type of tool that must be supplied (ie— brought
out to the field site) for working on the system; quantity of each
tool. Refer to the REFERENCE TABLE III at the end of this handbook for
a recommended tool list.

9.11 TOTAL ESTIMATES

Total materials: Sub—divided into two lists: all materials
locally provided (sand, stone, slate, etc) and all materials brought in
(provided by government and UNICEF). Unit price, and total unit cost.
 -81-

&~t.3~
m~aniy @~‘i mortar
E5~T%FjP,tES PER SIUJGLE TRN~z
OF 11~50l’4~.’1

0.1> ~ o.2 0.Io = 0.O~>tprn~

0.1>1 03 ~ = o.0o3 in3
~ ~ o.ag~,3
2° ~ 0. 225 rr,~ T0~L
k

35”~ ~ =

2 ~.

~00 ‘J~ =

OF ~g~ ® tt~3 m,x

03

1c~.~o•~

S0~, mor~c~r 0-
TAI~S~i.
Efl~-PR~5SURE ~Z ~~

FIGURE 9—3
EXAMPLE MASONRY CALCULATIONS

~ 6~ c~T-T1N6S

® ‘>i~,2.0m,~ &lIwc,p ~rc~s um~(59~thp~nc±) 1z

“~61- MPPLE C 2 P;.~TAPs1>~.ND) 8
~ ~ c~x~ y~ve. 4
~ c~,pe.~4o~->n* ~Io0un
© ~‘2~ ~I B~oW5 C.. 2 ~c>n4) 8
~ C.,0O~n
(,,L c,pe. ~ 200
© 11

ctu Cl p’pe. \x*~ex~s)

TAP5ThP~bS1~_’~*L~

FIGURE 9—4
EXAMPLE GI PIPE ARRANGEMENT & ESTIMATE
 -82-

Portering: Once the amount of materials has been determined,

calculate logistical details: number of portering trips, cost per trip,
total portering cost. How much is paid by government, and how much
portered voluntarily (this is determined by LDD policy, so discuss with
the regional engineer).
Total labor: Total man-hours of skilled labor, wages, and thtal
skilled labor costs; total man—hours of unskilled labor, equivalent wages
(ie— one—half of skilled labor wage), and total equivalent cost.
Jotal project cost: Total costs of materials, portering, and both
skilled & unskilled labor.
Contributions: Separate listing of all materials and costs that are
contributed by the government, by UNICEF, and by the villagers.

9.12 SUI’V1ARY
It Is emphasized once again that the designer must very carefully
prepare accurate and clear notes of his designs, so that the overseer may
easily understand how the project Is envisioned.
Each of the above sections will be individually discussed in some of
the following chapters, so that better Ideas of the materials required
can be had. A table of estimates can be found in REFERENCE TABLE VIII
at the end of this handbook.
 -83-

10. PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

10.1 INTRODUCTION
No other phase of a CWS project is likely to consume so much of the
labor, or run into more difficulties, than the construction of the
pipeline. Difficult terrain, all too comon in the rugged countryside of
Nepal, can prolong this phase far beyond what would resonably be expected
which drains away village enthusiasm, which in turn prolongs the work even
more. Motivating the villagers is a major aspect of the overseer’s job.
It Is important, therefore, that the pipeline work be done properly
the first time. To have to locate some internal blockage that is the
result of carelessness, or to have to rejoin pipe already buried, or to
have to redig the trenchline because of erosion problems which could have
been foreseen, are all discouraging tasks.
Although the above problems are not completely avoidable, they can
be minimized. This chapter shall deal with the proper technical
procedures for constructing the pipeline, and will also discuss some
typical problems that experienced CWS overseers in Nepal have been
confronted with, and how they overcame such difficulties.

10.2 PROJECT ORGANIZATION

In most projects, especially where the water system is keenly
needed, the villagers are quick to organize themselves into a work force,
and to divide up responsibility and work amorg themselves. It is not
necessary for the overseer to involve himself with the bookkeeping/
timekeeping records (except for skilled labor), for the villagers can
do this better themselves. The division of responsibility and work
likewise is best decided by them, for they will do it according to their
own established social customs and procedures. The results may not
necessarily appear to be equitable to the overseer (especially if he is a
non—Nepali), but the Important matter is that all the villagers are content
and in agreement with the decisions.
The point where the overseer should exert his influence is in
planning the overall construction schedule: which sections of the project
will be started first, or saved until later.
Experienced overseers in Nepal have made certain observations and
reconinendations:
The role of the overseer should be that of a technical consultant,
assisting the villagers in the system construction. During the first
few days of work, one or more village individuals will emerge as natural
foremen, quick to understand the needs of the overseer and able to
influence and direct the village laborers as required Within a few days,
these foremen will be fully capable of directing the routine trench digging,
allowing the overseer to initiate construction of masonry works, etc.
 -84-

There will be high initial enthusiasm of the workers for the first
few days or weeks of digging. The work force during this time will never
be bigger, nor will the villagers ever work so hard. It is a good time
to tackle the most difficult portions of the trenchline. Try to avoid
anything which will slow down the work rate (such as lack of materials,
or scheduling work just before major holidays, etc).
Layin9 the pipe as continuously as possible is best. With time
and rainfall, open trenches will fill in, requiring them to be cleaned
out again before laying the pipe. Digging the trenchline one coil—
length at a time is good, laying the pipe down and then immediately
burying it. A steady rate of completing the pipeline keeps the enthusiasm
high.
The division of work will usually mandate that each villager, or
household, or ward, is responsible for digging a certain length of
mainline, as well as all of their own particular branchline or taplines.
If possible, get the entire village to 1ne
dig dug.
the mainline first, before
having the individual sections of pipel
From the very beginning, establish standards and procedures that
must be followed. Getting the trenchilne consistantly dug to the
proper depth is easiest i-F the overseer insists on it being so before
putting down any pipe in it. Once this routine is established, and
firmly maintained, there will be less problems later on.

Communicating with the villagers is very important. The overseer

must explain not only what needs to be done, but also ~jyit must be so.
Once the villagers seeIh~reasons, they are far more motivated to do the
job properly, since it is in their best interests to do so It is not
enough that a few village leaders alone know, or even that the foremen
know; the typical, average worker on the system must also know. For
a non-Nepali overseer, there is a considerable language and cultural
barrier which must be overcome, but the effort is worthwhile. As an aid
to this, refer to Figure 10—1, presented in both English and Nepali.

10.3 TRENCH WORK

The proper depth of the trenchline should be one meter (100 cm)
deep. There is no specific width of trench necessary (in practice, the
width of the trench will be determined by the size of the digger,
approximately 40 cm). The manufacturers of HDP pipe claim that the
lifetime of the pipe, when properly joined, buried, and if not subjected
to pressures greater than the pressure rating, is 50 years.
When the pipe is buried one meter deep, it is adequately protected
against the weight (and sharp hooves) of heavy animals walking over it;
it is well below the depth reached by Nepali farm plows (about 10 cm);
it is insulated against freezing temperatures; and there is plenty of
overburden (cover of dirt) to allow for erosion over the lifetime of
the system. This is all discussed in Figure 10—1.
 -85-
The reason that we must bury the pipe underground is to protect it
against the heavy animals which may walk on it, and to prevent the pipe
from being damaged or broken. If the pipe is buried properly 1 meter (3
feet) underground, it will stay protected for the next 25 years. If It is
not properly buried, then it will soon be broken and no water will reach
the tapstands. It is better to bury the pipe properly now, then to have
to build a whole new system after just 5 or 10 years.
We will dig and bury the pipeline in lengths of 200 meters at a time.
Each worker will be assigned to dig a length of 3 meters (10 feet), which
he must dig to the proper depth. There must be no sharp rocks in the
trench which can cut the plastic pipe.
When the full length of trench is ready, we will join the new pipe to
the old, then put it in the trench and bury it. When burying the pipe, only
dirt should be used to completely cover it. No bushes, leaves, or tree
branches should be used. Large stones should be put on top of the trench.
The shovels, hammers, and rock-picks provided by the government are not
the personal property of any man, but belong to the project. These tools
must be brought to work every day. When digging the trenchline, if a large
rock is encountered then these tools must be shared. The workers will take
turns hamering at the rock until it is removed, and then the tools should
be passed along to where another roclç must be removed.
tr inc ~rr~ q~~w ~‘i tule t~r tc ‘rrv-gt~t R!~cu
~ ~ ~r MI r~ u~’iigii
r~r~ ~ i ~t mn Ci ,‘tt)
fl ~kr inc ~fn ~Dc‘rre t,Th~cft q~~ 9I~MeIi IM
4itiet t~P9 eP~-~i Ifl inc n~t49iuf6i~4 19 9~T~%~
N-P.~iin, cc% ‘r~f ~-i qfl~siai u cce,rtuu to qsf
wA tnt ~‘kii ~rfl WI’S
~1T~33qw~rLII~~OII ~
nç~nit~i
fl MC~MI ~oo 4tn wr~tinc 9i~Y u rW oqfW~b
~T4~
4tZt q~) t5TRt ~stF~ 4, CIt fl ~rI’~Th9fbtt ~
(to
4 u ~t ~n ptt i~tao’rr e* lkc r~i&Ainc (‘cnflc”
jr~t),iic i~’ug-u fl I
fl ‘gr it ~mn ~, CIt ~i41ewf wrec
3uit
MI~MMI 4’I%~tSO’IMI ‘tilt ft—RI I iTEc ~ itS MIcTh in
4 i ~frn~nn n 4’,1~im
~ thm~WATtrrn .fl~wfl ~ITfl-~9vN-w
~wr~wrao’rr~‘ii1~i~ic I I
iTfl 9EGTh ~1u
~ R~~t wr~5,q~ ~ ao’rr ~ DW, qtMlI,I tigii~t
~ DiWA
tIMIIU t~9~M ~IM’I4 auiJci Thn sn~4 i ~* rn ~etao’rr
t4’-w
3 c-alt ~ ~IMI1 ~ qt~rin ~ft ~o’t~
c r~~ ~=~vMIf1u~ rmt cmt ‘rtr ao’nwr ~* wr~4
iN wfl si ~* aO’rln j\pc~ ‘4 ~j4~ Dr Itiu
4’ FIGURE 10—1
 -86-

The pIp~lineshould ideally follow the same route that the original
survey was conducted along. However, it is not unusual to have to make
detours due to Impassable rock areas, land erosions, or because of an
original survey along an impractical route. When such re—routing is
necessary, the overseer must re—survey the new section to determine how
it will affect the HGL of the system, and to see whether additional pipe
is necessary.
The pipeline should be kept as far away from erodible points as
possible: landslide areas, gullies, streams or riverbanks, etc. When
passing through a terrace, keep the trenchline “inside” (as close to
the back of the terrace as possible), and when cutting down the faces
of terraces, run the trenchline diagonally across the face (refer to
Figure 10-2). Motor roads should be crossed perpendicularly and the
trench dug as deep as possible up to 150 cm.
Due to hard, rocky ground along some sections, it will not be
possible to always get the trench 100 cm deep. The overseer should
try to learn what sort of traffic can be expected to walk over the
pipeline (human, animal, farming, etc), how vulnerable the section will
be to erosion, and from this information he should decide if the soil
cover will be adequate. If nor, it will be necessary to substitute
GI pipe along that section. Ideally, the surveyor has already determined
all the places where GI pipe will be needed, but practically speaking
there will be sections, not visible from a surface walkover, where
additional CI pipe will be needed.
When crossing landslides, gullies, and/or streams, a suspended
pipeline may be necessary. Refer to Section 10.11 and Technical
Appendix E for further discussion of these special problems.
Experience advises digging the trenchline in sections equal to
the length of the coil of pipe to be buried in it. Each worker is
assigned a three—meter length of the trench to dig to the proper depth
(a villager can typically dig this length in soft,easy soil in one day,
or two days if the ground is harder). Pick-axes and crowbars that are
provided by the government are not individually owned by the villagers,
but should be moved up and down along the trenchline to be used where
needed.
The trenchline should be free of all sharp rocks which can cut
into the HDP pipe (after the pipe is laid it tends to contract, which
can force it to kink around sharp stones). When the entire section is
dug, it should be inspected along its full length by the overseer
before he allows the pipe to be uncoiled and laid.
 -87-

10.4 PIPE LAYING

The HOP pipe is supplied in coils of 25—300 meters in length,

depending upon the size and class. The HDP pipe must be uncoiled care-
fully, otherwise kinks will form
which crimp the pipe, as shown in
Figure 10—3. Crimped pipe must
not be used, since it has been con-
siderably weakened at the crimped
point. Such sections should be
cut out about 10 cm on either side
of the crimp, and the pipe ends
rejoined.
 -88-

A practical manner of un-

coiling the pipe is to have it
supported by a length of bamboo,
and slowly unwound, as is shown
in Figure 10—4. Larger
coils can be unrolled along
the side of the trench, then
carefully put Into position.

10.5 HOP PIPE JOINING

HDP is joined by the technique of butt-welding: using a heated
steel plate to melt the ends of the pipe, which are then pressed to-
gether and allowed to cool. This is discussed in detail below:
Once the pipe has been laid out (either in the trench or next
to it), it must be checked for internal blockage This can be done
by covering the pipe end by mouth and blowing forcefully into it.
If the air flows freely, there is no total blockage. Partial blockages
can occur with dirt, stones, or sticks that have ended up deep inside
the pipe*. A small stone can be dropped into one end of the pipe and
“walked” through the whole length. Its tumbling passage is easily
heard,and therefore can be used to locate blockages. Refer to
Section 10.12 for techniques to minimize such blockages.
When the pipe has been checked and cleared of blockages, it is
prepared for joining as follows:
1) The pipe ends are cut perpendicular with a hacksaw and
leveled off with a flat file. A pocketknife is then used to trim the
rough plastic filings off. The prepared pipe ends should be clean
and smooth, and when the two ends are mated together, there should be
no gaps of more than one milltmeter.
2) The pipe-joining crew should make a practice attempt before
actually using the heating plate, so that they are Familiar with the
motions necessary to make that specific joint. When making the actual
joint, one person must be positioned to report progress on the under-
side of the pipe as it is being melted. A pocket mirror can help too.

* the most coninon internal blockages are caused by the wooden plugs that
some HOP manufacturers use to seal the ends of the pipes. These plugs
sometimes get forced into the pipe.
 -89-

3) The temperature of the heating plate is crucial, 220° Con both

sides of the plate. To determine this, a white Thermo—Cnrom crayon is
used to make a small mark on the hot plate. This mark should turn from
white to brown in just two seconds. A hotter plate will turn the mark
brown much faster, and a colder plate will take longer (or not change
the color at all). A too-hot plate will only melt the plastic It touches,
without heating deeply into the pipe which is necessary for the homogeneous,
solid fusion of the two pipe ends. A plate that is too cool will also
fail to melt enough plastic. Both types of joints will be imperfect and
brittle, easily cracked or snapped apart.
4) When the heating plate is at the proper temperature, it is
slipped into a Teflon envelope (which prevents the melted plastic from
sticking to the heating plate). The plate is then held between the pipe
ends, which are firmly pressed against it. When the pipe is properly
heated, there will be a lip of melted plastic around the perimeter of the
pipe ends. This lip should be equal and even all the way around.
5) The pipe ends are separated from the heating plate, which is
removed out of the way, and then are careful]j brought together. Contact
must be even and balanced, and done exactly right the first time: once
the melted ends touch, they cannot be taken apart and realigned. The
pipe ends should be pressed together firmly but not excessively hard, until
the joint has cooled down to where it can be touched by hand, without
hurting. It should then be laid on the ground carefully and not moved
or disturbed for several minutes more.
6) The joint is tested by flexing it vigorously and examining
it visually. A proper joint isas strong as the rest of the pipe, and
cannot be cracked or broken apart. A weak, meek flexing of the pipe
serves no purpose. If a weak joint is passed over and buried, It can
easily be cracked apart by the earth and water pressures acting on the
pipeline once It is in service. It is much easier to re—join the pipe
before it is buried, so test it strongly
7) When the joint has been successfully tested, the pipe is fully
laid in the trench and stretched out. One person can actually walk
on top of the pipe, flattening in down into the trench and visually
examining to see that no projecting stones will damage the pipe once
it is buried.
 -90—

10.6 BACKFILLING
Backfill-ing the trench should be done as soon as the pipe has been
laid, to minimize exposure to sun and curious villagers, both of which
are detrimental to the pipe. Ideally, the
backfill should be screened and compacted
in 10 cm layers, but practically speaking
this is difficult to get the villagers to
do. The chief concerns of backfilling
should be to prevent any organic materials
(such as leaves, sticks, bushes, etc)
from being used, and prevent rocks and
stones From being dumped directly on the
pipeline (after the pipe has been covered
with about 50 cm, it is allowable to use
rocks in the backfill). Because the
backfill will tend to settle, the dirt
should be mounded up over the trenchline
to compensate, as in Figure 10—5.

The pipeline should be fully buried except for a three—meter

section at each joint. This joint section should only be about
half-buried until the pipeline has been filled with water and allowed
to stand at full static pressure for 24 hours. This makes it very
easy to locate leaking joints, since water will have seeped up to
the surface within that time. Once all joints have been tested, they
can be fully buried.

Road crossing. When tne trench under a road is 120 cm deep or

more, it can be backfilled normally except that the backfill should be
compacted regularly as it is added, with all large rocks and stones
removed.
When the trench is between 100-120 cm deep, the pipe should be
laid on a bed of sand, covered with a further 30 cm of sand and then
backfilled as above.

When the trench is less than 100 cm deep, the pipe should be
bedded on sand, and further covered by 20 cm more of sand. On this,
a reinforced-concrete (RCC) slab 10 cm thick shoula be poured. Once
the slab has hardened, backfilling procedes as above. Refer to
Chapter 19.12 for details of RCC slabs. Figure 10—6 illustrates
backfilling across a road.

Shallow trench and embankments. Along some sectiore it will not

be possible to get the pipeline buried deeply (if at all). If such
sections are of HOP pipe, then special earthwork is required for adequate
protection of the pipe. Refer to Figure 10—7
 —92-

Steep slopes: Where the trench cuts down a steep incline, the
backfill is vulnerable to easy erosion by rainfall, which will tend to
wash all backfill to the bottom of the slope. Facing the trench with
stone, as shown in Figure 10—8, will
help to protect the backfill.

0
BRANCH POINT
PIPELINE
2tIANeE 11.1 PIPeSZI

%nANa III DIPECflON.

10.7 MARKING THE PIPELINE

FIGURE 10-9
Within a surprisingly short
time, all visible traces of the MARKING THE PIPELINE
buried pipeline will cease to ex-
ist, especially in sections
through jungle or cultivated
fields. Should -it become necessary to relocate some particular point in
after several years, can no longer
the pipeline, human memory, especially
be relied upon.

To aid relocation efforts, the pipeline should be marked with

permanent markers at strategic reference points, similar to that shown
in Figure 10-9.

Markers should be located exactly 150 cm to one side of the pipe-

line, with a notch cut in it to indicate which side the pipeline is.
This is because if they are ever dug up for maintenance work, it is not
sure that they will be replaced in their exact position.

Markers should be located at the following strategic points:

- at all branchpoints;
— at all reducers (changes of pipe sizes);
- changes in pipeline direction;
- every 200 meters in open terrain, 50 meters in jungle.
 —93—

A record of each marker should be kept, a copy with the villagers and
a copy for the LDD project file.

10.8 REJOINING BURIED PIPE

In special circumstances, it will become necessary to dig up a section
of the pipeline to either repair a bad joint or to locate a blockage. At
such times, it becomes a difficult task
to rejoin the pipe ends. The larger
the pipe, the more difficult the job.
There is no easy way of doing
this. It requires a lot of excavation
to create enough room for the joining
crew to work. A standard excavated
area is shown in Figure 10-10. The
exact dimensions of the area depend
upon the size of the pipe being worked 1MG TW% TO
on. wo~c

The fundamental procedure is to

dig up several meters along one pipe
end, so that there is a bit of slack.
The two pipe ends are cut to a separa-
tion of about 30 cm. A new pipe section ,.IlIs LENGTH 1$
of about 40 cm is welded onto one pipe DWEMOEKT umow
end. When it has cooled down and been PIPE SIZE.
properly tested, the pipe is flexed and
joined to the other end. If this joint
fails, there is still enough extra pipe
so that by carefully cutting out the
bad joint, another joint can be made.
Once the pipe is successfully re-
joined, it is flattened down into the IGURE 10-10
trench as deeply as possible and partial- REJOINING BURIED PIPE
ly reburied until the joints have been
tested under 24 hours of static pressure.

10.9 FIELD-CONSTRUCTED HOP FITTINGS

Although most HOP fittings are normally available, sometimes out at
the project site the overseer may run out of one particular type of
fitting. In such cases, it is possible to make the same fitting by using
pieces of HDP pipe. Such locally produced fittings, if properly made,
are as strong as the regular pipeline.
The “Technical Training Manual #3”, published by LDO/IJNICEF/SATA in
Section 2.4.4 gives excellent diagrams on how to produce elbows, bends,
tees, angled branchpoints, and reducers out of HOP pipe.
 -94-

10.10 GALVANIZED IRON (GI) PIPE

Galvanized iron (GI) pipe is primarily used in the various tanks and
tapstands of the system. However, it can be used in the pipeline along
sections which will be subjected to excessively high pressures or where
proper burial of an HDP pipeline would not be possible.
The GI pipe sizes used for CWS projects in Nepal are 1/2”, 1”,
1—1/2”, 2”, and 3” (size refers to inner diameter). The pipe is supplied
in lengths up to 6 meters long.

Cutting: CI pipe is cut using a hacksaw, and the rough edges are
trimed with a flat file. Use of oil durirg the cutting will help prolong
the life of the hacksaw blades. If machine oil is not available, then
cooking oil is an acceptable alternative. Even water Is better than
nothing.
Threading: This is done using adjustable pipethreaders. Although
it Is sometimes possible to make the threads with a single cut, It is
recomended that they be made by a series of shallow cuts, adjusting the
die teeth to make a deeper cut each time. This technique will prolong
the life of the die teeth. Lubricating oil is absolutely necessary and
should be used extravagantly.
Even if the pipe has already been cut and threaded in a workshop,
it is an advisable practice to bring pipethreaders, extra die teeth,
and a pipe vise out to the project site, since inevitably there will be
some threads which are damaged and must be cut anew.

When cutting threads, check for a proper fit using several

different fittings. Despite the “standardization” of pipe sizes and
threads, all fittings are not created equal, and if the entire lot of
pipe is cut to fit a misfit fitting, then there will be much repetition
of labor. Always test threads with at least three different fittings.
Transporting: To protect threads during transporting, coat
them with oil or grease and then screw on a fitting. Exposed threads
are sure to corrode and/or be damaged.

Caulking: When a fitting is screwed onto CI pipe, It i~ necessary

to use some method of making the threaded connection watertight, espe-
cially if the joint will be under high pressure. Although caulking
compounds and pipe dope are useful, it is just as effective to wrap
the threads heavily with thin string (such as kite string or thread),
and to screw on the fitting tightly.

Caution: When using a pipewrench to tighten fittings, care must be

taken not to screw it on so tightly that the fitting is split open!
It is not necessary to screw the fitting on as tightly as humanly possible.
It is the caulking which makes the connection watertight, not brute
strength.
 -95-

10.11 SPECIAL PROBLEMS

Along certain sections of the pipeline, it is sometimes unavoidable
to run through undesirable terrain such as across landslides, over gullies
or streams, etc. Where such crossings are short (less than 6 meters), there
is usually little technical difficulty. The use of GI pipe, suitably
anchored, will usually suffice.
However, for longer spans, where alternate routing of the pipeline
is not possible, it may be necessary to use a suspended crossing over the
unstable area. Refer to Technical Appendix E for discussion of these
crossings.

Landslides: Generally, there is no choice with a landslide area

but to use a suspended crossing. The anchor points of the crossing must be
on stable ground, and the suspended pipeline must be high enough to avoid
being struck by sliding or falling debris.
Gully crossings: Gullies are eroded paths, usually sharp—banked,
created (and enlarged) by run-off of rainwater. They are typically dry in
clear weather, but may be semi-permanent streams during the monsoon season.

Discussion with the villagers will give an idea how extensive the run-off
is. Narrow, deep gullies can be crossed by a span of CI pipe above the
bottom of the gully, clear of the maximum flood level and anchored in the
banks of the gully (similar to the crossing shown in Figure 10—12).
Broader gullies should be crossed by GI pipe buried as best as possible,
and anchored down using drystone masonry or gabions,as shown in Figure 10—11.
Refer to Technical Appendix H for information on gabions.
 -96-

Stream crossings: Narrow streams can be crossed similarly to narrow

gullies, but additional attention must be paid to ensuring that the banks
of the stream directly below the crossing point will remain stable.
Building dry-stone masonry embankments or gabions (refer to Technical
Appendix H) is recormnended. Larger or wider streams will require a
suspended crossing. In all cases, the height of the pipeline must be
sufficient enough to prevent it from being struck by debris floating
down the stream, especially at the maximum flood levels. Figure 11-12
illustrates:

10.12 IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS

Construction of the pipeline requires more than just technical
expertise. The overseer must be aware of human problems frequently
encountered in the villages of Nepal
Children should be considered to be compulsive saboteurs of the
system. Although they do not do so deliberately, their curiosity leads
to much damage and repetition of work. Open pipe ends, exposed pipeline,
fresh masonry all will attract attention, with frustrating results.
 -97-

Adult villagers, especially strangers passing through, will also

be curious about the system and can cause some damage. Exposed fittings
can get stolen, and sometimes sections of the pipeline itself are cut
out, to be carried off elsewhere.

Heavy animals such as cows and water buffalos can crush or crimp the
HOP pipe if they happen to step directly on it. Open trenchlines,
expeclally along a cowpath, pose a serious danger to these animals, since
they can easily stumble into it and break a limb (some animals have even
broken their necks and died, resulting in a serious loss for some family).

Some manufacturers of HDP use green (freshly-cut) wooden plugs to

seal the pipe mouths of the coils. With the passage of time, these plugs
will dry out and shrink and become loose. They can either fall out, or
fall into the pipe. If the coil is not tested, these plugs will quickly
swell up with water once the pipeline is in service, creating a very
tight blockage, not suspected until the water is turned on. At such times,
searching a pipeline that is several hundred meters long for a single
wooden plug just 10 cm long is a very unhappy task
The prevention of these problems is not absolute, but the overseer
can take some practical steps to minimize their occurence. He should
make the villagers understand the difficulties of repairing a damaged or
plugged pipeline, and obtain their cooperation in protecting it. The
following suggestions are based upon experience in Nepal
1) NEVER leave a pipe end open and exposed, even for just one
night. As soon as the pipe coils have been transported to the village
the overseer must seal off every unplugged pipemouth. Simple plugs,
cut from branches, can be used for this purpose. They are jammed Into the
pipemouth, then firmly nailed in place by a few !” nails, driven directly
through the HDP pipe into the plug. The plug is then cut off flush with
the end of the pipe, leaving nothing for curious hands to grab and twist.
It is especially important to do this for a pipe left overnight in the
trenchline. Carrying a small matchbox full of these !” nails is quite
easy and worthwhile.
2) NEVER leave the pipeline exposed in the trench. As soon as it is
laid, the pipe should be buried except for a 3—meter stretch at each joint,
which should be partially buried until the joint has been tested under static
pressure for 24 hours. At the end of the pipeline, where work has ended
for the day, the pipe end should be plugged, big rocks should be carefully
piled onto the pipe, and the trench filled with thorny bushes.
3) Thorny bushes can be piled around fresh masonry structures, and
one or two villagers sleep next to it if necessary, until the cement
has set and all pipes are firmly bonded in place.
4) Do not leave control valves exposed. Install them only after the
valvebox has been completed and has a secure cover. Removing the valve
handle will also discourage tampering.
5) When pipe coils are being transported from the roadhead to the
village, and from the village to the worksite, make sure that the villagers
do not attempt to re-coil the pipe to a more convenient shape or size.
 -98-

Many times this has led to excessive amounts of crimping in the pipe,
requiring a lot of lost pipe and much labor re—joining it.
 - 99-

11. INTAKE WORKS

11.1 INTRODUCTIQN
The first point of flow in a water system is at the source, where
water is collected at an Intake and funneled into the pipeline. This
chapter will discuss various types of intake works, such as spring and
stream intakes, dams, source protection, etc.
Due to the uniqueness of a source, there never will be a standard
design that can be universally built for every system. However, the
intake works should incorporate standard design features, which allow
for adequate control of the water, opportunities for sedimentation,
and prevention of further contamination. These design features will be
the basic theme of this chapter. It is up to the designer to incorporate
them into his plan for the intake works. The construction overseer must
also be aware of these principles, so that he can make modifications in the
event of unforeseen problems.
The fundamental purpose of the intake works is to collect water
from one or several points and focus this flow at a single point: the
entrance to the pipeline. If the water is dirty, it must be allowed
to sit relatively undisturbed for a period of time. The water must
be protected as much as possible against further contamination
(from rain run—off, grazing animals, and curious villagers). And it
must be built in such a way to last for the lifetime of the system.
The number of possible ways to design the intake for a source is
infinite, influenced by factors such as available materials, source flow,
flood levels, ground stability, topography of the area, etc. This chapter
will present several different designs, all of which have been successfully
used in the past, and from which the designer can modify and develop
a suitable intake for his own system.
The next chapter will present the technical details of sedimentation
tanks, which may be required by silty sources such as streams.

11.2 SITE LOCATIONS

Although it is obvious that intake works must be built at the source,
there is still flexibility when it comes to locating the actual structures.
Water catchments can be built as part of the total intake structure, or
can be used as starting points where water is collected and piped down to
a nearby site which is more suitable for building settling chambers,
sedimentation tanks, or collection tanks.
The most important consideration must be the problems of the monsoon
season flooding. Intake structures must be located at points where they
will not be threatened directly by flood waters, or indirectly by land
erosion over the years. Careful questioning of the villagers must be done
to obtain as accurate an idea of monsoon flows as possible.
 -100-

Intake works should not be built in or near gullies, or at points

where unstable ground above th~can carry them away In a landslide, or
on top of swampy ground (soft dirt saturated by the underground water
table).

11.3 EXCAVATION, FOUNDATION, & CONSTRUCTION

The tank site should be staked out with wooden pegs and string, and
excavated to a depth of 30 cm (if solid rock is not encountered sooner), and
the floor of the excavation leveled off. For a spring lnt4ke, the flow
should be diverted away from the excavation to keep it as dry as possiDle.
The excavation of catchment walls should be deep enough to cut off under-
ground seepage from the spring (discussed in the next section). The floor
____________________________________ of the excavation should be hard
and firm. A layer of lean concrete
10 cm In depth is put down,
and compacted to ensure
proper settling. The cement
~f~3o ex~•~
_____________ mortar is put aown directly on
the concrete) and the masonry
footing is laid directly on
the mortar, The footing st~uld
be 10 cm wider than the wall
on each side, and the wall should
not be less than 30 cm wide.
The height of the footing should
be 10 cm. The cement mortar
should be of 1:4 cement: sand
ratio (refer to Chapter 19 for
discussion on cement mortar
and masonry). Figure 11—1
1llus~trates the cross—section

I’o
~0
of an Intake wall.

FIGURE 11-1
FOUNDATION OF INTAKE TANK
 -lot-

11.4 CATCIIENT OF FLOW

This is the component where the source flow is captured. In a spring
intake, it is typically watertight walls surrounding the source point.

For a stream intake, it is

P-Jo Ca~ 1 typically a small pool of water
with an intake pipe at its
bottom, or a surface channel
leading the water to the sedi-
mentation tank.

Where watertight walls

must be built to contain the
ground flow of a spring, they
should penetrate as far into the
ground as necessary to cut off
seepage flow beneth the intake.
______ MPE.aVIOWS______
- LAVE~ Since such foundation trenches
will be impossible to keep cry,
it is possible to pour a fairly-
FIGURE 11-2 dry concrete mix into the
WATERTIGHT WALL FOR trenches. As long as the
INTAKE TANK concrete is contained by dirt
walls or wooden forms, it
cannot be physically washed away
and will be alright. Once the concrete has set and hardened slightly, the
regular masonry wall can be built on it (refer to Figure 11-2).
For a stream intake, where the
aepth of the intake point is less
than 40 cm, it is necessary to
create a basin of water, which
will be relatively quiet and
therefore allow settlement of the
heavier suspended particles
(such as sand, leaves, etc).
An intake pipe can be located
in the bottom of the poo1
(protected as shown In
Figure 11—3). Such an intake
should have 40 cm of water
depth over it to deter
interference from humans and ELBOW
animals, and to protect it
from floating debris. An FIGURE 113 EXAMPLE OF
alternative design for such
a basin is to dig a channel STREAM INTAKE
from the basin to the
settling tank. Such a surface
channel unless in extremely
,

sandy or porous soil, does not

have to be of masonry, so it is therefore less expensive to built.
 -102-

Section 11.12 discusses stream catchments, dams, and basins.

11.5 SCREENING
Suspended particles in the flow can add to the wear and tear on the
HOP pipe, so it is desirable to eliminate such particles as much as possible.
Screening can remove a lot of
these particles, and sedimentation
removes much of the remainder.
OQY- STONE
There should be at least
two screening points in the flow:
a coarse filter to remove larger
floating and suspended debris, and
a fine—mesh screened intake over
the pipe end.

The coarse screen can be done

by a dry-stone masonry wall, as
shown in Figure 11—4. This is
just a section of masonry wall
______
— — IMPE~.viOUs
______ put together by rocks or bricks
—.------—---- LAYERS _—
closely set together but without
any cement mortar. This wall
FIGURE 11-4 section is easily dismantled for
)RY—STONE MASONRY WATER SCREEN cleaning and maintenance purpose,
and then easily reconstructed.
The screened intake of the pipeline should be of a fairly small mesh
(a good size usually available in the bazaars is 20 meshes per inch),
made of brass screening if available. Chapter 20.2 discusses an easy
way to make a screened intake using HDP pipe.
A medium-size screened intake can be made using HDP pipe that is
perforated with a hot nail to make dozens of holes. This is then affixed
to the 01 pipe of the outlet.

11.6 SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the process whereby tne water is allowed to sit
relatively undisturbed for several hours. In the resulting lack of
turbulence, the finer suspended particles sink and settle out of the
water. Since the chief source of turbulence in water is due to the
velocity of the flow, then the slower the flow through the sedimentation
chamber, the more effective the sedimentation process.

The size (capacity) of the chamber depends upon the type of source,
the amount of flow, and whether or not there Is a reservoir tank further
downstream. Sedimentation requirements may be nothing more than a small
chamber in the intake structure, or may be a large, separate tank (such
tanks are discussed In the next chapter).
 -103-

Spring sources: These are typically cleaner, and usually such a

system will require a reservoir tank. So extensive ~ed1mentation is not
usually necessary (unless it Is a rather dirty source, or there Is no
reservoir). A chamber with a dry—stone masonry filter and a screened Intake
(such as discussed in the proceeding section) is usually sufficient.
Stream sources with reservoirs: A separate sedimentation tank should
be built, with a detention time of 15 minutes.
Stream sources without reservoirs: Also require a separate sedimentation
tank. A detention time of not less than 60 minutes.

11.7 SERVICE PIPES

Because HOP pipe does not bond to cement mortar or concrete, all pipes
set into masonry walls must be of galvanized Iron (GI). There are three
different service pipes in an
Intake structure: washouts,
overflows, and outlets.
Was~outs: allow the
draining of the intake so that
settled sediments can be washed.
out, and maintenance work
performed. The GI pipe size
of the washout should be
either 2” or 3’. The washouts
should be set slightly into
the bottom of the chamber, and
can be closed with an endcap.
Washouts should not be set
Into masonry walls less than
30 cm wide (to ensure enough
bonded strength so that a
pipewrench can be used for
removing the endcap). Each
separate chamber, and the
catchment basin, should have
its own washout. Water from
the washouts must be carried
away (by a surface drainage
channel) in such a manner
that does not cause erosion
of the Intake foundation.
Overflows-: allow excess water to be safely diverted away from
the tank Without causing erosion. The size of the overflow must be
selected so that It can pass the maximum flood flows during the monsoon
season. The typical overflow for small tanks is a short length of GI
pipe set into the wall of the tank. Figure 11—5 shows this arrangement,
and gives some maximum flows that each size pipe can handle, pitched
at 5 cm and 10 cm. Any number of pipes can be used if a single pipe is
Insufficient. The overflow water must be disposed of in the same
manner as the washout flow.
 -104-

Outlets: The outlet pipe Is the starting point of the pipeline.

The size of the outlet can be determined using the Information given In
Technical Appendix G, but should not be smaller than the HDP pipe size
for the design at that point. The mouth of the pipe should have a
screened intake. A gate valve is needed, with an air—vent located just
downstream. Figure 11—6 shows the pipe arrangement of a typical tank
outlet.

11.8 CONTROL VALVES & AIR—VENTS

Gate valves should be installed on each outlet pipe, so that the

pipeline can be drained for maintenance purposes.
Globe valves are not necessary when the entire flow of the source
is to be used. A globe valve is needed only when a portion of the source
flow is to be used (as is usually the case with a stream Intake). Such
a valve allows only the design flow into the pipeline, and forces the
excess water to overflow and be returned back to the source. This
valve must be located at the discharge point of the first downstream tank,
or at a point where, if it is accidentaly closed, it will not cause
excessive pressures to burst the HOP pipe.
Air-vents are located just downstream from a gate valve. These
serve to allow air to escape from the pipeline without bubbling out
through the intake and interfering with the flow. They also allow air
into the pipeline whenever the gate valve just upstream is closed so that
the pipeline drains (when this happens, the draining water will set
up a suction pressure in the pipeline, which can draw in polluted
groundwater through leaks; an air—vent allows air to be drawn in instead).
An air-vent can be either of !” GI pipe or 20mm HOP pipe. The mouth
of the air-vent must be higher than the overflow level of the tank.
The end of the air-vent should be directed downwards (to prevent dirt and
dust from settling into it) and should be screened (to prevent insects
from crawling in).

11.9 ROOFING
The roofing on the intake structures must be secure enough to prevent
curious people from interfering with them, and should seal the source
off against any further contamination from surface run—off of rain,
grazing animals, leaves, etc. Accessways are required so that the intake
can be cleaned and repair work performed; an opening to allow a man in
should be at least 60 cm square.
Common roofing schemes in Nepal are:
Slate roofing: constructed by the villagers, If slate Is locally
available. Requires a lot of wood for beams and rafters.
CGS roofing: corrugated galvanized steel roofing sheets, nominal
size 3’ x 10’, effective size 70cm x 320cm. Refer to Technical
Appendix F
 -105-

ONION

~RT

FJGu~11-6 Tv~ic~
WmEI Pi~i~
 —106-

Concrete slab roofina: Either of reinforced concrete (RCC) or

reinforced (RE) bricks. These are the ideal roofs, since they will
totally seal off the intake, and last the lifetime of the system. However,
such roofs do require additional jnaterials and costs. Refer to
Chapter 19.13 for technical details.

11.10 PROTECTIVE MEASURES

It is important that, once the source water has been collected, It must
be protected from further contamination. Thus, measures must be taken to
seal off the flow from as much of the external environment as possible.
Surface run—off of rain must not be allowed to flow into the catchment
of springs, therefore the intake structures should be minimally 30 cm

above ground level. Dirt should be mounded against the tank walls so that
water will be turned away, and the source should have a drainage ditch dug
around its uphill side. This channel should be deep, and can be lined
with dry-stone masonry. Each year, particularly just before the monsoon
season, it should be cleared of accumulated debris.
 —107-

The catchment of a spring source can be roofed over with a concrete

slab, and buried for further protection.
If necessary, retaining walls of gabions or dry—stone masonry should
be built to stabilize the land around the intake works, especially if
erosion is foreseen to be a major problem over the lifetime of the system.
Re—forestation and planting of grass and bushes directly above spring
sources greatly aids in maintaining the flow from the source (vegetation
allows surface water to seep into the ground rather than disappear quickly
as surface run-off. Such water can add to the yield of the source).
If necessary, fencing should be built around the structures to keep
away grazing animals, children, etc. Discuss such measures with the LD0
regional engineer.
Figure 11-7 Shows suitable protection for a spring catchment

11.11 MULTIPLE SOURCES

Some systems will actually be supplied by the combined flows from two
or more sources (particulary if the sources are low-yield springs). Such
multiple sources can be handled in any convenient manner, as determined

by the distances and elevations between the sources. Flow from higher
sources can be piped directly into lower sources, or each source may
have its own individual pipeline to a single collection tank or
 -108-

sedimentation tank. Each ca±chmentrequires its own washout and overflow

pipes, but a gate valve can be located at the discharge point into ths
collection tank. It is not necessary that each catchment have its own
— settling chamber, so long as the total flow has the opportunity to settle.
Figure 11-8 shows such a possible arrangememt of catchments and
collection tank.

11.12 STREAM CATCHI4ENT5: Dams and Basins

This section deals with construction of total or partial danis
across streams, to form a sheltered basin of water for a stream intake.
The purpose of the basin is to allow adequate water depth over the
mouth of an intake pipe, and to allow the heavier sediments to settle
out (since turbulent streams carry sand, and even small stones).
Figure 11-9 shows both a total dam, and a partial darn:

The important concepts that must be kept in mind when designing dams
are as follows:
- when water is backed up to the maximum flood level , It must not
flood the surrounding land;
 -log-

WI CEMTlM~1~R5

I I 100 I~° I
4C1 ~

FIGURE 11—10
MASONRY DAM DETAILS
 -110—
FLOOD SPIL.LWAY

(3”6I ~$PU~

MA%.
FLOOD 5P~LLN~Y.

IN _

_____________ W45$0U1
150

GI PID~3A5 ~ERFL.0w5

OUTLET PIPE

l~CTES:
1. 0’.I~QFL.0Y~• 3”GI X 1~CM ~ M4’C FLOW • 15 LPS
W.~HOUTS • 3” 01 X 200 CM w/ ENOCAD J ~R EACH.
2. b~64SHOUT8W4~ISTes LOCATED DI~CT1~V
BELOW l~ffA~I.

3. voL.uMr P5R bO~t.4P(~Jtn-a) B*~- 35 IJrIa,

[14GW IMs~ 1.6 8 ~j~rrW~D4G~E~!.
I~~i PfQ 1-4i~0~~M.

FIGURE 11—11
BURLAP (JUTE) BAG EMBANKMENT
 —Ill—

— excess water (ie— overflow) can be safely handled without causing

erosion and collapse of the dam or stream banks;
— a total dam will probably be used as a bridge for human, and
possibly animal, traffic across the stream, especially if it Is
conveniently located.
A dam may be built of cement masonry, or by embankments of concrete-
filled burlap (jute) sacks.
Cement masonry dams: A cement masonry dam can only be built when
the Stream flow is completely diverted away from the fresh masonry.
Temporary, diverting dams can be made using sand—filled burlap sacks.
Dimensions of a good masonry dam are shown in Figure 11-10. The wooden
slates of the spillway are removable, which allows full draining of the
basin (which, in turn will carry away much of the accumulated silt in
the vicinity of the intake chamber).
Burlap (jute) embankments: An easier type of dam to construct Is an
embankment of concrete—filled burlap (jute) bags. The bags are filled with
a fairly—dry concrete mix (1:6:8 cement:sand:gravel) and sewn shut. They
can be placed directly in the water as long as there is no hard current
flowing against them (fresh cement bags can have a protective facing of
ordinary sand-filled bags in fr~itof them, or a diverting dam can be used
to absorb most of the hard currents). The burlap material holds the
concrete into position until it has set; the bags will mold themselves
tightly together under their own weight, so that they’ll interlock solidly,
Lengths of loiiiii ~ rebar can be driven vertically through several layers
of bags, “spiking’ them together. GI pipe can be easily set In place as
the bags are being layered. Several washout and overflow pipes (of 3” GI
pipe) may be required, depending upon the maximum flood flows of the stream.
Washouts should be placed in the vicinity of the Intake pipe, so that silt
can be washed away whenever the basin Is drained. Figure 11—11 shows
details of this type of dam.

Spillways: Both type of dams should have emergency spillways. These

are low points along the top of
the dams which will overflow
first with high flooding flows.

-SI
MaMUM o~Qaa~t This overflow will be confined
to a special channel, which will
carry the excess flows away without
causing erosion problems. The
O/ERFLOW CAPCITY OF SPILLWAVS spillways should have masonry
(Peg 30cm. OF 14 wing—walls, and a bed of dry—
_______ _______ stone masonry to absorb the
D
________ b LPG
________ hard flow currents of the
S 48~ 10414 overflowing water. Figure
nfl 11-12 presents the overflow
15fl7j 10754 capacity of spillways of
different depths. For example,
a spillway 20 cm deep and 90 cm
FIGURE 11-12 long can handle an overflow
SPILLWAY DESIGN of more than 124 LPS.
 —112—

11.13 EXAMPLE DESIGNS

Figure 11-13 shows different examples of designs and intake structures

that have been successfully used for developing stream and spring sources
in Nepal.
For futher designs, refer to the ‘Technical Training Manual No.5”
published by LUD/UNICEF/SATA.
 -113-

bRY~

~LTU~

1~NOTE: ALL INT4KES REQUIRE

4N OV~cLoW p1p~, ‘4 5CQEEN~LD
INTAKES AND ONE (OR MORE)

L_WASMOUT3

HOP I~WILTRAT,ONGALJ..ERy POR

STREAJ,’L INTAI(.B (IN GRAVEL BED)

FIGURE 11-13
EXAMPLE INTAKE DESIGNS
 —114-

12. SEDIMENTATION TANKS

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Water from stream sources and large springs typically contains
suspended particles, since the turbulence of large flows can churn up
clay, silt, sand, and even small pieces of gravel. Such particles carried
in the flow can give the water a dirty, unappetizing appearance and taste,
and also add substantially to the erosion of the HOP pipe. If, however,
the water Is allowed to sit relatively quietly In a tank for some period of
time, much of these suspended particles may sink and settle out to the
bottom of the tank. This process is called sedimentation, and is
accomplished in sedimentation tanks, specially designed for this purpose.
Seaimentation tanks should be built for all systems using stream
sources, and for those spring sources where the water is visibly dirty or
cloudy. This chapter will present the technical procedures for designing
adequate sedimentation facilities for a system.

12.2 SETTLING VELOCITIES

When sediment—laden water is allowed to sit quietly without any
turbulence, the suspended particles will tend to sink downwards under the
Influence of gravity. Typical settling velocities for various particles
are given below:
Settling Velocity
Type of Particle Diameter (nmi) - (cm/Mm)
Coarse sand 1 .00 600
0.50 318
Medium sand 0.50 318
0.25 156
Fine sand 0.25 156
0.10 48
Very fine sand 0.10 48
0.05 15.6
Silt 0.05 15.6
0.01 0.924
Fine silt 0.01 0.g24
0.005 0.0385
Clay 0.01 0.154
0.001 0.00154

Smaller particles (e.g. fine clay or bacteria) either do

not settle or have a negligible settling rate.
 -115-

From the above information, it can be calculated that a settling

period of about 20 minutes will allow some fine silts and larger particles
to settle out of the upper layers of water in the sedimentation tank. This
clean surface water is “skirmned off” and channeled into the pipeline.

12.3 DETENTION TIME

The period of time that the water spends in the sedimentation tank to
allow settling is called the detention time. The amount of detention time
required depends upon several factors: quantity of flow, amount of
suspended particles and their size, surface area of water in the tank,
presence of a reservoir tank further downstream (if the system requires
one). A reservoir tank will allow about 10 hours of undisturbed settling
time each night, so such a system does not require as large a sedimentation
tank.
Recormuended detention times:
Small, clean spring sources: no sedimentation tank*
Systems with reservoirs: 15—20 minutes
Systems wit ut reservoirs: 60 mInutes minimum

12.4 CAPACITY
When the detention time has been selected, the required capacity of
the sedirrentation tank can be calculated:

when.: C = capacity (liters)

C=QxT Qflow (LPS)
T = detention time (seconds)

12.5 TANK SPECIFICATIONS

The dimensions of the sedimentation tank may be adjusted in such a way a.
to acc~xdateany particular sIte location, but certain design characteristic
must be incorporated Into the design:
L/W Ratio: The length/width of the water surface area should be at
least 4. This allows the Initial discharge turbulence to die away.
Watar Depth: The depth of water is best between 75—100 cm.

* however, the Intake should have a settling chamber with the prescribed
screening, as dIscussed--tn-Chapter 11 .5 & 11.6
 -116—

DIM~N5~ONSIN ~NT1MeT~p5.

OU1~T

FIGURE 12—1
RECOMMENDED SEDIMENTATION TANK
 —117—

Inlet: The discharge of

the flow into the tank should be
distributed as evenly as
possible across the width
of the water path. The
depth of discharge should be
about halfway between the
surface and the ioor of the
tank, as shown in Figure 12—2.
The pipe should be of 1” or
1!” GI, with a perforated
length of larger HOP pipe.
A globe valve is needed to
regulate the flow.

Outlet. The outlet

should be designed to
collect just the very
surface layer of water,
from across the full
width of the water path.
The easiest way to accomplish
this is with a collection
gutter, as shown in
Figure 12—3. The outlet
piping should be of CI
pipe, according to flow:
FIGURE 12-2
GI Size Flow (L~I
DETAILS OF INLET
1” up to 0.35
1!” “ “0.85
2’’ ‘ 1.40
3” greater than 1.40

The outlet should have a

gate valve with air-vent.

Washout: The washout should be at least 2” GI pipe with an

set in the bottom of the tank, with suitable drainage or the wash
flow.

Overflow: As presented in Figure 11-5.

Flow velocity: The water velocity flowing thro ‘i the tan,~

not exceed 0.50 cm/sec. Greater velocity may create ‘bulent cu~
which hinder the sedimentation process. The velocity calculat’
as follows:
 -118-

DIMENSIONS IN CENTIMETERS

STONE OR

WIRE MtSfl

5, 25 , 25 ~
I- •~~‘ •1~~ --

WATER
20
S

‘so

30

FIGURE 12—3 DETAILS OF COLLECTION GUTTER

 -119-

where: V = velocity (cm/sec)

V = 1000Q QW = flow (LPS)
WD = width of water path (cm)
D = depth of water (cm)

Baffles: One or more partitioning walls (baffles) may be used to

subdivide the surface of the water so the L/W ratio is improved without
increasing the external size of the tank. Baffles should extend the
full depth of water, and be of masonry construction.

Excavation, foundation, & walls: The depth of excavation should be

enough to half-bury the walls. The floor of the excavation should be
level and firm (compacted If necessary). The walls should be built on
a masonry footing (as discussed in Chapter 11.3). The walls should be
30 cm thick, of 1:4 cement:sand masonry. The tank floor and plastering
is done per specifications in Chapter 19.12 & 19.13.
A reconnended design for a sedimentation tank which meets (or exceeds)
the above specifications is shown in Figures 12—1, -2, & -3.
 -120-

13. BREAK-PRESSURE TANKS

13.1 INTRODUCTION
The function of a break—pressure tank is to allow the flow to
discharge into the atmosphere, thereby reducing its hydrostatic pressure
to zero, and establishing a new static level. Strategic placing of
break—pressure tanks can minimize the amount of Class IV and GI pipe
which must be used in a system (except where there are U-profiles).
In Chapter 8.3, the design example of the mainline included four
break-pressure tanks, and discussion was presented about the various
strategies to locate them.
It is anticipated that shortly the LDD office will have developed
standardized designs for break-pressure tanks, complete with detailed
estimate lists. Therefore, this chapter will present just the basic
design principles and characteristics of such tanks which have been
successfully constructed in Nepal.

13.2 TYPES OF TANKS

Currently, break-pressure tanks can be constructed of cement masonry
(with/without float valves) or HDP pipe. Investigation is underway
about developing pre-fabricated break—pressure tanks of NDP, CI sheet
metal, and ferro—cement.

13.3 MASONRY TANKS

There is no minimum required capacity for a break—pressure tank, as
long as water is able to drain from it as fast as it is discharged. The
dimensions of the tank are more influenced by the size of the fittings
such as control valves, float valves, etc) which must fit inside of it
and size of the pipewrenches which must be able to swing around inside as
well). The tanks can be designed so that they are easily covered by a
half-sheet of CGS roofing, or by a small RCC slab, or by slate (if
locally available).
Specifications for masonry break—pressure tanks are as follows:
Excavation, Foundation, & Walls: Excavation for a tank should be
30 cm into firm soil, and the floor of the excavation leveled and
compacted. A layer of gravel and masonry footing should be built, as
specified in Figure 11—1. Minimum height of the wall above ground
should be 20 cm; the ground should be pitched away from the tank and have a
drainage ditch to divert rain run-off. Drainage provisions must be
made for the washout and overflow, and surrounding ground should be
stabilized if necessary. Masonry walls should be minimally 20 cm
thick (30 cm if there is a CI pipe inbedded in it) of 1:4 cement:sand
mortar, plastered accoring to Chapter 19.12,
 —121—

[~EN~Ic*~S IN C.Et’&1~MSTER

A BRASS ~6ON
8 61 BL~IW
C 6~P(PR
o cop4T~B~I~~IE
a ci cs~
~ FLAT ~4LVE
6 UMEQU4I~ ci

FIGURE 13—2
GI PIPE ARRANGEMENTS FOR BPTs
 -122—

Inner dimensions: Must be large enough to acconiodate the fittings

which will be installed. Minimum width = 40cm; minimum length = 40 cm
(80cm if a float valve is to be installed), and depth to be 50cm. Can be
adjusted to.accomodate dimensions of CGS roofing.
Control valves: If a globe valve is needed to regulate the discharge
flow, it can be installed directly on the discharge. If a float—valve
is to be installed, then a gate valve should be installed as well (as
shown In Figure 13-2) so that the flow can be shut off when installing/
removing the float-valve. NOTE: Nake sure that the height of the
roof will not interfere with the float-valve operation, and that the tank
overflow is set higher than the float-valve.

If a ~ valve is to be installed on the outlet pipe, then a

valvebox can be built onto the tank, or the gate valve installed in an
external valvebox of CI pipe (refer to Chapter 16.8).
Service pipes: The inlet pipe should be of CI pipe, with the discharge
flow directed directly downwards towards the floor of the tank (if allowed
to spray against the walls, the plaster will soon be eroded away). The
outlet pipe should be of CI pipe one size larger than the pipeline it
connects to, and should be located 10-15 cm above the floor of the tank
(this will create a “cushion” of water in the bottom of the tank, which
will absorb much of the energy of the discharge flow). All tanks should
have an overfloW (refer to Figure 11-5) and also a washout of li~!’ GI pipe.
Figure 13—2 gives some specifications of the GI pipe for a masonry
break-pressure tank.

Roofing: Break—pressure tanks can be covered with CGS sheeting,

a reinforced concrete (RCC) slab, or slate. Either CGS or RCC roofing
is recomended if the tank has any internal control valves, since these
are the most secure covers. For a CGS cover refer to Chapter 20.4; for
an RCC slab refer to Chapter 19.15; and for slate refer to the villagers.
Additional ideas: Placing a hard, flat rock directly below the
discharge will provide even further protection to the floor of the tank.
Outlets may be screened if desired.

13.4 HDP TANKS

HOP break-pressure tanks have several advantages and disadvantages,
some of which are as follows;
Advantages: Lightweight; quickly and easily fabricated in a
workshop; quick and easy to install; require small sites; provide
good protection of the flow from contamination; made from materials
which are usually readily available (excess HOP pipe and reducers).
Disadvantages: Not as sturdy as masonry tanks; more difficult
to install control valves (require external valveboxes); require some
protective dry-stone masonry.
 — 123 —

HOP break—pressure tanks should be installed only where the flow

has been well-screened so that sediments cannot accumulate and clog
the tanks. The “snorkel’ of 50mm hOP should have several screens~,s1nce
the outenilost ones are susceptable to being punctured by children
(refer to chapter 20.2 for ideas on screening HOP pipe). A stone
masonry valve box is needed to protect the snorkel and a drain pipe
and ditch to carry away any overflow.

The rate of flow out of the hOP break-pressure tank will be dependant
upon the head of water acting at the outlet pipe. This head will be
limitea by the height of the snorkel overflow tee above the outlet pipe.
Consequently, the huP break-pressure tank should be at least one meter
below the overflow tee, i.e. about 90cm below ground level.
 -124-

14. RESERVOIR TANKS

14.1 INTRODUCTION
The construction of the reservoir tank will be the most visible
effort of the entire system. It will require the coordinated tasks
of dozens of people, ranging from the masons who lay the stone to
the assistants who mix cement, to the men, women (and sometimes even
children) who collect stones from the fields or porter sand up from
the rivers. When completed, the reservoir becomes a public monument
of the village and a source of pride to the villagers, especially if
the project Is considered a successful one.
When It comes to designing the reservoir tank, the most common
attitude of the villagers is “the bigger the betterY’. While this is
an understandable idea, there is no point in building any tank so
large that the source will never be able to fill it up during the
overnight re-filling period. The storage caffiacity of the reservoir
is actually determined by the projected village water needs (as dis-
cussed In Chapter 4) and the safe yield of the source. The actual
dimensions of the tank are determined by its capacity, the conditions
at the site selected, and rules of economical design.
This chapter will present all the procedures and knowledge that
is necessary to design and construct practical reservoir tanks. At
the end of the chapter is an example design.

14.2 THE NECESSITY FOR A RESERVOIR

Although the village water needs are based upon a minimum re-
quirement of 45 liters per person per 24—hour day, in actuality just
about all of this-water will be demanded during daylight, a period of
10-12 hours. The reservoir tank serves to store water that is provided
by the source during low-demand periods (such as overnight) for use
during high-demand periods (such as early morning).
A system will require a reservoir when:
- The safe yield of the source will not directly
provide 0.225 LPS for each tap;
— The daily water demand Is greater than the yield of
the source during the daylight hours;
— The pipeline distance from source to village is so
far that it Is more economical to use a smaller
pipe size and build a reservoir tank
 —125—

14.3 CAPACITY
To determine how large a reservoir tank must be— it is necessary to
calculate how much water is demanded at various times during the day,
and compare this to how much water is yielded by the source for those
same time periods. The difference will either mean that water will be
drawn out of the reservoir or will flow Into the reservoir.
The maximum size of a tank should not be greater than needed to
store the water yielded by the source during the night. It is possible to
sometimes design a tank to take advantage of the higher yields during the
monsoon season if the dry-season safe yield is not enough.

The daily demand pattern of a typical village would be somewhat

similar to either of the schedules below:

Schedule 1
6:00 AM - 8:00 AM 30% of total daily water need
8~00~AM- 4~00PM 40% “ “

4:00 PM - 6:00 PM 30% “ “ “ ‘

6:00 PM - 6:00 AM Negligible water demand

Schedule 2*
5:00 AM - 7:00 AM 10% of total daily water need
7:00 AN —11:00 AN 25% ‘ ‘ “
11 ~OOAM — 1 •o~PM 35% “ “ “

1 ~OQPM - 5~OOPM 20% “ ‘ ‘

5:00 PM — 7:00 PM 10% “ “ “
7:00 PM - 5:00 PM Negligible water demand

* This schedule observed by C. Johnson

The first schedule is a general, theoretical pattern that is based

upon the traditional Nepali custom of two major meals per day, including
pre—meal ritual bathing, cooking, and dish-washing.
The second schedule is based upon direct observation by Johnson
of a typical village in Western Nepal, after a water system had been
completed for that village. Johnson feels that the other villages he
observed generally conformed to that schedule.
In practical applications, use whichever schedule requires the
smaller-sized tank, for the villagers will adjust their demand
patterns to whatever schedule the tank can provide.

Capacity design example:

The projected population of a village is 400 persons, with no other
special water needs. Safe yield of the source is 0.45 LPS, and five
tapstands are to be built.
 -126-

Since the source is not large enough to supply more than two of the
tapstands by itself, a reservoir tank Is required. Using the two demand
schedules, the following water demands are calculated:

TIME PERIODS SUPPLY DEMAND DIFFERENCE

Schedule 1
6 AM — 8 AM (2 hrs, 30%) 3240 5400 -2160 (water withdrawn)
8 AM - 4 PM (8 hrs, 40%) 12960 7200 +5760 (tank overflows)
4 PM - 6 PM (2 hrs, 30%) 3240 5400 -2160 (water withdrawn)
Largest deficiency = 2160 liters

Schedule 2
5 AM - 7 AM (2 hrs, 10%) 3240 1800 +1440 (tank overflows)
7 AM - 11 AM (4 hrs, 25%) 6480 4500 +1980 ( 0
11 AJ’~ — 1 PM 2 hrs, 35%) 3240 6300 -3060 (water withdrawn)
1 PM - 5 PM 4 hrs, 20%) 6480 3600 +2880 (tank refilling)
5 PM - 7 PM (2 hrs, 10%) 3240 1800 +1440 (tank overflows)
Largest deficiency = 3060 liters

For this example, the required storage capacity is determined by

Schedule 1, at 2160 liters. For practical design, consider this 2200 liters
(2.2 cubic meters).

Capacity design example:

The projected population of a village is 780 persons, with no other
special water needs. Safe yield of the source is 0.45 LPS, and five
tapstands are to be built.
Again, a reservior tank Is required.

TIME PERIODS SUPPLY DEMAND DIFFERENCE

Schedule 1
6 AM - 8 AM 2 hrs, 30% 3240 10530 -7290 (water withdrawn)
8AM-4PM 8hrs,40% 12960 14040 -1080 ( 0

4 PM - 6 PM (2 hrs, 30%) 3240 10530 -7290 ( ‘

Largest deficiency = 15660 liters

Schedule 2
5 AM - 7 AM (2 hrs, 10%) 3240 3510 - 270 (water withdrawn)
7 AM - 11 AM (4 hrs, 25%) 6480 8775 -2295 ( ‘ “

11 AM - 1 PM (2 hrs, 35%) 3240 12285 —9045 (

1 PM - 5 PM (4 hrs, 20%) 6480 7020 — 540 ( “
5 PM — 7 PM (2 hrs, 10%) 3240 3510 — 270 ( LI

Largest deficiency = 12420 liters

 -127—

In this example, the required capacity is determined by Schedule 2,

at 12420 liters. For practical designing, consider this to be 12500 liters
(12.5 cubic meters).

14.4 SHAPE
When the required capacity of the reservoir tank has been cttcu ~ted,
it is then time to begin determining the shape and dimensions of th tank.
This is usually a compromise procedure that may have to be repeated two
or three times before the optimum design is discovered.
All other factors being equal, the most economical tank shape is
circular, then nearly-circular, then square, and then rectangular. For
ease of construction, certain shapes are easier than others:
Circular tanks: The most economical shape to use, but not easy to
construct, especially for small diameters.
Octagonal (8-sided) tanks: The best shape to use, but not easy to
construct for diameters less than 2! meters (or capacities smaller
than 3200 liters).
Hexagonal (6-sided) tanks: Good for tanks between 1700—3200 liters
(diameters not less than 2 meters).
Square tanks: Thts is the traditional shape, and easiest to
construct for small capacities (such as mini—tanks, break-pressure tanks,
etc).
Rectangular tanks: The least-economical shape, especially as one
side becomes much longer than the other. However, due to physical
constraints of the site, it may be necessary to use this shape. Keeping
it as nearly square—shaped as possible will make a more economical design.
Special note for CGS—roofed tanks: When a square or rectangular
tank Is to be roofed with CGS, It is easier to slightly adjust the
dimensions of the tank so that it Is neatly covered by the sheets
(such as “5 sheets wide by 1! sheets long”). This helps to minimize
the amount of CGS sheet cutting, which is a relatively difficult task.
For the multi—sided tanks this is not so easy to do, but should still
be kept in mind.
Figure 14—1 is a table of these various tank shapes, giving the
simple mathmatical equations for determining their dimensions once
capacity and water depth have been selected.

14.5 WALL DESIGN

The type of walls used in construction of these reservoir tanks are
known as “gravity—walls”: they resist being overturned (by the hydrostatic
water pressure) by virtue of their weight alone. The design of the wall
is determined by the material of construction (le- brick or stone) and
the selected water depth.
 -128-

A= water surface area (m2)

capacity (liters)
A= C C= water depth (cm)
1OH
length of perimeter (m)
d= diagonal (m)
a ,b sides (m)
R= 0.564J~’
CIRCULAR
L= 6.28R

R= 0.598I~’
OCTAGONAL
a= 0.76R
L 6.O8R

R= 0.623J~’
HEXAGONAL
a= R
L= 6R

aIx’
SQUARE & L= 4a
d= 1.414a

RECTANGULAR
11i~ a= O.8l6,/Z~
L= 5a
d= 1 .803a
b= l!a

(1:2) ~III~~IIIJa~ a= 0.7O7/~’

L= 6a
d= 2.236a
b 2a

FIGURE 14—1 SHAPES & DiMENSIONS OF RESERVOIRS

 —129—

Water depth: Although it is possible to select any depth of water,

for the designs presented In this book certain water depths are more
economical than others:
brick masonry: 60, 90, or 105 centimeters depth
stone masonry: 65, 95, or 115
These are the water depths that should be first selected and trial
designed. Only If the resulting dimensions of the tank cannot be used
should other water depths be considered.

Masonry: Stone masonry is generally heavier than brick masonry, and

therefore does not require as large a volume to resIst the hydrostatic
pressures. For the design table of Figure 14—2, the followIng specific
weights were used:
brick masonry: 2120 kg/m3
stone masonry: 2450 kg/m3

A safety factor against over-turning of 1.5 was used.

External walls: These are the outside walls of the tank. Hydrostatic
pressure is exerted on only one side, and they are partially backfllled for
additional support.
Partition walls: This is a wall which divides the inside of the tank
exactly in half. This allows half of the tank to be drained for maintenance
purposes while the other half is still providing some service. In practical
use, however, such walls use a tremendous amount of extra material and
labor, and their use has never been proven worthwhile In Nepal. Partitioned
tanks also must be somewhat larger, to replace the storage capacity displaced
by the partitioning wall.
Wall design table: Figure 14-2 allows the quick design of the external
and partition (If desired) walls of a reservoir tank. constructed of either
brick or stone masonry, for various water depths.

14.6 SERVICE PIPES

The pipe arrangement of the reservoir tank requires some particular
attention, especially if the tank is partitioned. A reservoir typically
requires an inlet (discharge), outlet, by—pass, overflow, end washout.
Refer to Figure 14-3.
Inlet: The inlet can be of 1” GI pipe. Where a free discharge is
planned, only a single gate valve is required, but if a controlled
discharge is required then a globe valve is also necessary (the globe
valve can be located Inside the tank, and the villagers warned that
it must not be adjusted; the gate valve can be inside the valve box. The
actual point of discharge should be on the opposite side of the tank
from the outlet, so that maximum opportunity for sedimentation is provided.
 -130—

EXTERNAL WALL

10

10

WATER EX TE RNA L WALL PA RI IIION WAL L

DEPTH stone masonry brick masonry stone masonry brick masonry
H ABC ABC A B C ABC
50 50 - - 50 - - 50 - - 50 - -
55 55 - - 55 — - 55 — - 55 — —
60 60 - - 60 - - 60 - - 60 - -

65 65 - - 50 15 - 65 - — 50 15 -
70 55 15 - 55 15 — 55 15 — 55 15 -
75 60 15 - 60 15 — 60 15 — 60 15 -
80 65 15 - 60 20 - 65 15 - 60 20 —
85 65 20 — 60 25 - 65 20 — 60 25 —
90 65 25 — 60 30 - 65 25 — 55 20 15
95 65 30 - 55 25 15 60 20 15 60 20 15
100 60 25 15 60 25 15 60 25 15 60 20 20
105 65 25 15 60 30 15 60 25 20 60 20 25
110 65 25 20 Not 60 25 25 Not
115 65 30 20 permissible 65 25 25 permissible
Notes: these ~regravity-walls with a safety factor of brick
1.5 against
2450 kg/m3 and masonry
overturning~
@ 2120 kg/mi. based
All upon stone masonry
dimensions above in @ centimeters. Approximate
depth of excavation: Dr ~H + 30

FIGURE 114-2
WALI.. DESIGN TABLE
 —131—

Outlet: For a pipe arrangement similar to that shown in Figure 14—3,

the following sizes of GI pipe should be used in the outlet:
GI pipe size Outlet flow
1” 0.33 LPS
1!” 0.80 LPS
2” 1.30 LPS
3” 3.30 LPS
The outlet should be installed with a gate valve and air—vent
(refer to Chapter 11.8).
By-pass: The by-pass line is a direct connection between the inlet and
outlet lines, so that when the tank is shut down, at least some of the flow
can be diverted into the mainline. A gate valve serves to shut off the
by—pass when the tank is in use, and is only open when the flow into the
reservoir is cut off for maintenance work. When a by-pass is used, it is
important to consider static pressures, since the break-pressure effect of
the reservoir has been eliminated.

Overflow: The overflow is sized according to Figure 11—5, but since

the reservol# tank will be overflowing frequently, special care must be
made to ensure drainage of the overflow water does not cause erosion
problems.
Washout: The washout should be of 2’ GI pipe, with a gate valve.
The floor of the tank should be pitched down to the washout, and the
washout pipe imbedded in the bottom of It (refer to Chapter 19.13).
Partitioned tanks: A partitioned tank will require just about
complete duplication of control valves, since one sub—tank must be isolated
from the system at a time. Figure 14—4 shows the general service pipe
arrangements for the necessary cross-connections.

14.7 CONSTRUCTION
This section will present the general steps in construction of a
reservoir, listing important considerations of each step.
Site selection: The site selected for the reservoir should be on
stable ground which will not be threatened by landslides or erosion.
 -132-

CENTlMErE~~J
II’~

0*32htM G4IMDP ~ ONDP4

,~~
a ~ S1~ErN’PDI.ES
C 61/El CJNIOMS
D 6A1! M1V~
E GIEJ_Eow
~ 61.~E‘~.VE(IE MEWED)
61 ~~CEE
H Gi/uoP F-1.ANEE
I Cl TEE
.1 5C~ENEP INT~

FIGURE 114-3

FIGURE 14-4
SERVICE PIPES FOR PARTITIONED RESERVOIR
 -133-

A level ground site is desirable

since ft will require less
excavation, but no site should
be used where any wall of the
tank will be backfllled too
deeply (a minimum of 40 cm
of wall must rise above the
ground) refer to Figure 14—5.
There must be room for
stockpiling the construction
materials(stone, sand, gravel,
etc) and adequate room-for the
cement—mixing crews to work
(for large tanks, the cement-
mixing pads can actually be
located inside the tank).
For a project where many
masons will be working, it
may be desirable to have two or
more mixing pads.
Excavation: The depth of excavation for the tank will depend
upon the nature of the soil in the site. Approximate depths of excavation
are given in Figure 14—2. In sloping ground, the deepest-buried wall must
still rise above the finished ground level by at least 40 cm. Minimum
excavation must establish a perfectly level floor, with foundation trenches
30 cm deep for the wall footings. Although gravity—type walls do not
require the support of backfill, some excavation Is advisable to ensure
that the tank is firmly Imbedded in the ground, especially if It is on
sloping ground. When the excavation is completed, the foundation trenches
are staked out (using string and wooden pegs).
Foundations: The foundation
trenches should be as wide as
the wall footings and 30 cm
deep. A bed of gravel or
lean concrete 10 cm deep is
put down and leveled, then
a masonry (or concrete)
footIng 20 cm high. The
regular masonry wall Is
built up upon this footing.
Refer to Figure 14-6.
 -134-

Wall construction: The masonry walls are of 1:4 cement:sand mortar.

As they are built up, especially if the tank is a deep one, stepping—stones
or foot rungs (made of 3/8” rebar ) must be set into the walls directly
below where the accessway is to
be located (refer to Figure 14—7).
The rungs can be easily fashioned
by the village blacksmith, to the
dimensions shown in the figure.
Rungs or steppingstones should
be spaced 30 cm apart vertically.
Refer to Chapter 19 for details
on cement, mortar, and masonry.

Roofing: Since direct

exposure to sunlight can cause
dehydration of plaster and
concrete, it is- recomended that
the roof of the tank be completed
before the walls are plastered
or the floor has been poured.
Having the tank securely locked
will also deter children from
entering it when the plaster
and concrete are still setting.
Chapter 19.14 presents concrete
roof slabs, and Technical Appendix
F discusses other types of roofing.

Plastering: It is recormended that plastering be done before putting

down the floor. Specifics of plastering are given in Chapter 19.12.
Floor: The floor of the tank may be either of masonry (ie— mortared
brick or stone) or concrete (either reinforced or non—reinforced). A bed
of gravel or crushed stone must be put down, roughly pitched so the floor
will slope downwards to the washout. Technical details of creating
a water-proof tank floor are presented in Chapter 19.13. As soon as the
final concrete or plaster has set, the tank should be filled to a depth
of about 30 cm to help the curing process (a deep depth of water would
exert too much pressure on the floor which the cement would not be strong
enough to support). After two weeks the tank can be filled completely
and checked for any visible leakage.
Finished grading: The ground around the reservoir should be mounded
so that rain run-off will not head towards the tank. The surrounding land
should be stabilizied against erosion. If there is generally heavy rain
run-off, then suitable drainage channels should be made. The drainage
channel for the overflow should also be carefully constructed, and
perferably should carry the water to where it can be utilized (such as for
an animal water—hole, or for irrigation of a nearby garden).
Maintenance should include a yearly draining and cleaning of the tank.
with plastering and other repair work as necessary.
 -135-

14.8 DESIGN EXAMPLE

A reservoir tank of 16,000-liter capacity is to be constructed of

rubble-stone masonry, with CGS roofing and a non-reinforced concrete floor.
This section will present the design calculations and estimates for
materials and labor for roofing, masonry, excavation, and floor (excluded
are 61 service pipes). For specific labor and estimate analysis rates,
see REFERENCE TABLE VII at the end of this handbook.

Preliminary calculations:
Water depth selected to be 65 cm (=0.65m)
Required water surface area = capacity/depth
3/0.65m
= 16.0m
= 24.62m2
Internal dimensions for a square tank = 124.62’ = 4.96m
= 5.Om x 5.Om

The area to be covered by the roof includes the water surface, the top
of the tank walls (each 30 cm wide) and a 10cm overhang:
Roofing area = 5.0 + 0.3 + 0.3 + 0.1 + 0.1 5.8m x 5.8m

Adjusting these dimensions to accomodate the effective dimensions of

a CGS sheet (3.0 x 0.7m):

8 sheets wide = 5.6m

2 sheets long = 6.Om

So the final internal dimensions of the tank are 4.8m x 5.2m

(subtracting overhang and walls), which gives a final capacity of
16.22m3 (16,220 liters) which is acceptable.
 —136—

Wall dimensions Having selected the water depth, it is possible to

select the dimensions of the masonry walls, using Figure 14—2.
The resulting cross-section of
wall and foundation trench are
shown in Figure 14-8.

Cross-sectl areas of
2
masonry = 0.42m
gravel = 0.05m2

The final external

dimensions of the tank
(inclusive of footings) is
5.6m x 6.Om, and excavation
dimensions are therefore
7.6m x 8.Om (which allows
an extra meter outside of the
walls for the masons to work),
by 60cm deep.

Excavations:
volume of main excavation 7.6 x 8.0 x 0.6 = 36.48m3
volume of foundation trench excavations:
(5.6 + 5.6 + 6.0 + 6.0) x 0.3 x 0.5 = 3.48rn~

TOTAL VOLUME OF EXCAVATION = 40.0m3

TOTAL LABOR OF EXCAVATION = 22.0 man—days (unskilled)

Masonry:

total length of masonry walls = 23.2m

cross-sect 1 area of walls = O.42m2
volume of masonry = 23.2 x 0.42 9.74m3
volume of crushed stone (foundation trenches) = 23.2 x 0.05
therefore TOTAL VOLUME OF CRUSHED STONE = 1 16m3

Rubble-stone masonry is 65% stone and 35% mortar, and mortar is

100% sand and 25% cement (for 1:4 cement:sand mortar):

Total volume of stone = 0.65 x 9.74 = 6.33~~

Total volume of mortar = 0.35 x 9.74 3.41m3
 —137—

3
Total volume of sand = 3.41m
TOTAL VOLUME OF CEMENT = 0.25 x 3.41 = O.85ni3
TOTAL MASON LABOR = 9.74 x 1.4 = 13.64 man-days (skilled)
TOTAL LABOR = 9.74 x 3.2 = 31.17 man-days (unskilled)

Floor slab

(The floor slab is non-reinforced concrete, 12cm thick of

l:l!:3 cement.sandgravel mix)

volume of crushed stone foundation = 4.8 x 5.3 x 0.1 = 3.0m3

volume of concrete 4.8 x 5.2 x 0.12 = 3.00m3
volume of crushed stone in concrete = 1.0 x 3.0 3.Oin3

TOTAL VOLUME OF C~USHEOSTONE 3.0 + 3 3 = ~

Total volume of sand = 0.5 x 3.0 = l.5m3
TOTAL VOLUME OF CEMENT = 0.33 x 3.0 = 1 .Orn3
TOTAL MASON LABOR = 1.1 x 3.3 = 3.3 man-days (skilled)
TOTAL LABOR = 4.0 x 3.0 = 12.0 man-days (unskilled)

Roofing

(The roof will require 16 CGS sheets, supported at mid—span

by beams (therefore 3 beams required),each beam supported at
mid-span by a 1 81 pipe column).

Interior span of tank 4.8m

Span of each beam = 2.4ni
Dimensions of each beam = E x 10 x 540 cm

TOTAL VOLUME OF WOOD = 3 x (0.1 x 0.05 x .4) = U.08lm3

TOTAL CARPENTER LABOR = 0.081 x 18 = 1.46 man-days (skilled)
TOTAL LABOR = 0.081 x 18 = 1.46 man-days (unskilled)
3 pieces 1 61 pipe @ O.95m
6 pieces 1 81 threaded flanges
20 pieces 3/8 x 5 bolts w/washer & nut
!—kg 2 nails
pieces 3/8 rebar ~ 0.6Dm (for anchoring beams to walls)
 -138-

Plastering.

(Plastering according to specifications of Chapter 19.12,

3 coats @ 1 cm thick)
2 per coat
Plaster area = (4.8 + 4.8 + 5.2 + 5.2) x 0.7 = 14.Om
Spatterdash (1:4 paster): sand = 14.0 x 0.1 = 0.14m3
cement = 14.0 x 0.0025 = 0.035m3
Second coat (1:3 plaster): sand = 0.14m3
cement = 14.0 x 0.003 = 0.042m3
Final coat (1:2 plaster): sand = 0.14m3
cement = 14.0 x 0.005 = 0.07m3
Total volume of sand = 0.42m3
TOTAL VOLUME OF CEMENT = 0.15m3
Total plastered area (ie- 3 coats) = 3 x 14.0 = 42.0m2
TOTAL MASON LABOR = 42.0 x 0.14 = 5.9 man-days (skilled)
TOTAL LABOR = 42.0 x 0.22 = 9.2 man-days (unskilled)

Total Materials & Labor:

3
Total volume of crushed stone = 7.16m
Labor of crushing stone = 7.16 x 1.4 =10.0 man-days (unskilled)
TOTAL VOLUME OF CEMENT = 2.0Dm3 = 2000 liters = 63 bags
TOTAL UNSKILLED LABOR = 86 man-days
TOTAL SKILLED LABOR = 24.3 man-days
(List of required fittings.. .4
(List of required tools....)
Figure 14-9 are drawings of the final tank design.
 -139-

lWItS;
1. Gi PIPE CIZES ~ 4RPAP"~EMEHT4cr DETAILED HERE
Z REFER it F~6L)RE ILf -1 POE OETA’LS OF SELL p,AjEfl5IOr4S
a EACH ~c SEAM 14A5 A 1”GI P1p5 COL-cJf,jfl ~ ,M,0-SPAN
4 036 AHCICR SOLTS SPACED AT 65 CM

S 0CM

5 80M

520 -~

FIGURE 114—9
RESERVOIR FOR DESIGN EXAMPLE
 -140-

15. PUBLIC TAPSTANDS

15.1 INTRODUCTION

The tapstands are the most frequently-used component of the entire

system. No other structure will face more abuse than these, and no other
structure will have to fit in so closely with local social and cultural
needs.

A tapstand is more than just a physical structure. It will become

a new and important gathering point of the village, where women will be
washing clothes and men bathing themselves. Not only the tapstand itself,
but the irmnediate surrounding area must also be carefully selected and
planned. Properly designed and built, the tapstand will be a clean,
attractive, and inviting place. Poorly completed, and It will be a dirty,
muddy, unhygienic eyesore.
In addition to being the point to collect water, the tapstand area
must allow room for clothes-washing as well as bathing.

Apart from the water—rights of the source, no other part of the

system is apt to become so embroiled in politics, arguments, or disputes.
The number of desired tapstands, and their location, will be a frequent
source of heated debate.
These are all considerations which must be kept in mind and
equitably resolved if the system is to be a successful one.

15.2 TAPSTAND LOCATIONS

Selecting the sites for the tapstands will be a process of compromises,
since no single point is apt to meet all the ideal requirements.
The number of taps required in a system will be greatly influenced
by the geographical lay-out of the village. Isolated wards, no matter
how small, will require their own. The school (if any or several) and
health post should also each have one. It would not be unusual for the
leading political person of the village to desire his own tap (this can
be used to advantage: such a person can be a useful ally in organizing
and motivating the work force, especially if he stands to gain a tapstand).
It has also sometimes happened in Nepal that certain caste groups will
want their own tap, for reasons of religious purity.
These are not all unreasonable requests. While it is not desirable
that the total number of taps becomes excessively large, it Is generally
acceptable to add another one or two taps if the project (as a whole) will
gain from this. A small investment of materials may go a long way towards
goodwill, motivation, and success.
 —141—

The location of the tapstands should be based upon a number of

considerations: is it well—located to serve those families that will
depend upon it, is there an adequate drainage point for the waste—water;
is the area large enough to allow for several users at once (washing,
clothes, bathing, collecting water, etc).
A site near, but not directly on, a main trail is good. A sunny,
sheltered site will encourage bathing (even In the cold season). A
small water-hole for animals may be dug nearby to collect waste—water
(and prevent the animals from coming directly to the tapstand to get
their water). Overflow from the water-hole can be channeled to a nearby
garden or field.

15.3 FLOW
The standard tapstand flow is 0.225 LPS (13.5 liters/minute).
Such a tap will adequately serve a population of 200—230 persons. Where
a tapstand will be serving only just a few households then the flow can
be cut down a bit, and conversely the flow may be increased for a more
densely—populated area (a double - or triple—faucet tapstand may also be
built, refer to Section 15.5).
The design flow is achieved by installing a !” globe valve at the
base of the tapstand, and adjusting it until the desired flow is delivered.
This valve is then securely locked up, to prevent furhter tampering. The
faucet at the discharge serves only as an on/off control valve.

15.4 RESIDUAL HEAD

The residual head at the tapstand is important: if too high, it will
cause accelerated erosion of the Interior of the control valve; and if
too low, will result in low fl’ows.
The following residual heads are reconiiiended:
Absolute minimum: 7 meters
Low end of desired range: 10
Most desirable: 15
High end of desired range: 30
Absolute maximum: 56

These standards are somewhat liberal; Wagner & Lanoix recoimnend a

range of 10—50 meters.*
The static pressure when the tap is closed must not exceed the pressure
rating of the tapstand pipe, and tapline.

* “Water Supply for Rural Areas & Small Coninunities” (WHO, 1959)
 -142—

15.5 STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONS

A tapstand may be constructed of brick, stone, or wood, using mortar
or dry—stone masonry. Regardless of what it is constructed with, it must
be designed and built to survive heavy use and abuse, especially if
located in a schoolyard.
A masonry tapstand of cement mortar sbould have a supporting column
50cm x 50cm around the GI pipe,
and should be on a footing
imbedded 30cm below ground
level. Mortar should be 1:4
and the exterior can be
plastered if the villagers
so desire. The faucet should
protrude far enough so that
the water vessels can be easily
filled; it need not protrude,
however, more than 30cm. Since
the water vessels are typically
carried by a headstrap, a low
bench added to the tap (either
of cement, mud mortar, or
dry—stone masonry) will be
helpful to facilitate lifting
the vessel. A concrete or
cement—mortared ‘apron’
should provide enough room
for several persons to work
at once. A non-erodable
drainage channel should
carry the wastewater to
a suitable drainage point.

Dry-stone tapstands can be used when the tapstand can be built into
an embankment, or where there are skilled rock-cutting masons who can
carefully fit together a solid tapstand structure; these types require
minimal (if any) cement mortar. Both of these types are shown in
Figure 15—2.
 —143—

Wooden tapstands do not have such a long lifetime as masonry

_______________
tapstands, due to the moist
environment which promotes
rotting. However, occasional-
ly some projects will tempo-
rarily require such tapstands
until cement can be obtained
to build the proper one. In
such cases, a wooden post,
15cm square minimally by
100cm longer than the height
of the faucet, can be quickly
Installed. The village
blacksmith is able to make
a few iron staple—nails with
which the GI pipe can be
firmly nailed to the post.
This type of tapstand Is
shown in Figure 15—3.
A more permanent wooden
tapstand can be made with a
post of the same size, but
a channel cut In the back of
it so that the GI pipe can be
installed inside of it, as
shown In Figure 15—4. A
viooden cap over the top of the
post will prevent rainwater
from seeping into the wood,
and the surrounding area around the post should be slated to minimize
seepage Into the ground. The post should be set into a bed of gravel,
and backfilled with more gravel, so that water drains freely downwards
and doesnt soak the post. The post itself should be thoroughly painted
with a wood preservative or varnish, to Inhibit rot.
 —144—

GI pipe: Tapstands use !” 6 CAP

GI pipe, and require a faucet and ~j~Lc~N
a globe valve.* The height of
the faucet should be 120-150cm
above the apron (a schoolyard
tapstand should have a faucet
somewhat lower for smaller
students). The control valve
should be located in a securely- 1~x
WOODEN P0~1•
200 ______
locking valvebox (see Chapter 16)
that prevents tampering. Figure
15—5 shows typical GI pipe GIPIPa N~1Da ___~
arrangements and dimensions for W000EKJ POST
single — and multi-faucet taps:

*In Nepal, a !” globe valve Is

known as a corporation cock

=~ BACKPILL. 3’
FIGURE 15-4
WOODEN TAPSTAND

DW.E~N5 IN TW~ET~R5

SINGLE -FAUCET DOU8LE-F4UcET

r©
T4P6T414D TAPGTANO

)4X 20MM SI/HOp BR~1 UNION ~“ 61 SOCKET

j~ 6L08? VaLVE a “ 8RA55 FAUCET
I

~
~‘ 61 TEE
~ ~

FIGURE 15-5
GI PIPE ARRANGEMENTS FOR TAPSTANDS
 -145-

Multi-faucet tapstands: Where the population density of a village

is quite high, it is possible to economize on the number of tapstands
by constructing ones with two or three faucets. In such cases, one faucet
should be set about 30cm lower, and the control valve adjusted so that
not less than 0.20 LPS flows from each tap when all taps are open. Multi—
faucet tapstands are not required anywhere except where it Is expected
that there will be more than 200 persons using the tap, or where an
unusual water demand schedule will result in a great number of persons
trying to use the tap at once (such as bathing at a bazaar tapstand).
Dralnag~: The waste—water from tapstands must not be allowed to
collect in muddy puddles, where it can stagnate and become a breeding

place for mosquitoes and disease. Waste-water should be carried away by

a non-erodible channel (or 9Dm HDP pipe) to a suitable drainage point
(such as a water-hole for animals, or a nearby garden or field). Such
channels do not have to be made of mortared masonry but should be made
of brick or stone that is carefully fitted. Drain channels should be
bridged at path crossings. The drainage point must definitely be at
a lower elevation, and the minimum slope of the drain channel should be
5%. Refer to Figure 15-6 for drawings of some drainage channels.
Finishing: The ground around the tapstand should be finished
in such a way that it is stable, quick-draining, and quick—drying.
Animals should be precluded from walking over, or through, the tapstand
area, and therefore some fencing may be needed.
 - 146 —

The tapstand may be plastered or left natural, depending upon

the quality of the masonry and village desires. In fact, much of
the tapstand construction should be accordinq to the wishes of the
villagers, with the overseer providing guidence along those lines
discussed In this chapter.
Some villagers may be content with just an open pipeline.
Such arrangements invariably create problems that for outweigh
the expense and labour of building a sound tapstand.

Various drawings of tapstands are shown in Figure 15-7.

 -147—

16. VALVEBOXES

16.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of a valvebox is to protect a control valve from
undesirable tampering which can upset the hydraulic balance of the system
and disrupt flows.
Valveboxes can be attached to the structures (as is coimnon with tanks)
or located independently along the pipeline (such as at strategic
branchpoints or near tapstands). They can be constructed of masonry,
GI pipe, HOP pipe, or reinforced concrete (RCC), depending upon the
materials available, size and number of valves, how often they will be
operated, etc.

16.2 DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS

Regardless of what they are constructed with, all valveboxes must be
built with the following characteristics:
Secure cover: The valve must be protected by a strong and secure
cover which cannot be undone or opened by ordinary persons. Covers can
be bolted down, nailed down, burled, or even welded down (as Is the
case with a HOP pipe ~alvebox). Valvebox covers can be RCC slabs
(see Chapter 19.15), GCS sheeting (refer to Chapter 20.6) or wooden
planks.
Free-draining: No valvebox should have a solid floor, so that
any leakage or ground seepage can quickly drain away. A bed of gravel
or crushed stone Is reconinended.
Adequately large enough to allow the valves to be removed easily and
replaced, without having to tear down the valvebox. If constructed of
masonry, it must be large enough so that wrenches and pliers can swing
freely. If constructed of GI or HOP pipe, they must be easily removable.

16.3 MASONRY VALVEBOXES

Masonry valveboxes are of either stone or brick. The lower portion
of the box may be of dry—stone masonry, but cement-mortar masonry should
be used for the top 40cm. The box should protrude about 10cm
above around level. The Interior dimensions of the box must allow the
vaivests) to be unscrewed from the pipe; in a box with two or more valve;.
staggering them will leave some more room. The pipeline should not be
 -148-

cemented into the walls of the box, and thE

box should be built on a bed of gravel or
crushed stone several centimeters deep to
allow quick drainaqe of leakage or moisturE
Refer to Figure 16-1.

FIGURE 16—1
MASONRY VALVEBOX

16.4 RCC VALVEBOXES

Valveboxes made of
reinforced concrete are not
generally worth the effort
for just a single box. How-
ever, when several boxes
of the same dimensions are
to be built, then a wooden
form can be made and RCC
valveboxes easily produced.
The RCC valvebox can rest
upon a lower portion of
dry-stone masonry. The
reinforcement should be
of 3/8’ rebar, the concrete
should be 1:2:4 mix (with
small-sized gravel), and the
walls should be about 5cm
thick. Bolts should be
imbedded in the top for
bolting down the cover
(refer to Chapter 20.4).
The dimensions of the
interior are the same as FIGURE 16-2
for masonry valveboxes. RCC VALVEBOX
Refer to Chapter 19 for
details of RCC cementwork.
 —149-

16.5 GI PIPE VALVEBOXES

For a single valve, it is possible to use a length of GI pipe as the
valvebox, as shown in Figure
16—3. The size of the GI pipe
depends upon the size of the
control valve; for valves used
in Nepal, the following sizes
can usually be used:

VALVE SIZE GI PIPE SIZE

!” 2”
111 311

1!” 3”
2” 4’

It is reconinended, however,
that the overseer personally
check that the control valves will
actually fit inside the GI pipe.
The base of the 61 pipe is
Lock1r~ BAR. slotted to allow it to slip over
the pipeline, and locked into
place with a 3/8’ bolt or hooked
FIGURE 163 rebar ~theseare passed through
GI PIPE VALVEBOX two !” holes
bottom of the drilled
pipe). inAn the
endcap
screwed down with a pipewrench
will be a secure cover. For
operatl-ng the valve, a “key” of !” or 1” GI pipe is used: the ends of
this key are slotted so It can be slipped onto the valve handle and
turned. Dry-stone masonry walls and gravel backfill are recommended,
and painting the GI pipe will help to retard corrosion.

16.6 HDP PIPE VALVEBOXES

These are best suited for the !’ control valve of a tapstand, since
these are valves that are not frequently adjusted. An HDP valvebox is of
90tiiii HOP pipe, secured to the pipeline in the same slotted manner as
described above, but not extending to the ground surface. They are closed
by welding on a 90mm HDP endcap, with enough clearance so that
the cap may be cut off without damaging the valve inside.
The same cap can be re-welded back on once the maintenance
work is completed. Refer to Figure 16-4.
 —150-

16.7 FREQUENTLY-ADJUSTED VALVES

For valves which must be operated fairly frequently, it may be better
to leave a hole in the valvebox cover that is located directly over the
valve handle. Then the valve can be operated using the ‘key” (described
in Section 16.5) instead of repeatedly removing the cover. The hole in
the cover should be just a few centimeters larger than the key pipe, and
the cover should be high enough so that hands cannot reach down through
the hole and operate the valve manually. Refer to Figure 16—5. A dis-
advantage of this type of valve box is that the hole is open, which leaves
the valve liable to being tampered with by using a hand—made key.
16.8 ATTACHED VALVEBOXES

These are valveboxes attached to, or built Into, some structure, such
as intake tanks, break—pressure tanks, or reservoirs. Such boxes will
usually consist of three masonry walls (of which the wall of the tank
may be one) with a dry—stone masonry wall as the fourth. This dry—stone
wall can be dismantled and the pipeline below it dug up without destroying
any part of the valvebox.
Various drawing of some valveboxes are presented in Figure 16—6:
 —151—

RCC SLAb

61 PIPE

p.

1’2~’~

FIGURE 16-6
VARIOUS VALVEBOX COVERS
 —152—

17. WATER QUALITY

17.1 INTRODUCTION
At the current time, there is no practical water treatment system
which can be broadly used in Nepal. Thus, emphasis must lie in locating
the cleanest possible source of drinking water, then properly securing
it against further contamination.
Physical contaminants, such as suspended matter, can be removed or
greatly reduced by allowing sedimentation to occur, as discussed in
Chapter 12.
There are only two additional steps that can be practically employed
towards improving water quality: slow—sand filtration, and aeration.
This chapter will not attempt to present the technical details for these:
the reader can find an abundance of such information among the sources
listed in the Reference section of this handbook. Instead,~genera1
description and discussion will be presented so that the reader can gain
a basic understanding of these procedures.

17.2 SLOW-SAND FILTRATION

A slow-sand filter Is a
large tank that has am under—drain
system which is covered by a
base layer of gravel and then
a bed of filtering sand. The
filter works by mechanically
straining the water as it
flows through the sand, and
also by biologically attacking
the organic impurities (the
filter bed develops a “slime”
of bacteria, which feed upon
the organic impurities carried
in the flow).

These filters are rela-

tively simple to build and
do not require highly—trained
personnel for maintenance.
However, a slow-sand filter
has several serious drawbacks:
at best efficiency, it can
only filter about D.DD2-O.OO3
LPS (7-11 liters/hour) per
square meter of filter
surface area. Thus, a large
areas is required for
providing even a minimal flow
fQr the system. Additionally,
 —153—

although simple to maintain, they do require regular, reliable attention

or else they can become sources of bacterial pollution rather than
removers.
The decision to install such a filter Involves much serious
consideration and consultation with the villagers, the overseer, and the
LDD engineers. Technical design of such a filter Is best left to
professional people.

17.3 AERATION

Aeration Is the process of thoroughly mixing the water with air.

Oxygen—enriched water loses its acidity (which Is due to the presence of
dissolved carbon dioxide) and
reduces undesirable tastes and
colors due to the presence of
iron or other dissolved gases.
The easiest method of
aeration Is to build a tower,
as shown in Figure 17-2, which
has several tiers of plastic
screens or wooden slats.
These mechanically break the
water flow into small droplets,
which, because of their
increased surface area, can
absorb oxygen quicker. Such
a tower can be built as part
of a sedimentation tank or
collection tank, or even the
reservoir.

IS B~BN
INTO SM.4I-&~P~PI.L1~
BY V~OOEN&AT5.

FIGURE 17-2
AERATION TOWER

17.4 FURTHER REFERENCE

For quick, basic lrrformation on slow—sand filters and aeration
techniques, refer to “Water Supply for Rural Areas and Small Coninunities”,
Lanoix & Wagner (WHO, l959)~ pages 175—180.
 -154-

18. HYDRAULIC RAMS

18.1 INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic rams (hydrams) are coming Into greater and greater use
Nepal, allowing many villages that earlier could not use a gravity—flow
water system (because the source was too low) to now have a drinking
water system which Is still economical to construct. Although the hydram
is a pump, it requires no fuel or electricity. Instead, it operates by
using the gravitational energy contained in a large amount of water
falling a short distance to pump a small amount of water up a high distance.
This means that the hydram can be used to pump water from a low
source up to a reservoir tank which is built higher than the village.
From there, the water is distributed via a normal, gravity-flow pipeline.
This chapter will introduce the basic principles of a hydram, and
present the technical knowledge necessary for a surveyor to conduct a
field survey of a potential hydram project and determine if a hydram is
feasible. Although the installation of a hydram requires special knowledge,
there is no reason why a surveyor cannot properly identify a feasible
hydram project, or a designer properly design such a system.

An excellent reference book

is “Use of Hydraulic Rams in
Nepal”, by Mitchell Silver, printed
by UNICEF/Nepal, 1977. Further
information can be found in the
sources listed in the Reference
section of this handbook.

18.2 DESCRIPTION

Hydrams are available as

commercially manufactured kits,
or can be easily fabricated using
GI pipe fittings and the services
of a machine shop. Either type
will be essentially similar to
the one shown in Figure 18-1.
A large amount of water
flowing from the source down
lb RESERVOIR
the drivepipe compresses the
air In the chamber, which then
expands and drives a small
FIGURE 18-1 amount of water up the delivery
pipe. The quantity and height
HYDRAULIC RAM that the hydram can push water
up to depends upon the quantity
 —155—

and height of the water “falling” in the drivepipe.

A typical installation of a hydram system is shown in Figure 18-2:

18.3 OUTPUT CALCULATION

A hydram, under optimum conditions, tan rarely pump more than 25% of
the source flow to a higher elevation. Thus, usually only very large
springs, or streams, will be able to provide enougi flow to serve a
village. The higher the water must be pumped, the smaller the flow will
be.
To calculate the approximate delivery flow of a hydram:

Qp 2 _____________
x Hd x Od Where:
3 x Hp Qp = delivery flow (LPS)
Hd = “falling” head (meter)
Hp = “lifting” head (not to exceed
100 meters)
Qd = “falling” flow (LPS)
These variables are indicated in Figure 18—2.
 —156—

18.4 TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS

When studying a village for a potential hydram project, there are
some technical details which must be kept in mind:
— If the source is a stream, it will be necessary to build a storage
tank for the hydram (to ensure a regular, constant flow into the drive
pipe)~
- Suspended particles and sediments will increase wear and tear on

the pump, thus a sedimentation tank may have to be built;

- The drive pipe must be of GI pipe, and be as straight as possible,

securely anchored or imbedded;

thus, when studying a potential hydram project site, the surveyor
must carefully select sites and terrain which will allow for the
installation of tanks, drivepipe, etc, and must obtain accurate elevations
and ground distances.

18.5 SPECIAL ARRANGENENTS

It is possible to use several hydrams connected to a single delivery
pipe; or to use the waste.water from an upper hydram to operate a lower
hydram; or to incorporate a hydram Into a break—pressure tank. These
possibilities are illustrated in Figure 18-3.
 -157-

- r ]NC.OP.~P.ATED

N EXISTING GRAVIrY c~L.OW

W4TEE ~UPPLVS~TENI ~

SUPPLY PIPE 10
P~VEPIPE -
SUPPLY TANK/

-1
J i

~4IULTIPL-EHYD0AA~INSTALLMENT
WITh SEPEBATE PEIVE PIPES
ANP COMMON DELIVERy PIPE

LOWER PLIAAP PZ’WREBE~BY

OPPEQ PI)MPS W4STE W,4TEP

FIGURE 18-3
 -158-

19. CEMENT, CONCRETE, & MASONRY

19.1 INTRODUCTION
Just about all structures constructed in water supply projects
require the use of cement: mortar for masonry, plaster for waterproofness,
and concrete for floor slabs. Proper knowledge of how to select the best
materials, how to organize cement—mixing procedures, and how to make
efficient and economical use of cement is all esaential to the overseer.
This chapter is intended to be a fairly complete field reference.
It will describe the various materials required for cementwork, their
properties, and important considerations. It will discuss masonry of
brick and stone, and concrete slabs for floors and roofs. It will present
organizational procedures, helpful construction tips, and mention some
coninon problems.
Some of the more important Information is included in REFERENCE TABLE
VIII at the end of this handbook.

19.2 DEFINITIONS & TERMS

The common cementwork vocabulary used in this chapter is listed
here, with a brief explanation:
cement: serves as an adhesive, gluing together sand and stone.
Typically, normal Portland cement Is used: a gray powder, similar to
flour.
mortar: a mixture of cement and sand in various proportions,
depending upon desired strength. Used to cement together bricks or stones
in masonry, and used to plaster walls for waterproofness.
concrete: a mixture of cement, sand, and aggregates (such as gravel
or crushed stone) in various proportions. Can be poured to form slabs.
RCC: reinforced concr-ete. Concrete with reinforcing steel rods
or baFrTmbedded in it for additional strength and support. Wire
screening may also be used.
RF bricks: reinforced brick masonry, using reinforcement described
above.
rebar: reinforcing steel bars or rods, used in RCC or RF brick.
aggregate: small pieces of stone mixed with cement and sand to
form concrete. Coarse aggregates may be gravel, crushed stone, or
crushed brick. Fine aggregate is sand.
 -159-

gravel: usually found along rivers and streams: small pebbles and
stones, worn fairly smooth and rounded by the action of water.
crushed stone: large pieces of rock or stone broken down to
aggregate size, by manual labor using sledge hammers.
crushed brick: pieces of broken-up brick.

19.3 CEMENT
Cement is a mixture of chalk or limestone, and clay, which is fired
and then ground into a fine powder. Additional materials may be added
to impart certain properties to the cement (such as to make it quick-
setting, low—heat, rapid-hardening, etc). Ordinary cement is a gray
powder, commonly known as “Portland cement”. This is the type commonly
provided for water supply projects in Nepal
Properties of cement: Portland cement is used for ordinary
construction projects. Cement mortar or concrete has high compressive
(crushing) strength, but relatively low tensile (stretching) strength.
When water is added to a mortar or concrete mixture, it forms a fluid mass
which is easily worked and placed into position. Within an hour
(depending upon temperature and mix) the cement begins to set, losing
its plasticity. Within 4 hours It has finished setting and can no longer
be worked. From the time that setting begins, the cement is undergoing
a chemical hardening process which will continue for at least a year,
although it most-rapidly hardens during the first few days.

STRENGTH OF PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE

(Per cent of ultimate strength
at various ages)

3 days approx. 20%

7 days “ 45%
28 days “ 60%
3 months “ 85%
6 months “ 95%
1 year “ 100%
Hydration: When water is added to a dry cement mixture (for either
mortar or concrete), it begins a chemical reaction with the cement known
as “hydration”. This reaction causes the cement to set and harden, giving
off heat in the process. The rate of hydration is accelerated by heat and
humidity, therefore cement will set and harden faster at warmer temperatures,
and vice versa for colder temperatures (freezing of cement completely kills
the E~aFation reaction, which will not continue even if the cement is
thawed out. Refer to Section 19.18). The hydration reaction requires
moisture, but the heat generated by hydration tends, to cause evaporation
of the moisture In the mix. Thus it is necessary to prevent the rapid
drying-out of the cement, especially during the’first few days. Once
hydration ceases, the cement will gain no further strength.
 -160—

Setting: When water is added to a cement mix, there is a period of

about 30—60 minutes in which the mix is plastic and easily worked into
position. However, after that period, the mix begins to set, becoming
stiffer and stiffer. Within a few hours, the setting should be complete.
Once setting has begun,the mix should not be disturbed, which would
weaken the mix. Onset of setting can be determined by pressing the
blunt end of a stick or pencil into the mix: resistance to penetration
will suddenly increase when setting begins.
Hardening: This is the process whereby the cement mix gains strength.
Hardening begins as soon as setting begins, but continues for at least
a year.
Both setting and hardening are influenced by temperature: heat
accelerates the rates of both.
Curing: Curing is the process of keeping the cement mix properly
wetted, to ensure that there is enough moisture for the hydration reaction
to continue. It is especially important during the first few days after
pouring a concrete mix, when the cement most rapidly gains its strength.
Packaging of cement: One liter of Portland cement weighs approximately
1.44 kgs. Cement is typically factory—packed in bags of 50 kgs each, so
therefore each bag should ideally contain nearly 35 liters of cement.
However, some cement is lost during shipping and portering. For practical
purposes, the amount of cement per bag should be considered as follows:
burlap (jute) bags : 32 liters
paper bags : 34 liters
Storage of cement: Cement easily absorbs moisture from the air, and
as a result loses strength during long periods of storage. Typical losses
are as follows:
Period of storage Loss of strength
3 months 20%
6 “ 30%
12 “ 40%
24 “ 50%

When storing cement at the project site, it should be stacked in a

closely—packed pile, not more than 10 bags high (to keep the bottom bags
from bursting). Close—packing also reduces air—circulation between the
bags, which is good. The pfle cf cement should be raised on a platform
above the floor. The room or storage shed should have as little air
circulation as possible, and if a long storage period is anticipated, the
pile should be further covered by plastic or canvas tarpaulins. Paper
bags of cement will resist aging much better than burlap bags, thus
paper bags should be on the outside of the pile, and the burlap bags should
be the first used in construction.

Aged cement will form lumps. All lumps should be screened out of
the cement, and no lumps should be used which cannot be easily crumbled
 —161—

by the firtgers. If old cement (ie— field stored for more than 6 months)
must be used, increase the amount of cement in the mix by !—i parts
(depending upon how lumpy it is).

19.4 WATER
Water in the cement mix serves two purposes: first, to take part
in the hydration reaction of the cement; and secondly, to make the mix
fluid and plastic enough so that it can be easily worked and placed.
Quality: Water that is fit for drinking is usually fit for mixing
cement. Water unsuited for drinking may still be used, if tested as
follows:
Using water of known suitability (ie— drinking water), make 3 cakes
of cement paste, each approximately 1-2 cm thick by 6 cm in diameter.
At the same time, make 3 identical cakes using the unknown water.
Comparing the two types, observe the setting time, the “scratchability”
(using a fingernail) and strength after a few hours, 24 hours, and
48 hours. Only if both types of cakes are equally strong should the
unknown water be used.
Quantity: Water Is necessary for the hydration of the cement, but
too much water added during mixing results in a weaker strength. The
quantity of water generally needed to make the mix easily workable is
much more than is needed for the hydration reaction. Therefore, no
more water should be added than necessary to make the mix easily workable.
The ideal quantities of water depend upon the amount of cement In the
mix, and approximate guidelines are given along with the mix proportions
for concrete, in Section 19.11.
Once the cement has finished setting, further addition of water
does not weaken it. In curing concrete, this is a necessary action to
prevent the surface of the slab from drying out too quickly.

19.5 SAND
Sand is used in both mortar and concrete (in the latter, It is
sometimes referred to as “fine aggregate”). Proper sand is well—graded
(ie- containing grain! of many sizes mixed together). Sand of a uniform
size, such as beach sand or very fine sand, is not suitable (but can be
mixed into coarser sands).
Sources of sand: Sand found in land deposits is known as “pit sand”.
Such grains are generally Irregular, sharp and angular. Sand carried by
water, such as found along banks of rivers or lakes, is known as
“river sand”. Such grains are generally rounded and smooth, due to the
action of water.
Both types of sand are suitable for cementwork, so long as they are
well-graded and clean.
 -162-

Quality: Sand containing clay, silt, salt, mica, or organic material

is not good, since such contaminants can weaken the strength of the
cement if they are present in large quantities. There are easy field
tests which can be conducted to deteniiine the quality of a sand source:
a) A moist handful of the sample sand is rubbed between the palms
of the hands. Suitable sand will leave the hands only slightly dirty.
b) Decantatlon test: a drinking glass (or other clear glass
container) is half-filled with the sample sand, and then filled 3/4—full
with water. The glass is then shaken vigorously, and allowed to sit
undisturbed for an hour or so. The clean sand will settle immediately,
and the clay and silt will settle as a dark layer on top of the sand.
The thickness of the clay/silt layer should not be more than one—
seventeenth (6%) of the thickness of the sand.
Dirty sand can be washed by rinsing repeatedly with water.
Bulking of sand: Damp sand that contains up to 5—6% water will
swell up and occupy a greater volume than If it were perfectly dry.
This Is known as “bulkfng”. A moisture content of 5—6% can increase
the volume by over 30%. Additional water content reduces the bulking,
until saturated completely (saturated sand occupies nearly the same
volume as it does when dry). Thus when using slightly damp sand,
it is necessary to use an extra amount of sand In the mix if it is
to be proportioned by volume. Very damp sand (such as freshly washed)
is measured as if it were dry. If the mix is proportioned by weight,
the bulking is of no consequence.

19.6 AGGREGATES
Aggregates is the general term for the material mixed with cement
and water to form concrete. Sand is a fine aggregate, and larger
material is a coarse aggregate.
Coarse aggregates may be gravel (generally river—worn, rounded rocks)
or crushed rock and brick.
Stones of granite, quartzite, basalt, or having rough non—glossy
surfaces are best. Hard lirnestones are good, soft sandstones are not.
Limestones and sandstones are porous and therefore not good for water
tank floor slabs, but can be used for roof slabs (same applies for
crushed brick).
Aggregates must be clean and well-graded. Smaller rounder
aggregates (such as river gravel) are better for waterproof floor
slabs.
 —163—

Sizes of aggregates: Aggregates should be well—graded so that air

voids between pieces are minimal. Largest sizes should be:
For roof slabs: 3/8” (lOan)
For unreinforced or lightly reinforced slabs: 3/4”—l” (20—25mm)
Crushed brick: Pieces of broken-up brick may be used as aggregate
in concrete, but due to their porous nature should not be used for floor
slabs of water tanks. When using crushed brick aggregate, pieces
should be thoroughly soaked in water prior to mixing, to prevent
absorption of moisture from the mix (which will interfere with the
hydration reaction).

19.7 REBAR REINFORCEMENT

Reinforcement of concrete is only needed for slabs which are large In
area or will be put under great hydrostatic pressure (ie— deep water
depth). An RCC slab can be thinner than a non—reinforced slab. The
presence of the reinforcement helps to distribute the stresses and
forces uniformly over the entire mass of concrete.
Reinforcing bar (reb~rjj Is available In many sizes, but for
typlci[water supply projects only the following diameters are needed:
#” , 5/16”, or 3/8” (6mm, 8nn, or 10mm).
Wire-mesh screen: (also known as ‘wire-mesh fabric’) can also be
used as reinforcement in slabs. The size of aggregate In the concrete
mix should be smaller than the size of the mesh (using a piece of the
screen to sift the aggregate Is the best way of ensuring this).
~p~çjngof rebar: The spacing of the rebar must distribute the
cross-sectional area of steel uniformly across the cross—sectional
area of the slab. For a floor slab, the area of rebar must not be less
than 0.225% of the total cross-sectional area of the slab, and for a
RCC roof slab is must not be less than 0.30%. The following table c~n
be used:

Type of Thickness ~pacing

of Rebar (cml
kc~l
floor 8 15 30 40
roof 8-9 12 21 33
roof 9—11 10 17 27
roof 11-13 8 14 22
roof 13-15 7 12 19
roof 15-17 6 11 17
 -164-

Placing of rebar: The reinforcement is made a~a grid, with the

size ~j’the squares according to the table above. The rebar rods can be
__________________________________ tied together with thin wire
or string. The rebar must
have a minimum of 3 cm of
concrete covering. For a
ROOF Si_AS: roof slab, the rebar is set
3 cm from the bottom of the
N slab, and for a floor slab
the rebar is set 3 cm
_________________________________ from the ~p,of the slab
(Refer to Figure 19—1).

The rebar must be

securely fastened so that
it cannot be shifted
FLOOR 5LAB~ around while the concrete
is being placed (the
rebar can be supported on
pieces of non—porous rock,
but NOT brick or wooden
stakes).
Reinforced (RF) brick
DIMENSIONS IN CENTL*~EYER slabs: When a roof slab is
to be of reinforced brick,
different rebar spacing is
required, depending upon
FIGURE 19-1 the thickness of the slab,
and the size of the bricks.
REBAR PLACEMENT IN SLABS Refer to Section 19.14 for
technical details of this
type of roof slab. A
floor slab of brick
requires no reinforcement (refer to Section 19.13)

19.8 CEMENT MIXING

For convenience, it is usually easiest to mix cement at the
construction site, so it is necessary to ensure that there is an organized
system for delivering cement, sand, aggregates, stone or brick, and water.
It is particularly important when mixing and pouring concrete that it
be done in a continuous operation, without long delays caused by lack
of materials.

Mixing pad: Cement should never be mixed on the ground. A mixing

pad of brick, slate, concrete, or even a CGS sheet should be made. It
should be large enough to allow miwing of convenient—sized batches,
without overflowing: 1.5 square meters is adequate. If possible,
build a small lip around three sides of the pad so that materials may
not get accidently washed off.
When a number of masons are working at once, or concrete is being
mixed, it is usually better to have two or more pads.
 -165—

ProportiQning: Although the most accurate method of proportioning

cement, sand, and aggregates Is by weight, in a field site this is not
so easy to arrange. The common method is to mix by volume, using a small
bucket. Measuring by shovelfuls Is not accurate. Mortar should be
mixed in smaller batches than concrete, but no batch should be so large
that it is not used in 30 minutes.
Dry-mixing: All ingredients are first thoroughly dry—mixed together,
using shovels and trowels, until the mix is of a uniform color and
cons i stancy.
Wet-mixing: Water is added slowly, a small quantity at a time.
Each time water is added, the mix is thoroughly “turned over’ a few
times with shovels. Water is added until the mortar or concrete is at
the desired consistancy. The wet—mix can be adjusted as follows:
Too wet: add sand (and aggregate)
Too dry: add water
Too stiff: add sand
Too sandy: add cement
Tools & Manpower: A cement—mixing team should nttnimally have three
persons: two for mixing, one for adding water and ingredients. Each
team should have two shovels and two trowels, a small bucket (for
measuring proportions) and a large bucket (for transporting the mix to
the masons).

19.9 MORTAR
Cement mortar Is used for masonry construction of walls, and for
plastering. Grout is used to cement rebar anchor rods into rocks and
imbedding GI pipes into the masonry.
Typical mixes: Proportions of cement to sand, by weight or by
volume:
Type of mortar Cement:sand
Ordinary masonry 1:4
Reinforced brick roof slabs: 1:3
Spatterdash (1st coat plaster) 1:4
Rough plaster (2nd coat) 1:3
Final plaster (3rd coat) 1:2
Grout: 1:1 — 1:1!
Volumes of mortar: The total volume of mortar is equal to the total
volume of sand in the mix. The cement mixes with water to form a paste
which fills in the voids in the sand. Thus, a 1:4 mix requires 100%
sand and 25% cement; a 1:3 mix requires 100% sand and 33% cement, etc.
 —166—
Quantities required to make one cubic meter (1 m3) of various mortar
mixes:
Mortar mix Sand (m3) Cement (m3)
1:4 1.0 0.25
1:3 1.0 0.33
1:2 1.0 0.50
l:1! 1.0 D.67
1:1 1.0 1.00

19.10 MASONRY
Because the masonry walls of the tanks are required to be as
waterproof as possible against the hydrostatic pressure of the water
inside, particular attention must be paid to the workmanship of the
masons. It must be made clear to them that a masonry wall built the
same as walls for their houses is not adequate, and that the walls of
the tanks must be carefully laid down according to directions.
Brick masonry: Bricks are usually locally manufactured in Nepal,
and are of various shapes and quality. The exact dimensions of local
bricks should be obtained for making the estimated requirements. The
total volume of brick masonry is approximately 25% mortar and 75% brick.
Bricks should be soaked in water for several minutes prior to being
used (this prevents them from absorbing too much moisture from the
mortar) but not soaked excessively.
Masons who are experienced at building houses with brick and
mud mortar will be inclined to build tank walls in the same manner;
laying down a bed of mortar, then placing the bricks tightly together
on top of it, then laying down another mortar bed for the next course.
The result is a network of unobstructed channels between the bricks
where water will have easy leakage. Proper brick masonry for water-
proof walls requires spacing the bricks one centimeter apart, and
carefully filling in the joints with mortar. Bricks should be laid
in patterns that do not result in a straightline joint from the
inside to outside of the wall. Refer to Figure 19-2 for various points
on brick masonry.
The top course of bricks should be completely clean and wetted
before putting down the mortar bed for the next course. If the mortar
on the top course has begun to set, the joints should be scraped down
approximately one centimeter deep and refilled with fresh mortar. The
walls should be built up evenly, so that the weight is distributed
uniformly: no section of a wall should be more than 15 courses
(approximately 1 meter) higher than the lowest section.
Once the mortar has set, the masonry should be wetted regularly
(several times per day) for several days.
Dressed—stone masonry: Also known as “Ashlar masonry”. In this
type ófiiasonry, the stones are carefully cut to rectangular dimensions,
making ‘stone bricks”. Such masonry requires skilled masons, and much
 -167-

8RJCKS SR4cED 1CM APGRT OH

BED OF MORTAR • AND JOINT~ARE
CAREFLM~LV “BACKFILI~ED”WITH
MORTAR

SOOD BRICK M45ONRY

BRiCKS CLOSELY ~Cg~ ON EGO

OF MORTAR, .JOINTS NOT FILLED

BAD E~RJcx.,%4~A$ON2Y

ON EACH COURSE AT APPROIC

EVERY 60CM INSERT BONDING
BRRKS TO TIE THE FRONT ~
RLGR LINES 1iD6ETHER
HI~ i

4LTEaNATE VER1Ic4L
COURSES
BOND CORNERS
L~ ~V

I I ; V~7

FIGURE 19—2
TECHN I QUES
BRICK MASONRY
 -168-

time and labor. Ashlar masonry is approximately 30% mortar and 70% stone.
Refer to Figure 19-3:

Rubble-stone masonry: This is the most common type of masonry used

in Nepal. The stones are roughly shaped by the masons, and the resulting
wall is similar to that shown in Figure 19-4. The stones should be
lightly tapped down into the mortar, then securely fixed using mortar
and pieces of crushed gravel. No stone should span completely from the
inside to the outside of the wall. With this type of masonry, it is very
easy to leave air voids between the stones, so care must be taken that
this does not happen. For estimate purposes, this type of masonry is
approximately 35% mortar and 65% stone.
Setting 61 i e: 61 pipe is set into masonry walls on a bed of
grout (1:1 or 1: ! mortar). A minimum length of 30cm of pipe should be
imbedded, and the more the better. Once the pipes have been placed,
they must not be disturbed at all for several days. Building a protective
dry—stone masonry wall will protect against accidental dislodgement
(this can happen quite easily otherwise, for the worksite is the scene
of much activity). The pipemouths should be plugged up to keep any mortar
from accidently falling into them.
 —169—

19.11 CONCRETE
Concrete is used for pouring floor and roof slabs of tanks. The
size and type of aggregates depends upon the purpose of the slab, Its
reinforcement, and its thickness (all discussed in Section 19.6).
Typical mixes: The following proportions are recommended for concrete,
proportions by either weight or volume:
Normal RCC work (roof slabs): 1:2:4 (cement, sand, aggregate)
Waterproof slabs (tank floors): 1:1!:3
The concrete is proportioned and mixed as already discussed in
Section 19.8.
Water: For the above mixes, the approximate amount of water needed
is 3/4 parts water per part of cement (1:3/4 cement:water) by volume.
Volumes of concrete: The total volume of the concrete mix Is never
less than the total volume of aggregates. Typically, air voids make up
50% of the aggregate volume, and these voids must first be filled by the
n,ortar. Excess mortar then adds to the volume of the concrete.
For the above mixes, the following volumes of cement, sand, and
aggregate are necessary to produce one cubic meter (1 m3) of concrete:
Concrete mix cement (m3) sand (m3) aggregate (m3)
1:2:4 0.25 0.5 1.0
l:1!:3 0.33 0.5 1.0
Segregation: This is the separation (due to gravity) of the aggregates
in the concrete. The heavier aggregates will tend to sink to the bottom,
and water will rise to the surface. The result is a poorly mixed concrete
which will be weak. Segregation usually happens transporting the concrete
from the mixing pad to the work site, therefore the mixing pad should be
as close to the final pouring point as possible, and the concrete should
be re-mixed with a trowel before pouring.

Placing the concrete: A bucket of concrete should never be dumped

from any height since segregation of the aggregates will occur. Concrete
should be placed in strips about 15—20 cm wide, never as piles (refer to
Figure 19-5). If a fresh layer is to be put down on top of an earlier
layer, then the second layer should be put down before the first has
begun to set (within 30 minutes). Rough leveling of the concrete can be
done, but extensive trowelling will cause the cement paste to rise to the
surface of the slab.
Before it sets, the concrete must be thoroughly compacted.
Compacting: This is the process of settling the concrete so that
it contains no air voids. This is accomplished by “rodding’the concrete:
poking a length of rebar into the concrete and stirring It up and down.
 -170-

The concrete should be carefully

rodded in all corners and around
reinforcement. Over-rodding,
however, will cause segregation.
After rodding, the concrete
should be tamped level again,
using a flat board of wood.
Sprinkling loose cement on
the surface of the slab (to
absorb excess water) is not
good: such a layer will easily
crack, crumble, and powder.
Waterproofing floor slabs:
A day after the concrete has
been placed, a water proofing
plaster may be put down. A
grout mixture of 1:1 proportions
should be worked Into the
surface of the slab with a
wooden float. Only a thin
layer of plaster is needed,
just enough to seal the
surface pores of the slab
and smooth it over. Water-
proofing compound can be added
to the grout (refer to
Section 19.17).
Curing: As soon as the
concrete has set (within a
few hours), the floor slab
should be flooded with a few centimeters of water. More than this
will put too much hydrostatic pressure on the concrete, whtch may
not be strong enough to support It. After one day, the water may be
drained off for waterproofing (as described above), but once the water-
proofing plaster has set it should be re-flooded and kept that way for
several days (after 3 days, If all else is finished, the tank may be
filled fully and put into service).
When first flooding the slab, care must be taken that the discharge
flow doesn’t erode the fresh concrete.
If the slab is being poured over a period of several days, the
surface of each section must be covered over with a tarpaulin and
constantly wetted. This method must also be used for drying a roof slab.
Improper curing will allow the surface of the slab to dry out and
shrink, while the interior mass remains unchanged. The resulting tensions
will cause the surface to crack, reducing waterproofness. Too much loss
of moisture will stop the hydration reaction, and no further strength will
develop (even if the concrete is thoroughly flooded again).
 —171—

19.12 PLASTERING
Plastering masonry walls adds to their waterproofness. Several thin
coats of increasing richness (le— cement content) are better than one
or two thick coats.
All walls will receive three coats of plaster, each 1 cm thick; and
should be plastered at least 5 cm above the overflow level.
Spatterdash: This first coat is a rough plaster of 1:4 mortar. It
is applied by spattering the plaster against the walls, using a trowel.
This coat is NOT troweled smooth, and the resulting surface is extremely
bumpy and irregular. This provides a good rough surface for the next
layer to adhere to.
Second coat: A mortar mJ~xof 1:3, applied to the spatterdash coat.
That coat fs left with a rough surface.
Third coat: The final coat is a 1:2 mortar mix, which is finally
troweled smooth and clean.
Only one coat of plaster per day should be applied.
Volumes of plaster: For a plaster coat 1 cm thick, the following
quantities of cement and sand are needed for each square meter of plastered
surface:
Cement (m3J Sand (m3)
Plaster mix
Spatterdash (1:4) 0.0025 0.01
Second coat (1:3) 0.0030 0.01
Third coat 0.0050 0.01

19.13 FLOOR SLABS

Tank floors may be of mortared brick or stone, or concrete,~(either
non-reinforced or reinforced). The floor slabs of tanks must be as
waterproof as possible. Concrete slabs should use carefully—selected
aggregate, and mortared slabs should be plastered.
Foundations: Tank floors are put down on a bed of gravel or crushed
stone, averaging 10cm deep. This gravel bed should be pitched down towards
the washout pipe. An easy way of axoeplishing this is to radiate several
strings from the mouth of the washout pipe to various points around the
perimeter of the tank, as shown in FIgure 19—6. Each string is at the
desired slope, and the gravel ted is set down according to the nearest
string. The gravel should be several centimeters below the washout pipe
(otherwise it will not be possible to fit the floor slab underneath it ).
Mortared brick: A brick floor slab should consist of two layers of
brick, laid flat on beds of mortar, carefully spaced with good mortared
Joints in between. The mortar should be 1:4 mIx. The line of bricks
should be different between the two layers. The floor is then
plastered with two coats (the first at 1:3 mix, and the second at 1:2 mix,
 -‘172-

no spatterdash coat needed). As soon as the second plaster coat has set,
the tank should be flooded a few centimeters deep (for curing the mortar)
for several days. Refer to Figure 19-7.
Mortared stone: This type of flooring is more difficult to put down,
especially with rubble-stone masonry. Care must be taken to prevent
air voids in the masonry. This type of floor should be 15 cm thick,
mortared and plastered as prescribed above.
Reinforced (RCC) concrete: The aggregate for concrete slabs should
be small and well-graded, maximum size being l8m. Rounded river gravel
is excellent for this type of slab. A reinforced slab should be 8cm
thick, with the reinforcement according to the specifications of
Section 19.7, and the concrete work according to Section 19.11.

19.14 ROOF SLABS

Although roof slabs of concrete or reinforced brick require extra
materials and labor, such roofs are structurally quite strong, and should
never need replacing during the lifetime of the system. A slab roof also
effectively seals off the tank from external contamination.
An accessway must be left In the roof, approximately 60cm x 60cm.
Bolts should be imbedded for securing the accessway cover.
 —173—

Structurally, the roof slab must be “tied” into the masonry walls of
the tank. This is done by imbedding rebar rods in the walls, then
bending them over and securing the roof reinforcement to them. This is
shown in Figure 19-8:

Columns: No unsupported span should be more than 4 meters. Support

can be made using 61 pipe as columns:

GI pipe size Max height of column

1! 178 cm
2” 278 cm
The ends of the column must be threaded and have flanges (which act
as bearing plates). The bottom flange of the column should rest on the
floor slab, with additional concrete on it to hold it firmly in place
(rebar studs can be left protruding from the floor slab to help anchor
the concrete cover).

A “beam” of 1” 61 pipe spans the interior, supported directly on the

column. This 61 pipe beam should be in the exact centre of the roof slab.
 -174-

Figure 19-9 shows the arrangement of a 01 pipe column and beam.

RCC slabs: The amount of
rebar In an RCC roof slab must
not be less than 0.30% of the
cross-sectional area of the slab.
The thickness of the slab should
not be less than 1/30 (3.33%)
of the longest span of the
tank, but the thickness should
not be less than 8 cm. The
concrete mix should be
1:2:4, aggregates should be
well-graded of crushed stone
or brick (if crushed brick
is used, the roof should be
plastered with a 1 cm coat of
1:3 mortar). Largest size of
aggregates should be 10mm.
Refer to Section l9.-7 for
details of rebar.
Reinforced (RF) brick
slabs: Roof slabs of RF
brickwork offer consider-
able savings in cement,
compared to an RCC slab.
The thickness of an RF
brick slab should not be
less than 1/30 (3.33%)
of the longest span of the
tank. The size of the
rebar should be either 5/6”
(Bum) or 3/8” (10mm), and
is spaced between the bricks. Bricks are laid in one direction, spaced
4 cm apart. The rebar must not touch any brick (such contact would
allow moisture from the brick to corrode the rebar). The cement mix
is 1:3 mortar, with enough water to make it easily worked into position
around the rebar and between the bricks. A second pouring of mortar
may be required,to bring the slab to the proper thickness (due to
settlement of the mortar). Figure 19-10 shows different brick arrangements
for roof slabs of various thickness.
Curing: Curing the roof slab is very important, since otherwise it
may not develop the full strength it needs to support its own weight
(and the weight of those who will stand upon it). Unfortunately,
curing a roof slab is not so easily accomplished as for a floor slab.
Direct exposure to sunlight will greately hasten the drying-out of the
slab if care is not constantly taken to prevent this.
The rim of the slab should have a low wall (of brick or dirt) around
the edge of it, about 20 cm high. The slab itself should be covered with
several centimeters of sand, which is then thoroughly wetted using several
buckets of water. The sand is then covered using a plastic or canvas
 —175—

MORTAR LAYER !-Scm

AS REQUIRED

______ ______ _______

_____
_______
_____
REeAR SET 3C~S& F~A
OF SLAB

SPACED 4
APART ON ALL SIDES-

NOTES;
1 RESAR MOST NOT TOUCH ANY BRICIC _______
2 MORTAR (~ 1 5 MI~ __________ fl
FIGURE 19—in
RF PRICK ROOF SLAB

GRID

FIGURE 19-12
SMALL COVER SLABS
 -176-

tarpaulin, straw mats, or several layers of banana tree leaves. The sand
is re-wetted at least three times per day, for a week, after which the
surface can be cleared off and forms stripped away.

19.15 SMALL SLAB COVERS

Small RCC slabs (less than 100cm square) can easily be made for
covers of valveboxes, break-pressure tanks, or accessways in larger tanks.
For such slabs, the reinforcement is best done using large—mesh wire
screen, but small size rebar can also be used.

A simple wooden form can be constructed. The rebar is firmly set

in place, and short pieces of !” 01 or 20mm HOP are fixed into position
where the 3/8” bolts will pass through. Handles of wire or rebar should
be tied to the reinforcement, so that the slab can be lifted.
The thickness of the slab should not be less than 5 cm, and not
more than necessary to cover the rebar with 2! cm of concrete on both sides,
The concrete mix should be 1:2:4. with small-size aggregate small
enough to fit through the mesh If wire screen is used.
After the concrete has been poured, the slab should be covered with
sand and kept wetted for three days. After that time, if the form Is
needed to make more covers, the slab can be carefully removed from the
form and kept In a sharly place for several more days, being constantly
wetted. Covering the slab with wet burlap (jute) sacking will help to
keep it moist.
When the concrete has been cured for several days, the slab may be
plastered with a 1:3 mortar, to give it a smooth, clean surface.
Figure 19-12 shows some details of the form and slab reinforcement.

19.16 FERROCEMENT TANKS

A new type of tank is currently being developed for use iii Nepal
constructed of ferrocement. When practical construction methods have
been finally worked out, such tanks will offer a considerable savings of
cement and labor, compared to regular masonry tanks of equal capacity.

Essentially, ferrocement is made by wrapping light wire screening

(such as chicken-wire) around the outside of a form, and then heavily
plastering the screening with a 1:3 cement mortar. When the plaster
has strengthened,.the interior form is stripped away, and the Inside
of the screening is then equally plastered. The resulting wall is
about 5 cm thick.
The same technique can be done for the roof of the tank.
 —177—

For quick technical’

reference, see “Ferroc~ent
Water Tank” by Frans Dubbeldam,
printed by the German Volunteer
Service in Nepal. For general
reference, refer to
“Ferrocement Water Tanks and
their construction”, by S.B.Watt,
printed by the Intermediate
Technology Publications, London,
UK.

19.17 WATER-PROOFING COMPOUNDS

Commercially-manufactured
additives may be mixed into the
mortar or concrete dry-mix,
to improve the imperviousness of
the resulting plaster or concrete.
Such compounds are generally
packaged in the quantity that
should be mixed into a full
50—kg bag of cement. However,
typical construction work of
CWS projects rarely calls for
mixing an entire bag of cement
at on~,which means that
the compound must be sub-
divided into smaller portions.
This Is most accurately done
by weight, which is not easily
done in the field.
No amount or type of additives will make a poorly—mixed or poorly
cured plaster or slab waterproof. Therefore, the most Improtant
procedure is to see that the cementwork is properly done. Additional
compounds are helpful, but not essential.

19.18 COLD WEATHER CONCRETING

When cementwork must be done where temperatures are expected to drop
down to freezing levels, special precautions must be taken to protect
the cement.
When concrete or mortar freezes, the hydration reaction is stopped
permanently. Even when the cement is thawed and re—wetted, the chemical
process does not resume, and the concrete develops no further strength
than it had when it first froze.
Since the hydration reaction generates heat, the single best strategy
is to insulate the cementwork to prevent the loss of this heat, especially
during the first two days (when the rate of heat loss would be highest),
 —178-

Padding the cementwork with straw and covering with mats or tarpaulins
will be of special help. When re-wetting the cement (during curing),
heated water should be used if possible. Protecting the cementwork against
the wind is extremely important, and all protruding rebar should be wrapped
with cloth (since steel is an excellent conductor of heat, these would
be major points of heat loss).
The setting and hardening of cement is temperature—dependent, and
will proceed more slowly at lower temperatures. Increasing the amount
of cement in the mix by 20-25% will help generate more heat and earlier
strength. Heating the aggregates and using hot water for mixing will
improve the setting time (aggregate should not be heated hotter than
can be touched by the hand, nor should the water be hotter than
140° F/60° C.Never heat the cement alone, or add hot water to cement
alone).
The freezing point of the mix may be reduced by dissolving salt
into the heated mixing water. Salt is added by weight, and should
not exceed 5% of the weight of the cement. Each percentage of salt
lowers the freezing point by about 1!° F(0.8° C), but salt cannot be
used effectively for temperatures lower than 25° F(—4° C).
 —179—

20. PRACTICAL TECHNOLOGY

“Necessity is the mother of Invention”

20.1 INTRODUCTION

Technical theory is useless without eflective and practical methods

of applying it. Years of experience in the field have yielded mapy
practical construction techniques to supplement and implement the theory
of CWS construction. This chapter will present some of these Ideas.

20.2 SCREENED INTAKES

Screened intak?s can be quickly made using light wire mesh or
ordinary window screening, and
HOP pipe.
The size of the HDP pipe
should be one or two sizes
larger than the outlet pipe.
A square piece of screen,
slightly larger than the mouth
of the HOP pipe, is laid onto
the hot heating plate. The
HOP pipe is then pressed
against the screen and heating
plate until the melted lip is
formed. The HOP is then
given a slight twist, and re-
moved from the plate. The
screen will be perfectly welded
across the end of the pipe.
When it has cooled, the excess
screening is trimmed away.
This screened intake takes
a few seconds to make (indeed,
It is possible to make several
without reheating the plate),
and the villagers can easily
make new ones to replace
those worn out.

20.3 JOINING HOP & 01 PIPE

At points of low pressure, HOP and GI pipes can be joined without
using flanges or brass unions.
 -180-

Threadin~: Depending upon the size of the HOP pipe, it can sometimes
be threaded (just like CI pipe) and screwed in CI fittings. This is
particularly possible with Class IV pipe, which has thicker walls. A
short ‘nipple” of Class IV HDP can be threaded Into a CI fitting, and
regular Class III HDP pipe welded on.
Expanding: The HOP pipe can be heated and softened over a fire, and
then a threaded CI pipe or nipple can be janined/screwed into it.
The HOP/Cl joints should only be used at low—pressure points. They
are useful for making a discharge pipeline of tank washouts and overflows,
and for putting HOP screened intakes onto the outlet pipes, and for
air-vents, etc.

61 SOCKET

A~VENT

EN~I~TI
SCREWED INTO SOCKET

BUQ~O
OVERFL~OW
PIPELiNE

IIDP

FIGURE 20-2
DIRECT FIDP/GI JOINING
 -181-

20.4 IMBEDOING BOLTS IN MASONRY

The best size of bolts to use Is 3/8” x 5” (lOni~n x 15cm) with two
washers and nut. Clamp the
head of the bolt into a vise,
and slip a length of !” CI
pipe (75—100cm long) over It.
Using the pipe as a lever,
bend the bolt over 90° . Set
the bolt into the fresh mortar
or concrete, leaving about 4 cm
protruding (a longer bolt may
have to be used if a thick
RCC slab cover is to be
bolted down).
This type of irnbedded
bolt will never “spin” when
a wrench is used to remove the
nut.
Refer to Figure 20—3.

BOLTS IN MASONRY

20.5 ANCHORING BEAMS TO MASONRY

Using the same technique as
described above, a 60cm length of
3/8” (lOm) rebar is bent 90° and
imbedded in the top of the masonry walls.
A !” (12m) hole is drilled In the
wood beam, which is then slipped
over the protruding rebar. The rebar
is then hammered over, locking down
the beam to the wall.
Beams anchored in this manner
are easily removed when it comes
time to replace them.
Refer to Figure 20-4.
 -182-

20.6 LOCKING OOWN CGS COVERS

Valvebox or accessway covers of CGS
roofing are quite quick and easy to con-
struct. However, they suffer from one
serious weakness: where holes have been
cut in them (for bolts), it is very easy
for someone to enlarge the hole and then
slip it over the washer and nut that are
supposed to be locking it down.
To prevent this, a special washer
can be made by the village blacksmith.
It is made from a piece of flat iron,
and measures 5 cm across. This special
washer is large enough to completely
protect the hole in the CGS and prevent
people from enlarging It. The nut
should be tightened down so that there
is no way of shifting around the CGS
cover.
Refer to Figure 2Q-5.

20.7 FASTENING BOLTS TO BEAMS

In the same fashion described already
in Section 20.5, the bolts are bent 90° .
They are then securely fastened to the side
of the wooden beam, using 1!” or 2” nails,
as shown in Figure 20-6.

20.8 BRACKETS FOR AIR-VENTS

An air-vent that must extend outside the protective confines óP the
valvebox should be made with !” GI pipe, firmly mounted to the tank wall
Such a mounting bracket can be made using small—size rebar, fashioned
into shape by the village blacksmith (refer to Figure 20-7).
These brackets should be mounted about one meter apart; the brackets
are imbedded directly Into the masonry at the time of construction.
-183—
 -184-

TECHNICAL REFERENCES

The following list of publications was used in compiling this

handbook, or would be useful for further, in-depth study. In addition,
the reader is encouraged to investigate the technical libraries of
UNICEF, LOD, Peace Corps, German Volunteer Service, and other agencies
in Nepal which are involved in similar projects, as well as the
personal reference materials of the engineers of LOD.

1. Agency for International Development (AID), Department of State,

Communications Resources Division, Village Technology Handbook
(Washington, D.C. 1964)
2. American Peace Corps Volunteers, Pakistan, Handbook of Construction
(Basic Democracies and Local Government Department, Dacca,
1965)
3. AmerIcan Society of Civil Engineers and Water Pollution Control
Federation, Design and Construction of Sanitary and Storm
Sewers, (New York, 1969).
4. Bachmann, A., Manual for Water Systems and Pipe Work, (BYS
Plumbing Division, Kathmandu, Nepal 1974)
5. Calder, L.E. and Calder, D.C., Calder’s Forest Road Engineering
Tables, (Calders, Eugene, Oregon, USA, 1957)
6. California Agricultural Experiment Station Extension Service,
Measuring Irrigation Water, (Davis, California, USA 1959)
7. Daugherty, R.L. and Franzini, J.B., Fluid Mechanics with
Engineering Applications, Sixth Edition, (McGraw—Hill, 1965)
8. DavIs, R.E. and Foote, F.S. and Kelly, J.W., Surveying: Theory
and Practice, Fifth Edition, (McGraw—Hill, 1966)
9. Oubbeldam, Frans, Ferrocement Water Tank, German Volunteer Service,
(Kathmandu, Nepal, 1979)
10, Dutta, B.M., Estimating and Costing in Civil Engineering,
Ninth Edition, (Lucknow, India 1969)
11. Eckenfelder, W.W. ,3r, Water Quality Engineering for PracticinQ
Engineers, (Barnes and Noble, 1970)
12. Huisman, L. and Wood, W.E., Slow Sand Filtration, (WHO, 1974)
13. Husain, S.K., Water Supply and Sanitary Engineering,
(Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. 1974)
 -185—

14. Johnson, C.R., Village Water Systems Technical Manual,

(UNICEF/Nepal, 1977)
15. Khanna, P.N., Indian Practical Civil Engineer’s Handbook,
(Engineers’ Publishers, 1971)
16. King, H.W. and Brater, E.F., Handbook of Hydraulics, Fifth
Edition, (McGraw—Hill, 1963)
17. Lowndes, W.S., Building Stone-Foundations—Masonry, (International
Textbook Co, 1942)
18. Rubey, H., Route Surveys and Construction, Third Edition,
(Macmillan Co, 1956)
19. Silver, M., Use of Hydraulic Rams in Nepal, (UNICEF/Nepal, 1977)
20. Singh, 6., Water Supply and 3anitary Engineering, (Standard
Publishers Distributors, India, 1976)
21. Singh, G., Standard Handbook on Civil Engineering, (Standard
Publishers Distributors, India, 1976)
22. Swiss Association for Technical Assistance (SATA), Published
by UNICEF, Kathmandu, Nepal (1979):
Technical Training Manual No. 1: Hydrology
No. 2: Stone Masonry
Mo. 3: Pipe and Fittings
No. 4: Concrete
No. 5: Construction Oesign
23. Teng, W.C., Foundation Oesign, (Prentice—Hall, 1962)
24. Tuladhar, K.R. and Sharma, R.K., Manual of Sanitary Engineering,
Ministry of Public Works, Communication, and Irrigation,
HMG, Nepal, 1961)
25. Tuladhar, K.R., and Sharma, R.K., Manual of Water Supply,
Ministry of Public Works, Communication, and Irrigation,
(HMG, Nepal 1961;
26. United Nation’s Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UNICEF Guide List
OLGA: Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in the Developing
Countries, (UNICEF, New York, 1975)
27. United States Oepartment of the Amy, Technical Manual Series,
(Headquarters, OOA, Washington, O.C.)
TN 5—270 Cableways, Tramways, and Suspension Bridges (1964)
TM 5—335 Drainage Structures, Subgrades, and Base Courses (1962)
TM 5—460 Carpentry and Building Construction (1960)
TM 5—461 Engineer Handtools (1966)
TM 5—742 Concrete and Masonry (1964)
 -186—

28. United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,

Public Health Service, Manual of Individual Water Supply
Systems, (USPHS, Washington D.C., 1963)

29. UnIted States Deparunent of Health, Education, and Welfare,

Public Health Service, Manual of Septic Tank Practice,
(USPHS, Washington, D.C., 1958)
30. UnIted States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation,
Hydraulic and Excavation Tables, Eleventh Edition
(Washington, D.C., 1957)
31. Volunteers for International Technical Assistance, Inc, (VITA),
Low—Cost Development of Small Water.Power Sites, (Schenec-
tady, New York, 1967)

32. Volunteers for International Technical Assistance, mc, (VITA),

Village Technology Handbook, (Schenectady, New York, 1970)
33. Volunteers for International Technical Assistance, Inc, (VITA),
Water Purification, Distribution, and Sewage DIsposal,
(Schenectady, New York, 1969)
34. Wagner, E.G. and Lanoix, J.N., Excreta Disposal for Rural Areas
and Small Communities, (WHO, 1958)
35. Wagner, E.G., and Lanoix, J.N., Water Supply for Rural Areas
And Small Communities, (WHO, 1959)
36. Watt, S.B., Ferrocement Tanks: Their construction and use,
(Intermediate Technology Publications, London)
37. Wright, F.B., Rural Water Supply and Sanitation, Second Edition,
(John Wiley & Sons, 1956)
 -187-

TECHNICAL APPENDIX A
Equation of Continuity
Bernoulli’s Equation

In reference to Chapter 6, page 40

The two mainstay principles of all hydraulic behavior are expressed

in the Equation of Continuity, and Bernoulli’s Equation.
Bernoulli’s Equation is used in any fluid calculations, and can be
applied to determine the lift of an airplane wing, the height that a
column of mercury will rise in a barometer due to atmospheric pressure,
or even the rate at which a sinking ship will flood. It is as easily
applied to a system of several different fluids, or a single fluid only.
And it is equally valid on Earth, the Moon, or Jupiter:
The Equation of Continuity, although much more easy to comprehend,
is no less important. It allows one to determine the velocity oft
fluid flowing through a pipe, or a series of different sized pipes.
Each of these equations will be presented and explained, and
their specific applications to gravity-flow water systems demonstrated.

EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

The Equation of Continuity, when applied to water flowing through

a pipeline, relates flow, velocity, and pipe size together. It can be
used as follows:
When known.... Can calculate....
flow, pipe size flow velocity
flow, velocity pipe size
velocity, pipe sizer flow
This equation can be applied to any non—compressible fluid flowing
through a pipe of any shape. In the case of gravity—flow systems, the
fluid is water, flowing through circular pipes of HOP or GE
Mathematically written, the equation is:

point A point B any point

Q= VxA = VxA = VxA =constant
 -188—

where: Q flow
V = velocity
A = cross-sect’l area of pipe
Explainea, the equation means that for a constant flow through a
pipeline, at any point the flow must be equal to the flow at any other
point. If the pipe size changes, then the velocity of the flow will
change until the flow is once again constant.
The most commonly used units for the equation are:
Variable Metric units
Q(flow) cm
3/sec

V (velocity) cm/sec
A (area) cm2
The use of the equation is demonstrated using the pipeline section
~hownin Figure A-l below:

~LPS

(4~A.174 CMZ) (~REA’2231 ~2) C4ReA =13 99 C~2)

FIGURE A-i
PIPE SECTION OF SEVERAL SIZES

Knowing the flow (2.5 LPS = 2500 cm3/sec) and the cross-sect’l areas
of the pipe sizes, the Equation of Continuity can be used to calculate
the velocity of the flow through each pipe size:

If Q = V x A
then V = —k-— = 2500
cross-sect’l pipe area
2oniii section velocity = 1437 cm/sec = 14.37 rn/sec
Therefore 63riin section velocity = 112 cm/sec = 1.12 rn/sec
50m section velocity = 178 cm/sec = 1.78 rn/sec
 —189-

A direct application of the Equation of Continuity is determining

maximum and minimum desirable flows for each HOP pipe size. The maximum
desirable flow velocity is 3.0 m/sec, and the minimum flow velocity
is 0.7 m/sec, and since the cross—sect’l areas of the pipe can be
calculated, it is possible to determine the corresponding flows for
these velocities.

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

To understand Bernoulli’s Equation, it is necessary to realize that

energy exists In many different forms, such as light, heat, sound,
electrical etc. In a gravity—flow water system, energy is present
,

in four forms: potential, pressure, velocity, and frictional.

Bernoulli’s Equation is simply an energy equation which relates each of
these different energy forms together, for any fluid(s) in a gravita-
tional field. In a gravity—flow water system, the specific fluid is
water, in the Earth’s gravitational field.
In this discussion of Bernoulli’s Equation, it will first be
applied to an “ideal system”, that is, a system without frictional losses.
Once the principles of the equation are understood, it will then be
applied to a “real system”, where frictional losses occur.
Bernoulli’s Equation for an Ideal System:
In this sort of system, energy is present In just three forms:
potential, velocity, and pressure. As water flows through the
frictionless pipeline, it posesses energy in each of these forms, in
various quantities. From point to point along the pipeline the amount
of energy in each form will fluctuate, but the total sum of the energies
will remain constant at all points along the pipeline. This is what
Bernoulli’s Equation states.

Thus, at some point A, the water may possess 30% pressure energy,
‘10% velocity energy, and 60% potential energy, while at some other
point B It may have 50% pressure energy, 15% velocity energy, and
35% potential energy. However, at both points the total sum of energy
would be equal.
Mathematically, Bernoulli’s Equation expresses this principle as
follows:
point A point B any other point
=constant
H +h÷_1L
~-P._- = J +h+~ = p+h+V2
r Zg r 2g r 2g
where: H = total sum of energy
p = pressure at points A, B...
r = specific weight of the fluid
h = height above reference level
V = velocity of flow
g = gravitational acceleration
 -190-

In, hydraulics, energy is measured as uh~du (in metric

units, as °meter~ of head~). Each term In Bernoulli’s Equation is the
amount of energy In one particular form. The first term is the measure
of pressure energy, and is called the pressure head. The second term is
called the potential head, and the third term i?~i11edthe velocity head.
The sum of-all three terms must be equal at every point along the pip~’flWe.
The relevant units are given below:
Terms Metric units

13 (total energy head) meters

p (pressure) kg/cm2
r (specific weight of water) l~ii/cm3

h (height) rn/sec
g (Earth’s gravftational acceleration) 9.8m/secZ
 —191—

Consider the example pipeline shown in Figure A—2, where a flow of

10 LPS leaves the tank, which Is 100 meters above some reference elevation.
The water flows through a section of 32nin HDP pipe, then 63nie HDP pipe,
then 5~iri HOP pipe.
Using Bernoulli’s Equation, it is possible to determine the amount
of energy In each form at the various points along the pipeline:
rotal Head Potential Head Velocity Head Pressure Head
Point F’ h V p

A lOOm TOOm Oin Om

B lOOm 80m 16m 4m
C lOOm 7OnT 16m 14m
0 lOOm 61 m 1.Om 38m
E lOOm 48m 1.Om 51m
F lOOm 37m 2.6m 60.4m
G 100 m 29 m 2.6 m 68.4 m
H 100 m 23 m 2.6 m 74.4 m

The flow velocity was calculated using the Equation of Continuity;

multiplying the pressure head by r will yield the water pressure
in the pipe at that point.

The sum of the potential head and pressure head,connected in a

line from point to point along the pipeline, forms the hydraulic grade
line (HGL), shown as a dashed line in Figure A—2.
Where gravity-flow water systems are concerned, certain simplifications
become allowable:
1) Since the potential head contributes nothing directly to the
internal pressure of the pipeline, it can be disregarded (but can be used
for certain calculations, shown later);
2) The maximum desirable flow velocity in HDP pipe is 3.0 m/sec,
which yields a velocity head of 0.5 meters. This Is such a small amount
of head compared to the other terms that it is negligible. Thus,
practically speaking, the total energy line and the hydraulic grade line
(HGL) become the same. In a frictionless systom, this means that the
static line and HGL would always be equal.
3) Atmospheric pressure acts equally at every point along the
pipeline, thus canceling itself out of consideration.
 —192—

Example application:
An example of applying Bernoulli’s Equation to an ideal,
frictionless system is shown,
using Figure A—3. Bernoulli’s
Equation will be used to
calculate the discharge flow
into the tank:
Since the equation can
be applied to any points along
the pipeline, we shall apply
it at the two atmospheric
points: the water surface of
the upper tank, and the
discharge at the lower tank.
The equation would be written
as follows
upper point A lower point B
~+ h + V2 =~+ h + v 2

Some calculations can be made: since both points are at the same
atmospheric pressure and under no water pressure, then the pressure head
cancels out equally. The height of the upper water surface i~“1-I” above
the reference line, whereas it is zero for the lower point. Furthermore,
the water surface at the upper tank has zero velocity, therefore the
velocity head for that point is also zero. The modified equation now is:

Thi~ :an be rearranged to determine the discharge velocity:

Knowing the pipe size and the discharge velocity, it is possible to

use the Equation of Continuity to determine the discharge flow. Suppose
tha~ in 1-his examp’ , H = 50 meters, and the pipe size was 32mm HDP
(cruss—sect’l area = 5.68 cm2). The discharge velocity would t
4en be
3130 cm/sec, and the discharge flow therefore would be 17778 cm /sec
or 18 LPS.

Similar calculations will reveal that to produce most flows

commonly used in gravity-flow CWS systems, only a mere 30-40 cm of head
would be required if the pipe were only frictionless

Bernoulli’s Equation for a Real System:

It was shown that for an ideal, frictionless system, the energy

 —193—

possessed by the water would change form from point to point, but that the
total quantity would remain constant. Also, it was said that a
frictionless system possessed energy in only three forms.
In a real system, however, these are not true: some amount of
energy is converted into heat (by the friction and turbulence of the flow)
which is absorbed by the pipe walls and is lost from the system (ie— the
water no longer holds the energy, since it has been transferred into the
pipe).
Bernoulli’s Equation can be modified to this real situation by adding
another term, which represents this lost frictional energy:
point A point B
r-~Th
2 +f
r 2g = ~~+h+V
r 2g

where: f = the frict’l headloss from points A to B

This new term, “f”, represents the total frictional headloss of the
flow between the two points under consideration. This includes frictional
losses of the water rubbing against the pipe, the high frictional losses
of flow through valves and fittings, and the internal turbulence of the
water molecules against each other.
Once again, in the case of gravity—flow systems certain simpli—
fications are allowable. In addition to the ones already mentioned,
frictional losses from fittings in a pipesection ..~ore than 1000 dia-
meters long are negligible. The velocity head is still legligibly
small, but now the HGL is separated from the total energy line by the
amount of frictional head lost. The new HGL is similar to that shown in
Figure A-4 below:
 -194-

TECHNICAL APPENDIX B

Analysis of Air-blocks

In reference to Chapter 7.2, page 54

This technical appendix will deal with the mathematical analysis of

determining whether or not a pipeline section will contain interfering
air-blocks. The first section will explain how air-blocks are created,
the second section will present a step-by—step procedure of analysis,
the next section includes strategies to overcome or minimize such
air—blocks, and the final section will illustrate with a design example.

Formation of Air-blocks
Refer to Figure B-l below. When pipe is laid in the ground, very
often the topography of the land will create high and low points along it.

FIGURE B—i
EXAMPLE PROFILE FOR AIR—BLOCKS

If the pipeline is initially dry and then filled with water, It can be seen
that the water will first collect at point A, and then rise up evenly on
both sides until it overflows at point B and runs down to point C. At
this moment, as the water builds up at point C, the air in section BC is
trapped since it cannot escape either upstream or downstream. As the
water level continues to rise at point C, the trapped air is compressed.
The top of this trapped air pocket will always be at point B, and the
bottom will be compressed higher and higher towards point B as the
pressure continues to build up. When the water level is high enough,
it will overflow at point 0 down to point E, creating a second trapped
 -195—

air pocket in section DE. From point E, the water level will rise In the
pipeline (towards the tank) only as long as there is additional pressure
(from the source) to push it higher. The final equilibrium of the system
would be as shown in Figure B-2:

souRca 51.ciic.

Mc

FIGURE B-2
SYSTEM IN EQUILIBRIUM WITH AIR—BLOCKS

The head between the source and top of the first air-block shall be
called the compression head, Hc; the sections of pipe cohtaining the
initial, uncompressed volumes of trapped air shall be the critical
sections (sections BC and CE in Figure B—f); the top of an air—block
will be the high point (points B and D); the bottom of an air—block
will be the low point (points B’ and D’); and the height to which
the water will rise shall be called the maximum elevation (point F).
Although the figure above shows a pipeline with only two air—blocks,
the procedural analysis described herein is equally applicable to a
pipeline with any number of air—blocks.
 -196-

Procedure of Analysis
This step—by-step procedure will allow a pipeline with any number of
potential air-blocks to be examined and analysed. Figure B—3 below
illustrates such a system:

Slavic

OW FLOW q

PlEAD It.

ANY NuMeaaOp

FIGURE B—3
BASIC SYSTEM FOR AIR-BLOCK ANALYSIS

Required data: The following information is needed for analysis:

1) The initial volume of each critical section. This is the
uncompressed volume of air that will be trapped in the pipeline at
each air-block. Can be calculated knowing the pipe size and length
(refer to Reference Table IV, where the “volume per length of pipe”
is given for HDP pipe).
2) A carefully plotted profile. Working from the graphed profile
will be more accurate than working from blueprint.
Procedure: Even if the desired design flow cannot initially make
it through the pipeline (due to air—blocks), it is still possible that
some smaller flow will be able to. As long as some flow is getting
through, the water will gradually absorb the trapped air and carry it
out of the pipeline*.

* This will happen by the same process by which carbon dioxide

Is dissolved into a carbonated drink such as coca—cola.
 ‘197—

As the air is absorbed, the air—blocks will shrink, which allows the
flow to gradually increase. Within a day or so, all trapped air will
be carried out and the full design flow will be possible.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine some minimal flow that can
initially make it through the pipeline past the air-blocks. For this
type of analysis, assume that this minimum desired flow is 0.1 LPS.
The designer has already designed the pipeline to achieve the
desired HGL for the desired design flow. Analysis will begin at the
first air-block downstream from the source (or some other break—pressure
point) and progress downstream.
2, all heads and pipelengths are in
All and
meters, pressures are in
all volumes arekg/cm
in liters

Step 1
Determine the frict’l headloss of the o.l LPS flow between the
source and first air—block. Substract this from the static pressure
head on the air-block. The result is the net compression head, Mc.
Mc = static head — frict’l headloss

Step 2
Use the net compression head, Mc, to calculate the compressed air
pressure of the first air—block:
P = (0.1 x Mc) + 1.0

Step 3
Use Boyle’s Law to determine the compressed air volume of the
air—block:
v = initial volume of critical section
compressed air pressure

Step 4
Using the “volume per meter’ column of Reference Table IV or V,
calculate the length of pipe necessary to contain the air-block:
I. = volume of compressed air
length per liter

.
 -198-

Step 5
On the graph profile, measure this distance “L” downstream from the
high point of the air-block. This locates the low end of the air—block.
Determine the elevation of this point.

Step 6
With this Information, It
is possible to calculate the
compressed air pressure of the
next downstream air—block
(refer to Figure B-4):
Pb = compressed air pressure
of air—hlock B
Nb = hydrostatic head

Pd = compressed air pressure

of air—block D
Hd = hydrostatic head
The equilibrium of pres-
sures at point C can be
written:
- Pb + 0.1 (Hb) = Pd + 0.1 (Nd)

Pd = Pb + 0.1 (Mb - Nd)

Step 7
With the air pressure of this new air-block, repeat steps 3,4,5 and
6 continuously, proceeding downstream for each air—block, until the
last one Is reached. Determine the air pressure and elevation of the low
end of this last air-block.

Step8
Calculate the equivalent head, He, of this last air-block:

He = 10 (P — 1 .0)
(where “P” is the compressed air
pressure of the last air—block)
 -199—

Step 9
Calculate the frictional headloss of the 0.1 LPS flow from the first
air—block to the downstream tank. Subtract this from the equivalent head,
He, to determine the final head, Hf:
Hf = He — frict’l headloss

Step 10
Add “Hf” to the elevation of the low end of the last air—block.
The result is the highest elevation that the 0.1 LPS flow will reach.
If the downstream tank is lower than this elevation, then this minImal
flow will be able to get through the pipeline, and eventually will
eleminate all air-blocks so that the design flow will be able to make
it. Nothing needs to be done about the air—blocks.

Step 11
If the downstream tank is higher than the point that the 0.1 LPS
flow will reach, then the pipeline must be re-designed to minimize
(or eliminate) the air—blocks.

Strategies to overcome air-blocks

To minimize air-blocks, pipe sizes must be specially arranged.
To eliminate an air—block, an air-valve must be installed (which will
eliminate the air—block automatically), or some other air releasing
device must be installed (as discussed in Chapter 7.5).
The higher air—blocks (ie— those closest to the static level) are
the more critical ones. Concentrate efforts first on then (the
“deeper” air—blocks have more pressure available for compression):
1) Arrange the pipe sizes to minimize frictIonal headlosses
between source and first air-block.
2) Arrange the pipe sizes so that the upper portion of a critical
section is large—diameter pipe while the lower portion of the section
is small—diameter pipe.
3) If calculations show that the above strategies still will not
work, install an air—valve on the highest air—block, and repeat the
analysis. Install another air-block on the next highest air—block,
repeat analysis, etc. until the minimal flow of 0.1 LPS will get
through. It Is unlikely that every single high point in the pipeline
will require its own air—valve.
 •~0ORC~ STATIC

50MM HDP ~ M~
~4 1aMM~
lOOM 50MM
ISO M’ 32MM
M 212 M
50MM 32MM—., p~__ 1ISM

C~CAL5~~ G~flC4L~N if C~~LSLCT~ ~

~I k .4
- 41R B10ck1 ~
qo

i~3C

~J
2

1
~

10-

~ ~
0 I I - I ~1~
ó 20G 3o~ 500 500 70 ~OO 900 1000 nOo

P1P~LENGTH(M~~EQ5)

FIGURE B—S
DESIGN EXAMPLE
 -201—

Design Example
Figure B—5 shows an example profile with three potential airblocks.
In the preliminary design, a desired flow of 0.5 LPS was used, and
pipe sizes were selected to leave a residual discharge head of 5 meters
at the tank (this was accomplished by selecting 213m of 32m HOP and
887m of 5Onr HOP pipe). The pipe was arranged in accordance with the
above strategies: 5Gm HDP was used from the source to the first
air—block, and also used in the upper portions of each of the critical
sections.

Critical section I (points A—B): 75m @ bOrn HOP + lOOm @ 32rn HOP
Critical section II (potnts C—D): 5Gm @ 5Gm HOP + lOOm @ 32inii HOP
Critical section ru (points E—F): 62m @ BOrn HOP + 13m @ 32m HOP

The initial volume of these critical sections was calculated:

Air—block I:
75m of 5Gm HOP @ 1.4 liters/meter = 105 liters
lOOm of 32rn HOP @ 0.57 liters/meter = 57 liters

TOTAL = 162 liters

Air—block II: 127 liters
Air—block III: 94 liters

The frictional headloss of the 0.1 LPS flow from source to the first
air-block is 0 (zero) meters. Thus, the net compression head:
Hc=20—0=2Ometers (Stepl)

Analysis of Air—block I:
compressed air pressure = P1 = 0.1 (Hc) + 1.0 = 0.1 (20) + 1.0
2 (Step 2)
= 3.0 kg/cm
compressed air volume = v = initial volume = 162
air pressure 3.0
V = 54 liters (Step 3)

required pipelength of 5Gm HOP (@1.4 liters/meter) = 39 meters

(Step 4)
elevation of low end of air-block (from profile) = 36 meters
(Step 5)
 -202-

Calculating compressed air pressure of the next air—block (Step 6):

2
P2 = 3.0 of+ Air—block
Proceeding to analysis (Stepkg/cm
II: = 4.6 7)
0.1(26 — 10)
= 4.6 kg/cm2 (calculated above)
V = _____ = 28 liters

required pipelength of 5Dm HDP = 20 meters

elevation of low point of Air-block II = 19 meters
calculating pressure of next air-block (Air—block fir):
P 2
3 = 4.6 + 0.1(19 — 30) = 3.5 kg/cm
Going on to tne last air-block (Air-block III):
P 2 (calculated above)
3 = 3.5 kg/cm
V = = 27 liters
_____

required length of SOnun HDP pipe = 19 meters

equivalent head of P
3 (Step 8):
He = 10(3.5 — 1.0) = 25 meters
headloss of 0.1 LPS flow = 0 meters, therefore final head:
Hf=25-O=25meters (Step9)
elevation of low point of Air-block III =. 28 meters
Maximum elevation that 0,1 LPS will reach (Step 10):
elevation of low point = 28 meters
final head 25 meters
Max elevation= 53 meters
(tank elevation= 45 meters)
Since the 0.1 LPS flow will reach an elevation of 53 meters, and
the discharge point of the tank is only 45 meters, then this flaw will
be able to get through. Within a few hours, this initial flow will
have absorbed all the trapped air, thus eliminating the air—blocks and
allowing the final desired flow of 0.5 LPS to get through.
 -203-

TECHNICAL APPENDIX C
Derivation of
Combination Pipes Equation
In reference to Chapter 8.6, page 71

This is the derivation of the equation used to determine the

lengths of two pipe sizes used to produce an exact headloss when either of
the two sizes alone will not accomplish that.

L = total pipelength Fs = frict’l factor of small pipe )

for
~ desired
X = small-size pipelength Fl = frlct’l factor of large pipe J
fl~
L - X = large-size pipelength H = total desired headloss
 -2 04-

El x L
1~0X = head lost in large pipe section

Es x = head lost in small pipe section

The total desired headloss, N, is the sum of the headlosses in the two
pipe sections:

-I = Es x 100 L-X
+ El x

lOON = Es x X + El x (L - X)

lOON= (Es xx) + (El xL) — (El xx)

lOON = X x (Es - El) + (El x L)

lOON — (El x L) = X x (Es — El)

lOON - (El x L)
(Es - El) =
 -205-

TECHNICAL APPENDIX 0
Emotional Diffuser

In reference to Chapter 8.7, page 73

This is the general equation for calculating the flow through a

small orifice:

= CA~

Where: Q = flow
C = coefficient of orifice
A = cross-sect’l area of orifice
g = gravitational acceleration
N = headloss through orifice

Eor the frictional diffuser shown in Eigure 8—9. the orifice is

made by melting a hole in the plastic endcap, using a 3” nail. The
approximate coefficient of such an orifice is 0.6, the approximate
diameter of 2.
the hole
In theis metric
Srmi, sosystem,
the cross-sect’l area is acceleration
the gravitational about is
l.96(lO~~
9.8 m/sec . m The flow is in m3/sec, and the headloss in meters.

Substituting these values, including a conversion factor for

a flow given in LPS, the above equation can be rearranged to give
the headloss for any flow:

N = 369Q2 (Q = flow (LPS))

Eor a normal tapline flow of 0.225 LPS, the headloss becomes

approximately 18 meters. If a second orifice is made, the flow through
each orifice becomes 0.113 LPS, and the headloss then is approximately
5 meters.
If a different size of nail is used, then the new cross-sect’l area
of the orifice must be calculated (the coefficient, however, for all
these types of orifices is approximately 0.6).
 -206—

TECHNICAL APPENDIX E
Suspended Crossings

In reference to Chapter 10.11, page 95

Suspended pipelines may be required to cross over a wide stream, or

across unstable terrain which is subjected to erosion and landslides.
Although there are many possible designs for a particular situation,
there are certain fundamental principles which must be used, and each
possible design contains several conron characteristics:
— The suspended pipeline must be high enough not to be snagged by
debris floating down the stream at its maximum flood level, or by
landsliding rocks and boulders;
— The cable supporting the pipeline must be adequately anchored
on stable ground at both ends;
- The suspended crossing must be level or nearly so (ie— at the
same elevations on either end);
— The cable supporting the pipeline must be strong enough to
support the weight of itself, the pipe, the water in the pipe,
as well as the forces generated by wind and swaying;
— The pipe is securely fastened to the suspending cable, either
by wire or clamps of some sort.
The suspended pipe may be either of GI or HDP, depending upon costs
and availability of materials. An HDP pipe, however, will require a
protective covering wrapped around it, as this pipe will deteriorate
quickly under exposure to sunlight, and within a few years would be likely
to break.
Several possible designs of successful suspended crossings are
shown in Figure E—l.

Basic Calculations

The calculations outlined below lead to the uetennination of the

tension in the suspension, which governs the size of the suspending cable,
and the design of the anchors at each end.
Figure E—2 shows a typical suspended crossing, and lables the
variables needed for the calculations:

1k = weight per length of cable (kg/rn)

Wp = weight per length of pipe (kg/m)
 -207-

~RECT ~PI4N B~W~BMWPDO~TS

T • TOTAL 7ENSIOI~~ 8UPPORTS L- I~L LeN~TMop CABI.2 BETWEEN
t - HO~JZoNTALT451~/’ciP-SDAN SV~9~RTS(DOE T05A6)
B A~L~
~ 1~i~L
~R~4SON ‘y= 5~OP CABLe

FIGURE [—2
VARIABLES FOR SUSPENSION CALCULATIONS
 -208-

Ww = weight per length of water in pipe (kg/m)

W = total weight per length of crossing (Wc + Wp + Ww)
S = length of span (between anchors) (meters)
V = vertical sag of cable (meters)
L = total length of cable (including anchoring) (meters)
t = horizontal tension in cable at mid—span (kg)
T = total tension in cable at anchors (kg)
B = angle between the horizontal & tension vector (degrees)

Step 1
Select the amount of vertical sag, Y, desired. The cable must
not sag so much that it will be snagged by floating debris or landsliding
rocks. A sag of 8%—l0% of the span is good, if there is adequate clearance

Make an arbitrary selection of the cable (for trial calculation).

Refer to the “(.155 Tiger Brand Wire Rope Engineering Handbook” or “Standard
Nandbook of Civil Engineering (Chapter 11)”. 8mm 0 wire rope is a good
selection to begin with.

Step 2:

Determine Wc (from wire rope handbook)

Determine Wp (from CI or NDP pipe specifications table)
Determine Ww (from CI or NDP pipe specifications table)
Determine wind forces (15% of Wc + Wo + Ww)
Calculate W (= Wc + Wp + Ww + wind)

Step 3:

Calculate the horizontal tension, t

2 (kg)
= W5
8Y
Step 4:
Calculate the angle of tension, B

B = arctan 4V (degrees)

Step 5:

Calculate the total tension, T:

= 4t (kg; this includes a safety factor of 4)

cos B
 —209-

Step 6:
Compare the total tension, T, with the allowable tension of the
selected cable. Select a larger or smaller cable size if necessary, and
repeat the calculations.

Step 7:

Calculate the required length of cable, L:

L = S x (1 + _____ ) + extra for anchoring

DESIGN OF ANCHORS

There are a number of different ways to secure the suspending cable at

either end, as discussed below:

Rock Anchor: Using a rock drill

or rock pick, a hole 60cm deep is
drilled into a massive rock boulder
or cliff. The hole is then filled
with cement grout, and the 3/8”
rebar anchor rod is driven in.

Maximum tension, T, is not

more than 890 kg for 3/8” 0 rebar,
or 1583 kg for !” 0 rebar.
Refer to Figure E—3.

CI Post: A length of CI
pipe securely imbedded in a ground
block of concrete will make a
sturdy securing point. If
necessary, two such posts can be
used. Refer to Figure E-4.

Maximum allowable horizontal tension, t, is:

1” CI pipe: 68 kgs
1"” CI pipe: 151 kgs
2” CI pipe: 270 kgs
3” CI pipe: 678 kgs
Masonry Block Anchors: Where it is not possible to dig a posthole
deep enough for a CI post, then a cement masonry block anchor can be used.
Such an anchor functions by its frictional resistance to sliding.

The anchor should be built into an excavated pit, as deeply as

possible. Refer to Figures E-5 and E-6. The 3/8” rebar should be hooked
around the !” CI pipe, and both rebar and pipe placed as indicated.
 —210-

CABLE
TEE
CLAM~

POST

FIGURE [-LI
6! POST ANCHORS

0 • a~t51fl

REQUIRED W~IG~{1
OF M~.G0NRY(Ka)
w.~ +TSne

3)
REqui~D VOLUME ~ff ,4tASOMRV (M
r BRICK • 2120 KG/1fl3
‘Si 5fl3NEr2~I.9)KG/M3
L DRV3~DNE 2000x6rn5

FIGUPE E—5
IASONRY BLOCK ANCHOR
 -211-

3/°REBAR (130cM) HOOKED

4OUNO Si PIPE

0l 1PEl:~5T
~EQUI~ED M~4TEJ~[4LS
~‘GlPIPE (~G0C~
%~‘REBAR ~ 130 C/A
3

I
CEMENT(~ OOaM

APPe~( WEIGHT G30 kG

(ADDITIONAL DRY-STONE MASONRY
PII.ED ON 1~PFOR GREATER WEIGHT)

FIGURE E—6
I
MASONRY BLOCK ANCHOR (C0N’T)
 —212-

The total weight required is governed by the type of soil that the
anchor is imbedded in, and the angle of the suspension cable. Different
soils have different frictional characteristics:

Soil type u

coarse—grain (w/o silt/clay) 0.55

coarse-grain (w/o silt/clay) 0.45
silt or clay 0.35
firm rock (roughened surface) 0.60

u = Greek letter “mu”

The weight of the cement masonry block is about 630 kgs. The total
weight required can be calculated from the equation given in Figure E-5.
The remaining weight (if the masonry block alone is not enough)
3~ is added
using dry-stone masonry, which is approximately 2000 kg/m

CLAMPING

The pipeline must be securely fastened to the suspending cable,

and the fastenings must be secure enough not to be worked loose during
the swaying motions of the pipeline. NDP pipe must especially be evenly
supported (ie- fastenings regularly and closely spaced). Fastenings may
be ordinary wire, or 3/8” rebar shaped by the village blacksmith, or
special clamps manufactured in a metal shop. These are shown in
Figure E-7.

SNEATNING

i4hen the suspended pipe is to be of NDP, it must be covered with

some outer sheathing to protect it against the ultra—violet radiation of
sunlight (this radiation rapidly “ages” the NDP pipe, which causes
brittleness).

Sheathing may be done by wrapping the NDP pipe with two or more
layers of burlap (jute) sacking material, or using split bamboo slats
secured by wire. This is shown in Figure E—B.

A suspended CI pipeline requires no sheathing, but a coat of paint

will provide some weathering protection.

DESIGN EXAMPLE

A suspended crossing is needed to cross a stream, as shown in Figure

E-9. The pipeline along that section is 50mm NDP, but it is desired to
use CI pipe for the crossing (1!” size).
 —213-

FIGURE E-7
SECURING PIPE TO CABLE

Known variables:
Wp = 3.65 kg/rn
Ww = 1.26 kg/rn
S = 25 meters
V = 2.5 meters

From the “Handbook of Civil

Engineering”, a cable size is
selected: 8mm ~ Round Strand 6 x77
group, norninal breaking strength of
3500 kgs, and weight of 0.21
kg/meter:
Wc = 0.21 kg/rn
wind force = 15% of
Wp + Ww + Wc = 0.77 kg/rn
Therefore, total loading:
W = Wp + 14w + Wc + wind =
5.89 kg/rn
 -214-

Calculating horizontal tension:

W52 = 184 kg
=

Calculating angle of tension: WIoTI-1 • SO CM

tan B = = 0.40;
therefore B = 21MB’

Calculating total tension

(including a safety factor of 4):
T 4t = 792 kg
cos B
The cable selected is
still four times stronger
than needed, but there is no
smaller size to use,
Calculating the length of cable:
_S a, ‘40

L = S x (1 + 8Y2 = 25.7 m

Add 3m for the block anchor, and FIGURE E-1O

an additional 1 meter at each end for EXAMPLE MASONRY ANCHOR
clamping. Thus, the total length of
cable needed is 31 meters.
 -215—

Designing the masonry block anchor (east bank)

sIn 8 = 0.5 = 0.1667

3.0

therefore 6 = 90361 = 9590

for normal dirt, u = 0.45

w = T x cos 8 + T x sin 6
U
= 1735 + 132 = 1867 kgs
weight of masonry block 630 kgs, therefore 1237 kgs of dry-stone
3).
masonry is required additionally (this is about 0.618m
Refer to Figure E-10.
Designing the post anchor (west bankj

It was previously calculated that the horizontal tension, t, was 184 kgs.
From the Information on page 2U9, it is seen that a single post of 2 GI
pipe would be used (or two posts of 1! 61).
 -216-

TECHNICAL APPENDIX F

Roofing

In reference to roofing for tanks.

GENERAL NOTES

The roofing of a tank will depend upon its size, and whatever
materials are available locally or from the regional office.

The basic structural requirements for a tank roof are strength and
waterproofness. Since the tanks are relatively low structures, their
roofs become accessible playgrounds for children. Additionally,
the roof will become dirty with dust, leaves, bird—droppings, etc, which
must not be washed into the tank by rain.

The roof must be pitched (sloped) so that rainwater runs off it

quickly: no roof should be
perfectly flat. The minimum
pitch should be 5% (ie- 5cm
SiNGLE ~verticalfor each 100cm hori-
zontal). A roof may be single-
flEa pitched, double pitched, or
multi—pitched (as illustrated
in Figure F—i). Although a
multi—pitched roof may fit a
hexagonal or octagonal tank
better, it requires a great
DOlL/StE deal of extra roofing
material , and the ridges are
PIT CHE
4~
difficult to make waterproof.
Double-pitched roofs also
require extra roofing and
masonry (for gables). A
single-pitched roof, especial—
ly of CGS sheeting, is both
fast and economical to
MULTI-PITCHED construct.
The roof should overhang
outside the walls by at least
10 cm. An accessway should
be built into the roof itself
FIGURE F—i or into a gable (of a double-
PITCHED ROOFS pitched roof).
opening Theat accessway
should be least
60cm x 60cm, with a secure
cover.
 -217-

BEANS AND COLUMNS

Beams span the tank ano support the roof. A CGS roof requires the
minimum amount of wood ( and the simplest structure), and a slate roof
requires the most.

Figure F-2 shows a beam

across a tank. The ~p~gof the L
beam is the unsupported
length(s). The length of the
beam also includes overlap
and overhang. The tank may
be spanned by one continuous
beam, or by two or three
shorter beams supported
by columns.
The table below gives
S ~UNSUPP~RT~-P ~4~N
the maximum allowable spans for 1. 0 TOTAL LENGTH
wooden beams of the given
dimensions. The most
SCARP1NG TWO BEAM5
economical beams are those that -TOGETHER
span the tank without relying
upon a column for additional
~ WLUMN ~5EARING
Support.

To prolong its lifetime

D~E~l0MSOF BEAM ~ ~ATE
all wood should be thoroughly G~SS-SECTL
painted or varnished. The
beams should be anchored
to the masonry walls in a FIGURE F—2
secure manner (see Chapter BEAMS a COLUMNS
20.5).

Maximum b d Cross-sect’l
Maximum b d Cross-sectl
Ar~ X Area
2) (cm) (cm x cm) (m2)
(cm) (cm x cm) (m

102 3 x 8 0.0024 307 4 x 12 0.0048

129 3 x 9 0.0027 323 5 x 11 0.0055
137 4 x 8 0.0032 360 4 x 13 0.0052
160 3 x 10 0.0030 384 5 x 12 0.0081
173 4 x 9 0.0036 450 5 x 13 0.0065
213 4 x 10 0.0040 523 5 x 14 0.0070
258 4 x 11 0.0044 600 5 x 15 0.0075
267 5 x 10 0.0050 683 5 x 16 0.0080

These calculated using maximum allowable extreme fiber stress of sal wood
@ 168 kg/square centimeter, with a mid-span load of 210 kgs.
 —218-

Beams may be supported by

using a column of wood or CI pipe,
although the latter is recorrniienaed.
The dimensions of the wood column SC4MS
should be square, equal to the
“b” (width) dimension of the
beam it is supporting.
- L-~- —THREAPED FLANGES
A CI pipe column should
have a flange at either end. The
(BOTH EP.JC8)
base of the column rests upon
the floor of the tank, and the
beam sits upon the upper flange PIPE COLI.W$
(this is shown in Figure F—3).
All exposed metal should
also be painted or varnished. coNCRETE FWTIHS

The size of the CI pipe /—FLOOR SLAB

needed for the column depends 1r~

upon the height of the column,
and what type of roof it is
supporting. The maximum
height for a CI column is
given below:
FIGURE F-3
GI COLUMNS

CI Pipe size Maximum height of column (ca

RCC slab CGS sheets

1” 67 170
1!” 178 316
2” 278 480

These calculated for supporting roof weight plus

700 kg of human load plus safety factor of 2.0

SLATE ROOFING
This type of roofing depends upon the local availability of slate.
It requires a lot of supporting woodwork (beams, rafters, purlins
etc) which will increase the cost and construction time of the roof.
If a slate roof is to be used, the main beams are sized according to
the table above; the villagers can be relied upon to construct the
remaining woodwork and proper installation of the slate.

)
 —2 19—

Slate roofs are not reconinended for break—pressure tank or valvebox

covers, since it is not a secure roofing material. A CGS or RCC slab
cover is better,

CGS ROOFING

Roofs of corrugated galvanized steel (CGS) sheets are the best and
easiest to construct, requiring a minimum of supporting wood. The
standard size available in Nepal is 3’ x 10’, and its effective size
(with one corrugation overlap)
is 300cm x 70cm, and weighs
approximately 25 kgs.

CCS sheets can be easily

cut by haniner and chisel , or
using tin snips (which are not
so easy). If a tank is to be
roofed with CGS, it is best to
adjust its dimensions so that
there is a minimum of CGS
cutting or wastage.

CGS roofs need only to be

supported by beams which run
across the corrugations.
Maximum unsupported spans should
be 150cm. CGS sheets are fastened
to the beams with roofing nails or
J-hooks and can be bolted to masonry
walls (see Chapter 20.6).
Figure F—4 is of an octagonal tank, showing arrangement of beams,
bolts, and CCS sheets.

CEMENT SLAB ROOFS

Roof slabs of either reinforced concrete (PCC) or reinforced (RF)
brick have been discussed previously in Chapter 19.14.

Construction cf these types of roofs requires a lot of wood for

temporary forms, supporting the concrete while it is curing. Coating
the inner surfaces of these forms with old motor oil will make it
easier to remove them from the concrete.

THATCHED & MUD-ROOFS

Although coniiionly used to roof houses and barns in Nepal, these are
not acceptable roofing methods for water tanks. They require frequent
maintenance, and will quickly become dirty and harbor Insects.
 -220-

TECHNICAL APPENDIX C

Headlosses of a Tank Outlet

As explained earlier in Chapter 6.10, frictional losses caused by

fittings such as elbows, reducers, unions, etc are considered negligible
when the distance between individual fittings is at least 1000 pipe
diameters.

Whereas this applies to most of the pipeline, special note must be

made for the outlet piping of water tanks. For these, often several
fittings are located closely together. Under these circumstances,
the headlnss generated by these cannot be considered negligible.
Flow through a fitting creates turbulence, which often persists
for quite some distance downstream from the fitting. When several
fittings are located closely together, their turbuiences mix together
and the combined effective headloss will be greater than the sum of
each individual headioss had they been located far apart.

When calculating the headloss of an outlet, the equivalent pipelength

of the fittings are used, given as the length/diameter (L/D) ratio. Typical
L/D ratios for various fittings are:

Fitting L/D ratio

Tee (flow from run-to-run) 27
Tee (flow from run—to-side) 68
Elbow (9O~short radius) 33
Union 7*
Gate valve (fully open) 7
Free entrance (at intake) 29
Screened intake l5O**
* assumed to be same as gate valve
** assumed to be 5x more than free intake
Example. The equivalent pipelength of a 1!” CI elbow is:
1!” x 33 = 50” = 126 cm

The amount of head available to push the flow through the outlet piping
is exactly equal to the depth of water in the tank above the outlet level
Of this head, it will be assumed that not more than 20 cm is desired to be
lost due to the frictional headloss of the outlet flow.

An example for applying these principles is illustrated, using the outlet

of 1!” GI pipe shown in Figure 8-1 . The pipe section from the screened
intake to the GI/HDP union will be analysed:
 -221—

Total up the L/D ratios of the

fittings:

screened intake = 150

gate valve = 7
tee (run—run) = 27
union = 7

TOTAL = 191
Therefore, the equivalent
pipelength of these fittings is-
191 x 1!” = 287” = 728 cm

The length of GI pipe and

nipples is 130 cm, so the total
pipelength of the piping is 858 cm.
The maximum desired headloss is
20 cm, therefore the maximum
desired frictional factor is:

20/858 x 100% = 2.33%

Thus, the maximum outlet flow must not have a frictional headloss
factor greater than 2.33% for 1!” CI pipe. The same technique is used
to determine the maximum outlet flow for different pipe sizes. For the
above pipe arrangement, these maximum flows are:

Maximum allowable Maximum

CI Pipe size frict’i factor flow

!” 5.36% CU.lULps
1” 3.25% 0.33 LPS
1!” 2.33% 0.80 LPS
2” 1.32% 1.3D LPS
3” 1.26% 3.30 LPS

Frorii the above table it can be seen that 1/2’ pipe is unsuitable
as a tank outlet because of the low flow.
 —222—

TECHNICAL APPENDIX H

Gabi ons

Gabions are wire-mesh cages filled with stone and arranged to form
retaining walls for banks and cliffs which may collapse due to erosion.
Their use in CWS projects will primarily be along banks of gullies and/or
streams, directly supporting the ground beneath a pipeline crossing.
Cabions can also be used to stabilize terraces and terrain around intake
tanks, etc.

The actual construction of gabions requires a skilled laborer who

already knows how to “weave” the cages from wire. Such a person can
usually be borrowed from a road construction for a day or two,
project
and can quickly instruct other
villagers how to make the
gabion cages.
LID
Gabions can be made in
several different sizes, depending
upon the needs of the embankment.
A rectangle is woven ana then folded
up to form the four sides of the box.
The two eno pieces are woven separately
and wired into position. They are
carefully filled with stone (as dry—
stone masonry) and their lids are
wired shut.

Some large gabions are

sub-divided into two or three
DIAPH 24GM compartments by partitions called

S
“diaphragp~”.When the gabions

______ are folded into shape, their

edges are wired together (these
edges are called selvedges).
An embankment of gabions under
construction is shown in Figure
H-2.
FIGURE H—i Gabions are very expensive
UNFOLDED GABION to construct, and should be used
___________________________________ only in extremely unstable
conditions where there is no
alternative plan. The actual design of an embankment of gabions should
be done in consultation with knowledgable engineers.
 Materials & Estimates: Gabions to be used in CWS projects are of’ the
same design and materials as those used for trail suspended bridges:
Mesh size: 80 x 100 mm
Mesh wire: 9 SWG (0 3.66 mmii)

Selvedge wire: 6 SWG (0 4.88 rum) All wire of

Binding wire: 11 SWG (0 2.95 mm) Galvanized iron

Dimensions of Qabions (meters

Details 2 x 1 x 1 3 x 1 x 1 2 x 1 x ! 3 x 1 x !
3): 2 3 1 1!
Volume (m (kgs):
Mesh wire 36.00 52.35 24.55 36.00
Selvedge wire (kgs): 3.75 4.85 3.00 3.90
Labor (man-days): 5.53 7.38 4.18 5.43
No. of diaphragms: 1 2 1 2
Dimensions of 1 : 1 x 1 1 x 1 1 x ! 1 x !

Assembly: Gabions are assembled by binding them together along the

selvedges with 6 SWG binding wire. The cages should be laced together

)
 -224—

with a continuous length of wire, rather than “tied” together with short
pieces. The cages are placed into position while empty, stretched to
their full dimensions (pegging the corners securely to the ground will
help), and wired together. Diaphragms are inserted and wired into place.

Filling: Gabions are filled with clean, hard, angular rubble stones,
each stone being individually fitted into place, similar to constructing
a dry-stone masonry wall (stones should not just be dumped into the cages).
When the cages are filled, the lids are then wired shut for additional
stability. The gabions should be carefully backfilled for additional
stability. On completion, the gabions should be completely and tightly
filled, square, and true to dimensiQns.
 Reference Table I

ENGLISH & METRIC UNITS

Metric Units

Length: 10 millimeters = 1 centimeter

100 centimeters = 1 meter
1000 meters = 1 kilometer
3 = 1 liter = 0.001 rn mm millimeters
Volume: 1000cm
1000 liters = 1 m3 cm = centimeters
m = meters
k&ter: 1 cm3=l gram km = kilometers
1000 cm3 = 1 liter = 1 kg g = gram
1000 liters = 1000 kg = 1 m3 kg = kilogram
Weight: 1000 grams = 1 kilogram
1000 kgs = 1 metric tonne

English Units
12 inches 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
5280 feet = 1 mile
Volume: 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 231 in3 = 0.13 ft3
1 ft3 = 1728 in3
Water: 1 in3 = 0.036 pounds yd = yards
1 ft3 = 62.4 lbs. ft = feet (‘)
1 gallon = 231 in3 8.34 lbs in = inches (“)
Weight: 16 ounces = 1 pound
qt = quarts
2000 lbs = 1 ton lb = pounds
oz = ounces
gal = gallons

Conversion Factors
English —... metric Metric—~.english
1” = 2.54 cm 1 cm = 0.39’
1’ 30.48 cm
1 yd = 91.44 cm 1 m 39” = 3.28’
1 mile 1609 rn = 1.6 km 1 km = 3280’ = 0.62 miles

1 oz = 28.4 gm 1 gm 0.035 oz
1 lb = 450 gm = 0.45 kg 1 kg = 35 oz = 2.2 lbs
1 qt 0.91 liters 1 liter 1.1 qt = 0.035 ft3
1 gal = 3.63 liters 1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
1 in3 = 16.39 cm3
1 ft3 = 28.3 liters
 Reference Table II
INSTALLATION OF UNIONS,
FLANGES, & VALVES

Installing a brass union:

1) Screw the male-half of the union onto the !~CI pipe

2) Slir the female brass ring and the neoprene ring onto
the 20mm HDP pipe;
3) Over a flame, carefully heat the mouth of the HOP pipe
until it is soft. Then hammer in the expansion plug until it is
flush with the end of the HOP pipe,
4) Place the neoprene gasket inside the male—half of the
union, then put the HOP pipe (expanded end) into it. Slip the
brass ring up to the male-half and screw tightly.
 Reference Table III
RECOMMENOEO TOOL LIST

Item Size Remarks Quantity

*
Bol ts 3/8” x 5”
Brush, paint 3” 2
Brush, wire For GI pipework
Bucket, steel 12” for cement-mixing !/mason
Crowbar 5’ for excavation 4
File, flat 10” for CI pipework 2
Hacksaw, frame 12” for CI & HOP pipework 2
Hacksaw, blades 12
Hammer, claw-headed 12’ for wood-working
Hammer, sledge 1-lb for masons 1/mason
Harmiier, sledge 2—lb for making aggregate 4
Hammer, sledge 10-lb for breaking rock 4
Heating plate for HOP pipejoining 1 —2
Kerosene for HOP pipejoining 10 liters
Level , carpenters 24”
for slate/CGS roofing
Nails for wood-working
Na i 1 s 3”
for CI pipework
Oil can 250-mi for 81 pipe work
Oil 1 liter
for wood £ CI pipe
Paint for excavation 1 lIter
Pick & handle fOr !’ & 1” CI pipe 4
Pipe threader !“—1 for #”-2” 61 pipe
Pipe threader according to CI size
Pipe threader die
Pliers, adjustable 10”
Rebar (reinforcing)rod 3/8” (8mm) *

124 m2
for intakes
Screening, wire 3mm square for air—releases
Screws, brass !”
Screwdri ver 8” for cement—mixing
Shovel, flat-edged for excavation
Shovel , round-edged for HOP pipejoining n
Stove, kerosene pressure** for caulking CI 1 ball
String, kite 300m threads
retractable-type
Tape measure, steel 2 -m tailor type 2
Tape measure, plastic 5’ for CGS sheets
Tin cutters for cement-work 2/mason
Trowels, masons for HOP pipejoining 1 box
Thermochrom crayons
for up to 2” Cr pipe
Vise, pipe 2”
for up to 1” GI pipe 1
Wrench, pipe 14” for up to 2” CI pipe t2 per project
Wrench, pipe 18” for up to 3” CI pipe J
Wrench, pipe 24”
* according to design + 10% extra
~ more convenient than blowtorches
 Reference Table IV

HOP PIPE SPECIFICATIONS

These are the specifications of the HOP pipe as ordered by UNICEF/Nepal,

However, due tu variatiøns in production methods by the various companies
which manufacture the pipe, there are slight differences in dimensions and
surface finishes. The HOP frictional headloss table is for HOP pipe of
these approximate dimensions.

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 Reference Table VI

RESIDUAL HEADS

Tapstands: Oischarges into tanks:

Absolute minimum: 7m Absolute minimum: 7m
Desired minimum: lOm Ideal 1Dm
Ideal l5m Absolute maximum: 5Gm
Oesired maximum: 30m
Absolute maximum: 5Gm
HCL:
Do not allow the HCL to fall within lOm of the ground profile
unless unavoidable; and NEVER allow the HCL to pass underground.

Reference Table VII

Cl/HOP SIZES

CI size HOP size 61 to HOP Fittin~

!” 20mm Brass union
1~~ 32niii
1!” 50mm “ gr F1~nge set
~ 63mm ‘ ‘
311
90mm ‘ ‘

The CI pipe size refers to the inner diameter (10) and

the HOP pipe size refers to the outer diameter (00)
 Reference Table VII

MATERIALS & LABOR ESTIMATE TABLE

EXCAVATIONS 3
Per 1-m
a) Ordinary soil o.ss man-days
b) Gravelly soil 0.77 man-days
c) Boulder mix 1.10 man-days
d) Medium rock cutting I .GO man—days
e) Hard rock cutting 2.50 man-days

WOOD-WORKING Per l-m3 of finished wood

18 man-days
a) Skilled labor
b) Unskilled labor 18 man-days

STONE ACCREGATE PROOUCTION Per l-m3 of crushed rock

a) Unskilled labor 14 man-days

CONCRETE Per l-m3 of: 12.4 mix 1:1 :3 mix

a) Cement 0.25 m3 0.33 m3
b) Sand 0.50 m’3 0.50 m3
c) Aggregate 1 .00 m3 1.00 m3
d) Mason labor 1 .1 man-days 1 .1 man-days
e) Unskilled labor 4.0 man-days 4.0 man-days

PLASTER* Per 1—m2 of: Spatterdash (1:4) 1.3 mix 1.2 mix
a) Cement 0.0025 m3 0.0030 m3 0.0050 m3
b) Sand 0.01 m3 0.01 m3 0.01 m3
c) Mason labor 0.14 man-days 0.14 man-days 0.14 man-days
d) Unskilled labor 0.22 man—days 0.22 man—days 0.22 man-days
* Each coat of plaster 1 cm thick

BRICK MASONRY 9 1:4 mortar Per 1 -m3

a) Bricks 75%
b) Cement 0.063 m3
c) Sand 0.25 m3
d) Mason labor 1 .4 man-days
e) Unskilled labor 2.8 man-days

RUBBLE-STONE MASONRY 9 1:4 mortar Per i—m3

a) Cement 0.089 m3
b) Sand 0.35 m3
c) Mason labor 1 .4 man-days
d) Unskilled labor 3.2 man—days
 Reference Table VII (Con’t)

DRESSED-STONE MASONRY 9 1:4 mortar 3

Per 1-m
0.075 m3
a) Cement 0.30 ~3
b) Sand
c) Mason labor 2.8 man-days
5.0 man-days
d) Unskilled labor

CCS ROOFING
Nominal size: 3’ x 10’
Effective size: 70cm x 100cm (with overlap of 1 corrugation)
WeIght: 25 kgs

CEMENT
Per bag: 50 kgs
burlap (jute) bag: 32 liters (0.032 m3)
paper bag: 34 li ters (0.034 m3)

SPECIFIC WEICHTS
Portland cement: 1440 kg/m3
brick masonry: 2120 kg/m3
stone masonry: 2450 kg/m3
concrete: 2409 kg/m3
seasoned wood: 650 kg/m3
water: 1000 kg/s3
dry-stone masonry: 2000 kg/m3
 Reference Table VIII

TRIGONOMETRIC TABLE

Angle Sine Cosine Tangent Cotan 1 —

00 0 1 0 1 90°
QQ3QC .0087 .99996 .0087 114.6 89°30
10 .0175 .99985 .0175 57.29 89°
l° 30 .0262 .99966 .0262 38.19 88° 30
2° .0349 .99939 .0349 28.64 88°
2° 30’ .0436 99905 .0437 22.90 87° 30
3° .0523 .99863 .0524 19.08 87°
3° 30’ .0610 .99813 .0612 16.35 86° 30
40 .0698 .99756 .0699 14.30 86°
4° 30’ .0785 .99692 .0787 12.71 85° 30
50 .0872 .99619 .0875 11.43 85°
5° 30’ .958 .99540 .0963 10.39 84° 30
60 .1045 .99452 .1051 9.514 84°
6° 30 .1132 .99357 .1139 8.777 83° 30
7° .1219 .99255 .1228 8.114 83°
7° 30 .1305 .99144 .1317 7.596 82° 30
8° .1392 .99027 .1405 7.115 82°
8° 30 .1478 .98902 .1495 6.691 8l° 30’
9° .1564 .98769 .1584 6.314 81°
9° 30~ .1650 .98629 .1673 5.976 80° 3O
100 .1736 .98481 .1763 5.671 80°
10030 .1822 .98325 .1853 5.396 79° 30’
11° .1908 .98163 .1944 5.145 79°
11° 30 .1994 .97992 .2035 4.915 78° 30’
12° .2079 .97815 .2126 4.705 78°
12° 30 .2164 .97630 .2217 4.511 77° 30’
130 .2250 .97437 .2309 4.331 770

13° 30” .2334 .97237 .2401 4.165 76° 3O

140 .2419 .97030 .2493 4.011 76°
14030 .2504 .96815 .2586 3.867 75° 30’
150 .2588 .96593 .2679 3.732 750

15° 30’ .2672 .96363 .2773 3.606 74° 30’

16° .2756 .96126 .2867 3.487 74°
16° 3O’ .2840 .95882 .2962 3.376 73° 30~
17° .2924 .95630 .3057 3.271 73°
17° 30 .3007 .95372 .3153 3.172 72° 30’
180 .3090 .95106 .3249 3.078 72°
18° 30 .3173 .94832 .3346 2.989 71° 30
190 .3256 .94552 .3443 2.904 71°
19° 30 .3338 .94264 .3541 2.824 70° 30
20° .2420 .93969 .3640 2.747 70°
20030 .3502 .93667 .3739 2.675 69° 30~
210 .3584 .93358 .3839 2.605 69°
21° 30 .3665 .93042 .3939 2.539 68° 30
22° .3746 .92718 .4040 2.475 68°
22° 30 .3827 .92388 .4142 2.414 67° 30

Cosine Sine Cotan Tangent Angle

 Reference Table VIII (Cont’d)

Angle Sine Cosine Tangent Cotan

23° .3907 .92050 .4245 2.356
23°30 .3987 .91706 .4348 2.300
24° .406 7 .91355 .4452 2.246
24°30 .4147 .90996 .4557 2.194
25° .4226 .90631 .4663 2.145
25°30 .4305 .90259 .4770 2.097
26° .4 384 .89879 .4877 2.050
26° 30 .4462 .89493 .4986 2.006
27° .4540 .89101 .5095 1 .963
27°30 .4617 .8870 1 .5206 1 .921
28° .4695 .88295 .5317 1 .881
28°30 .4772 .87882 .5430 1 .842
29° .4848 .87462 .5543 1 .804
29°30 .4942 .87063 .5658 1 .767
30° .5000 .86603 .5774 1 .732
30°30 .5075 .86163 .5890 1 .698
31° .5150 .85717 .6009 1 .664
31°30 .5225 .85264 .6128 1 .632
320 .5299 .84805 .6249 1 .600
320 30 C .5373 .84339 .6371 1.570
33° .5446 .8386 7 .6494 1 .540
33°30 .5519 .83389 .6619 1.511
34° .5592 .82904 .6 745 1 .483
3403QC
.5664 .82413 .6873 1 .455
350 .5736 .81915 .7002 1 .428
35°30 .5807 .81412 .7133 1 .402
360 .5878 .80902 .7265 1 .376
36°30 .5948 .80386 .7400 1 .351
37° .6018 .79864 .75 36 1.327
37°30 .6088 .79335 .7673 1.303
38° .6157 .7880 1 .7813 1.280
38°30 .6225 .7826 1 .7954 1 .257
39° .6293 .77715 .8098 1 .235
39°3Q C .6361 .77162 .8243 1.213
40° .6428 .76604 .8391 1.192
4QO3QC
.64 94 .76041 .854 1 1.171
41° .656 1 754 71 .8693 1.150
41 030 .6626 .74896 .834 7 1.130
C

42° .669 1 .74314 .9004 1.111

42°30 .6756 73728 .9163 1 .091
43° .6820 .73135 .9 325 1 .072
43030* .6884 .72537 .9490 1 .054
44° .6947 71934 .9657 1 .036
44030* .7009 .71325 .9827 1 018
.7071 .70711 1 .000
 Reference Table IX

VERTICAL DISTANCE SURVEY TABLE

The table below directly presents the

vertical elevation difference between two
stations, where the ground distance and
vertical angle between the stations is
known.
The distance may be either in feet
or meters, and direct interpolation between
two distances is allowable.

VERTICAL ANGLE B
1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° 100 11° 12° 13°

20 0 0 0 0 0 0 ! ! ! ! ! !
40 0 0 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 1 1
60 0 ! ! ! ! ! 1 1 1 1 1 1!
w B 0 ! ! ! ! 1 1 1 1! 1! 1!1! 2
100 ! ! ! 1 1 1 1! 1! 1! 2 2 2
t 120 ! ! 1 1 1 1! 1! 2 2 2!2! 2!
~ 140 ! ! 1 1 1! 1! 2 2 2! 3 2! 3
16! ! 1 1 1 1! 2 2 2! 3 3!3 3!
18! ! 1 1 1! 2 2 2! 3 3 3!3! 4
220! ! 1 1! 1! 2 2! 3 3 3! 4 4 4!
~ 22! 1 1 1! 2 2! 2! 3 3! 4 4 4! 5
(0 24! 1 1 1! 2 2! 3 3! 3! 4 4! 5 5!
26! 1 1! 2 2! 2! 3 3! 4 4! 5 5! 6
28! 1 1! 2 2! 3 3! 4 4! 5 5! 6 6!
30! 1 1! 2 2! 3 3! 4 4! 5 5! 6 6!

14° 15° 16° 17° 18° 19° 20° 21° 22° 23° 24° 25°

2! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 1 1 1
4 1 1 1 1 1 1! 1! 1! 1! 1! 1! 1!
61! 1! 1! 1! 2 2 2 2 2 2! 2! 2!
t~ 82 2 2 2! 2! 2! 2! 3 3 3 3! 3!
~102! 2! 2! 3 3 3! 3! 3! 3! 4 4 4
I—
~123 3 3! 3! 3! 4 4 4! 4! 4! 5 5
° 143! 3! 4 4 4! 4! 5 5 5 5! 5! 6
164 4 4! 4! 5 5 5! 5! 6 6! 6! 7
a 18 4! 4! 5 5! 5! 6 6 6! 6! 7 7! 7!
~ 205 5 5! 6 6 6! 7 7 7! 8 8 8!
~ 225! 5! 6 6! 7 7 7! 8 8 8! 9 9!
246 6 6! 7 7! 8 8 8! 9 9! 10 10
26 6! 6! 7 7! 8 8! 9 9! 9! 10 10! 1-1
28 7 7 7! 8 8! 9 9! 10 10! 11 11! 12
30 7! 7! 8! 9 9! 10 10! 10! 11 11! 12 12!
 Reference Table X

GI FRICTIONAL HEADLOSS FACTORS

These are the approximate headloss factors, in rn/lOOm (%). for

aged (10-15 years) GI pipe. Flows are in liters/second.

FLOW !” GI 1” 61 1!’ 61 2” 61 3” 61

0.10 5.87 0.38

0.15 12.24 082
0.20 21.43 1.33 0.20
0.225 26.53 1.68 0.22
0.25 31.63 2.04 0.24
0.30 44.90 2.96 0.40
0.35 58.16 3.82 0.52
0.40 74.49 4.79 0.66 0.22
0.45 91.84 6.02 0.83 0.27
0.50 7.14 1.02 0.33
0.55 8.67 1.19 0.39
0.60 10.20 1.43 0.46
0.65 11.73 1.63 0.53
0.675 12.76 1.68 0.55
0.70 13.27 1.73 0.58
0.75 15.31 2.14 0.67
0.80 17.35 2.35 0.77
0.85 18.88 2.65 0.87
0.90 21.43 2.86 0.92
0.95 23.47 3.27 1.02
1.00 25.51 3.57 1.12
1.05 29.39 3.83 1.22
1.10 30.61 4.18 1.33
1.15 34.69 4.59 1.48
1.20 35.71 4.92 1.58
1.30 40.82 5.71 1.84 0.22
1.40 47.96 6.63 2.14 0.26
1.50 54.08 7.55 2.45 0.28
1.60 61.22 8.47 2.65 0.32
1.70 67.35 9.49 3.06 0.35
1.80 76.53 10.51 3.47 0.41
1.90 11.73 3.78 0.43
2.00 12.76 4.08 0.49
2.20 15.31 4.90 0.57
2.40 17.86 5.71 0.66
2.60 20.41 6.63 0.81
2.80 24.49 7.65 0.92
3.00 26.53 8.67 1.02
3.20 29.59 9.69 1.12
3.40 33.67 10.92 1.32
 Reference Table X (Cont’d)

FLOW !”GI 1’ 61 1!” 61 2” 61 3” GI

3.60 37.76 12.24 1.43
3.80 40.82 13.27 1.58
4.00 45.92 14.79 1.73
450 56.12 17.86 2.09
5.00 21.43 2.55
5.50 26.53 3.06
6.00 30.61 3.67
6.50 35.71 4.18
7.00 40.82 4.85
 Reference Table XI

HDP FRICTIONAL HEADLOSS FACTORS

These are the approximate headloss factors, in rn/lOOm (1) of

HOP pipe manufactured according to UNICEF specifications. Due to the
variations in size and quality by different manufacturers, no exact
headloss factors will ever be possible.

Headloss factors less than 0.20% are considered negligible. Factors

are provided for up to the maximum recommended flow velocity of 3.0 m/sec;
factors for flow velocities of less than 0.7 rn/sec are flagged by an
asterisk (*). Flows are for liters/second.

(LRS~SIII (6 Kg. /cm2)

FLOW 32mm 50mm 63mm 90mm FLOW 50mm 63mm 90mm

0.10 0.22* 3.50 12.6 4.1 0.74

0.12 0.30* 3.70 14.4 4.8 0.84
0.14 0.38* 4.00 15.7 5.4 0.96
0.16 0.48* 4.20 18.1 6.0 1.04
0.18 0.58* 4.50 20.1 6.6 1.06
0.20 0.72* 4.70 7.4 1.31
0.225 0.87* 5.00 7.8 1.41
0.25 1.08* 5.50 9.4 1.70
0.275 1 .27* 6.00 11.1 2.00
0.30 1 .42* 6.50 12.3 2.24
0.35 1 .88* 0.22* 7.00 14.6 2.97
0.40 2.44 0.28*
0.45 2.87 0.34* 20mm HDP is only available
0.50 3.70 0.40*
0.55 4.1 0.47* in Class IV series
0.60 4.9 0.56*
0.65 5.6 0.63*
0.675 5.9 0.67*
0.70 6.3 0.72* 0.25*
0.75 7.3 0.81* 0.28*
0.80 8.2 0.90* 0.31*
0.90 10.0 1.11* 0.37*
1.00 11.9 1.34* 0.45*
1.10 14.1 1.57 0.54*
1.20 16.5 1.90 0.63*
1.30 19.0 2.18 0.73*
1 .40 21 .6 2.46 0.82*
1 .60 27.4 3.05 1.03*
1 .80 33.6 3.81 1.30 0.24*
2.00 4.6 1.55 0.28*
2.20 5.5 2.46 0.32*
2.50 6.7 2.24 0.40*
2.70 8.3 2.74 0.49*
3~00 9.5 3.08 0.56*
3.20 11.2 3.77 0.67*
 Reference Table XI (Cont’d)

CLA5~IV (loKg./cm2)
FLOW 2Oirnii 32mm SOimii 63mm 90mm
3.1*
0.10 0.31*
0.12 45* 0.40*
0.14 5.6* 0.52*
0.16 7.3 0.67*
0.18 9.0 0.81 *
0.20 10.6 0.99*
0.225 13.4 1.22*
0.25 15.7 1 P43*
0.275 18.5 1 P74*
0.30 21.8 2.02* 0.25*
0.35 28.0 2.71* 0.31*
0.40 36.2 3.36 0.40*
0.45 45 4.0 0.49*
0.50 54 4.9 0.59*
0.55 63 5.7 0.71 *
0.60 73 6.7 0.81 * 0.27*
0.65 7.8 0.94* 0.31 *
0.675 8.4 1 .00* 0.34*
0.70 8.8 1 .06* 0.36*
0.75 10.1 1 .23* 0.40*
0.80 11.2 1 ~34* 0.45*
0.90 13.4 1 .67* 0.54
1.00 16.4 2.00* 0.66*
1.10 19.8 2.37 0.78*
1 .20 22.6 2.77 0.92*
1.30 26.4 3.19 1 .08*
1 .40 30.2 3.61 1 .23* 0.22*
1 .60 37.5 4.5 1 .52 0.28*
1 .80 5.6 1.85 0.35*
2.00 6.7 2.24 0.41*
2.20 8.3 2.69 0.49*
2.50 10.1 3.25 0.60*
2.70 12.2 3.92
3.00 13.9 4.6 0.84
3.20 17.4 5.5 0.99
3.50 18.9 6.2 1.11
3.70 21 .3 6.9 1 .29
4.00 23.7 7.7 1 .43
4.20 8.7 1 .57
4.50 9.5 1 .78
4.70 10.8 1 .97
5.00 11.8 2.13
5.50 13.4 2.46
6.00 15.9 2.91
6.50 3.36
7.00 3.89
INN~D~A~5T~R
(Mpt’~

I0

Reference Table XII

PLOW MONOGRAPH
•5
FOR SMOOTH PLASTIC PIPE
AND ~ PIPE

2.
H 20
Q~mTvOP~
L.rnC
wBLocrrY
~~?46 6pI~D IdTR/VO ~UR
~TICTD~f. I~NT~
I

—16 0-03-C

~ 0-s o~o~_t_o.I
—30 0-1
30- 0.1g.

0.1
35.
35 0•1 01.
10 0. o.i4
4. 0.5 01

c~,~-1
5. 03
3.
1.5 O~l o-5

~ 2
~
3 0.

,o 5~
0-5-
a.
10 . — ‘.5
qo I
‘5
/~ 100 ~

‘.5 —2
3•
40 ‘.3
a
—5
,~ ,~ I.. 3 ~
3—
lso-~ ~
100 4— — Ia
300 5— 5—
—

/0 — —as
3.

/5 — 4*0

2.

30-

— leo
£0 —
Printed in Nepal at jore Ganesh Press Pvt. Ltd. Kathmav