Chapter 13 ● Lateral Transfer-when knowledge

TRANSFER of the first topic is helpful but not

● Transfer- When something you essential to learning the second
learn in one situation affects how one
you learn or perform in another Near vs Far Transfer
situation ● Near Transfer- situations
● Essential component in human or problems that are similar
functioning in both superficial
● Without this, we would always start characteristics and
from scratch underlying characteristics
● Generalization- same response to and underlying
similar stimuli relationships
● Transfer should be top priority in ○ More common than
instructional settings; students far
should apply what they have ● Far Transfer- involves two
learned situations that are similar in
● Inert Knowledge- knowledge that one or more underlying
students never use outside the relationships but different in
classroom their surface features
Types of Transfer Specific vs General Transfer
● Can involve declarative ● Specific Transfer-original learning
knowledge, procedural knowledge, task and the transfer task overlap
or both in some way
● A piece of declarative knowledge ○ More common than general
can help in retrieving other tidbits ● General Transfer- original task
of info and transfer task are different in
● Transfer can go from declarative to both content and structure
procedural and reverse Theories of Transfer
Positive vs Negative Transfer A Historical Perspective: Formal Discipline
● Positive Transfer- when learning ● Formal Discipline- you exercise
in one situation facilitates learning your mind to learn more quickly
or performance in another situation and deal with new situations more
○ Old info can help effectively
meaningful and elaborative ○ Emphasizes the
learning importance and likelihood
○ Serves as conceptual of general transfer; one
framework, helps students situation improves learning
“fill in holes‘, or provide a and performance in another
concrete analogy situation regardless of how
● Negative Transfer- when different the two situations
something learned in one situation might be
hinders a person’s ability to learn ● General transfer portrayed by
Vertical vs Lateral Transfer formal discipline probably does not
● Vertical Transfer- a learner occur but general mental exercise
acquires new knowledge or skills might have a long-ranging
by building on more basic info and An Early Behaviorist Theory: Thorndike’s
procedures Identical Elements
● Edward Thorndike
 ○ Puzzle-box with the cat A Contextual Perspective: Situated
○ Reinforcement and Learning
punishment ● A most of what we learn is context
● Transfer occurs only to the extent specific, associated primarily with
that the original and transfer tasks the environments and experiences
have identical elements in which learning has taken place
○ Same specific stimulus- ● Situated learning is unlikely to
response associations result in transfer to very different
A Later Behaviorist Perspective: Similarity contexts
of Stimuli and Response ○ Not all school learning is
● Behaviorist views of the transfer situated
have focused on how transfer is A Contemporary View of General
affected by stimulus and response Transfer: Learning How to Learn
characteristics in both the original ● Advocated for formal discipline
and transfer situations argued that learning rigorous and
● Stimuli are identical and responses demanding subject matter
are similar in two situations, so facilitates virtually all future
positive transfer will occur learning tasks because it
● 3 central principles of yielded by “disciplines” and thus strengthens
stimulus-response view of transfer: the mind
○ Stimuli and response are ● General transfer isn’t as common
similar in the two situations as specific transfer, but learning
= maximal positive transfer occurring at one time can facilitate
○ Stimuli are different and learning at another time if the
response are similar= some individual learns how to learn
positive transfer ● Effective study strategies and
○ Stimuli are similar and habits do generalize from one
response are different = subject matter to another
negative transfer Going beyond Transfer of Knowledge:
An Information Processing Perspective: Emotional Reactions, Motives, and
Importance of Retrieval Attributes May Transfer as Well
● Transfer can occur only when ● As long as two tasks have at least
learners retrieve things they’ve some overlap in the info or skills
previously learned at a time when required the possibility of transfer
those things might be useful from one situation to the other
● To make a connection with old and exists
new info, learners must have two ● Transfer isn’t limited to cognitive
things in working memory and metacognitive acquisitions;
● Low probability of things to be transfer can apply to motivation
retrieved because of limited transfer
capacity of working memory so ● General attitudes and beliefs
skills needed at a particular time related to learning and thinking--
may not be transferred for instance, recognition that
● Presence or absence of retrieval learning often requires hard work,
cues influences the kinds of as well as open-mindedness to
information retrieved in working diverse viewpoints-- can have a
memory profound impact on later learning
and achievement across multiple
 domains and so clearly illustrate ○ General and perhaps
general transfer at work somewhat abstract
○ Spirit of transfer- develop principles are especially
a general desire to apply helpful when a new
what they learned in the situation does not, on the
classroom surface, appear to be
Factors Affecting Transfer similar to previous
● Meaningful learning promotes experiences and yet shares
better transfer than rote learning underlying structural or
○ Advantage of meaningful conceptual similarities with
learning: it increases the those experiences
odds of positive transfer ○ As students progress, they
● The more thoroughly something is acquire the ability to apply
learned, the more likely it is to be general principles to
transferred to a new situation different topics
○ The probability of transfer ● Numerous and varied examples
increases when students and opportunities for the practice
know something well increase the extent to which
○ Some conditions that information and skills will be
make initial learning slower applied to new situations
and more difficult may ○ The more examples and
actually be beneficial both practice situations in which
for retention and for particular info and skills are
transfer over the long run encountered, the greater
○ Less-is-more principle is the likelihood that future
more likely to promote transfer will occur
positive transfer ● The probability of transfer
● The more similar two situations decreases as the time interval
are, the more likely it is that between the original task and the
something learned in one situation transfer tasks increases
will be applied to the other ○ Info that has been learned
situation recently is more accessible
○ Similarity of either stimuli or and so more likely to be
responses is necessary for retrieved than info acquired
transfer to occur further back in time
○ Perceived similarity- ● Transfer increases when the
Transfer depends on cultural environment encourages
retrieval of relevant and expects transfer
information at the ○ When there are similarities,
appropriate time (rather learner is more likely to
than actual similarity) apply relevant knowledge
● Principles are more easily and skills to the situation
transferred than discrete facts
○ Principles and rules are PROBLEM SOLVING
more applicable than ● Problem Solving- using
specific facts and knowledge and skills we’ve
information previously learned-- transferring--
 to address an unanswered ● Potentially solve a particular
question or troubling situation problem in variety of ways →
● Some problems are greater success rates
○ Straightforward: all info ● Response Hierarchies- might be
needed is presented, and associated with several responses,
the solution is definitely with some associations being
right or wrong stronger than others
○ May necessitate seeking Early Cognitivist Views: Insight and
out additional info Stages of Problem Solving
○ May be so complicated that ● Problem solving is a process of
even considerable research mentally restructuring a problem
and creative thought no situation until insight is achieved
easy solution emerges; ● Wallas’ 4 steps in problem solving
require different procedures ○ Preparation- Defining
● Any problem has 3 components problem and gathering
○ Goal- desired end-state relevant info
○ Givens- pieces of info ○ Incubation- Thinking about
provided the problem at a
○ Operations- actions that subconscious level while
can be performed engaging in other activities
■ Take form of IF- ○ Inspiration- Having
THEN rules: if I get sudden insight into a
such-and-such, problem solution
then I need to do ○ Verification- checking if
such-and-such solution is correct
● Well Defined Problem- desired ● Polya’s 4 steps in problem solving
end problem is clearly stated, all (Conscious)
needed info is readily available, ○ Understanding the
and a particular sequence of problem- identifying the
operations will lead to a correct problem’s knowns and
solution unknowns, using suitable
○ One possible solution notion to represent problem
● Ill Defined Problem- goal is ○ Devising a plan-
ambiguous, some essential info is Determining appropriate
missing, and there is no actions
guaranteed means of achieving ○ Carrying out the plan-
the goal execution plan and
○ Several possible solutions monitoring its effectiveness
that vary in terms of relative ○ Looking backward-
rightness and acceptability evaluation overall
Theories of Problem Solving effectiveness
Early Behaviorist Views: Trial-and-Error ● More from introspection and
Learning Response Hierarchies informal observation than from
● Trial-and-error is often observed in controlled experimentation, and
children they were vague about how a
● Workable only if the number of learner might accomplish each
possible solutions is quite small step
 ● Problem solving sometimes ○ Novice- focus on specific,
involves deliberate and controlled concrete aspects
mental processes and sometimes Mental Sets in Encoding
less conscious processes ● Mental set- people are often
Information Processing Theory predisposed to approach and
● Most researchers take an info encode problems is particular
processing approach and focus ways
largely on specific cognitive ● Functional fixedness- tendency
processes that contribute to to think of objects as having only
problem solving success one function, thereby overlooking
Cognitive Factors Affecting Successful other possible uses
Problem Solving ● If particular approach to a problem
Working Memory Capacity has worked in the past, a person
● In working memory conscious may continue using it and possibly
thinking occurs learn it to automaticity in a
● Can hold a small amount of info mindless fashion
● If the load is too much, or if it is ● A mental set influences the way in
filled with irrelevant info, problem which a problem is encoded in
can’t be solved memory, however and this in turn
● Some skills become automatic influences the parts of long-term
thus leaving more space for more memory that are searched for
challenging aspects of the problem ○ Searched in the
Encoding of the Problem unproductive “direction” →
● One critical factor in encoding a hinder problem solving
problem is determining what performance
aspects of the problem are Retrieval from Long-Term Memory
relevant and irrelevant to finding a ● Storage processes that facilitate
solution retrieval also facilitate problem
○ Second is how various solving success
aspects if the problem is ● Begin by looking in logical places;
encoded retrieve familiar ideas first for
● Relational information- how one unusual problems-- those that
thing compares to another require thinking “outside the box”
○ Seems difficult to encode ● Hints that provide important
● How people encode a problem , retrieval cues can be helpful as
and solve it, is partly a function of well, provided their relevance
how they classify the problem to ● Anxiety can hinder problem solving
begin with performance; reduces chances of
● Problem Schemas- knowledge finding useful info
about certain types of problems ○ Can be reduced or
that can be solved in certain ways eliminated by knowing
● Experts and novices classify where to look in long-term
problems differently memory
○ Experts- more of abstract The Value of Incubation in Long-Term
concepts and underlying Memory Retrieval
principle and patterns ● Incubation- letting the problem
■ Good in defining ill- “percolate” for a while, in an
defined problems
 unconscious level, while engaging ● Epistemic beliefs may interfere
in other activities with effective problem solving
● Important especially in solving ● Thinking that any issue only has
difficult problems one correct solution leads to
○ Problems hindering us from difficulty in addressing ill-defined
solving the problem may problems
dissipate Problem Solving Strategies
○ “Wandering aimlessly” may Algorithms
help us stumbleupon ● Algorithms- specific, step-by-step
helpful ideas procedures for problem solving
○ May help us encode ○ Rarely applicable
problem in a different way; elsewhere
restructure it ● Min Strategy- start with larger
○ Insight Phenomenon- number then add on, one by one,
recoding can yield almost smaller number (Addition)
instantaneous solution ● As new strategies emerge,
Knowledge Base students may have a harder time
● Experts have complete and better as a result, they use less efficient,
organized knowledge base; more but dependable, ones
successful in solving problems ○ When they master more
○ Learned basic problem effective strategies, they
solving skills automatically leave less efficient
● Novices are more likely to engage strategies behind
in ineffective problem solving ● Two or more algorithms may be
strategies used
○ Trial-and-error, ○ difficult
unproductive procedures, Heuristics
making unwarranted ● Not all problems can be
assumptions, and applying solved by algorithms
procedures in a rote and because it may be too time
meaningless manner consuming
Metacognition ● Heuristics- heneral
● Successful problem solvers must problem solving strategies
○ Believe that they have that may or may not yield a
sufficient knowledge correct solution when
○ Realize that some algorithms aren’t applicable
problems may take time to ● No best strategy and some
solve people make mistakes in
○ Plan a general course of using these because it is
action learned in rote fashion
○ Flexibility consider Examples of Heuristics
potentially relevant ● Talking to oneself about
problem-solving strategies the problem- Enhances
and choosing appropriate one’s ability to identify valid
ones approaches and monitor
○ Monitor progress toward a progress to a solution,
solution, and change provided that self-
strategies if needed
 explanations are ● Using external
appropriate ones representations of
● Brainstorming- When one problem components- our
tries to generate a large working memory has a
number of approaches small capacity to hold info
without regard for how we need an outlet (e.g
realistic or practical they writing it down)
might be ○ Can help is see
○ Increases chance of interrelationships
stumbling upon among various
unusual or creative elements
solution Meaningless vs Meaningful Problem
● Means-ends analysis- one Solving
breaks a problem into 2 or ● Rote learning = meaningless
more subproblems and learning
them works successively ○ May obtain illogical or
on each of them physically impossible
● Working Backward- begin results
at the problem goal and ● When algorithms are taught,
them work in reverse should also teach how to use it in
towards initial state of the real world
problem
● Using Visual Imagery- FACILITATING TRANSFER AND
working memory may PROBLEM SOLVING IN
include a visuospatial INSTRUCTIONAL SETTINGS
Sketchpad that allows ● Adaptive Expertise- begin to use
short-term storage and the things they learn in school to
manipulation of visual develop creative and increasingly
material fruitful strategies for tackling a
○ Powerful means in wide variety of new tasks and
storing info in long- problems
term memory ● Students should learn info
● Drawing an analogy meaningfully and thoroughly
between a current problem ○ Most understanding is
and other, previously conceptual knowledge
solved problems can (integrated whole that sees
sometimes provide insights cause and effect)
into how the current ● Students should also learn
problem might be problem-solving strategies in a
addressed meaningful manner
○ Doesn’t guarantee ● Discovery activities and expository
correct solution instruction both play important
○ Without proper roles in learning problem-solving
guidance, the skills
chances of ● Students should have a mental set
retrieving info with for transfer
this is slim
 ○ General Mental Set- transfer knowledge, skills, and
general desire and problem solving strategies to real
inclination world contexts
○ Culture of Transfer- ○ Problem-Based Learning
learning environment in (PBL)- students must
which applying school acquire knowledge and
subject matter to new skills through solving
situations, cross complex real world
disciplinary contexts, and problems
real world problems is both ○ Case-Based Learning-
the expectation and norm when problem requires in-
● Some prerequisite skills should be depth analysis
practiced until they are learned to ● Digital technologies offer several
automaticity good platforms for real-world like
● Practice doesn’t necessarily make problem solving tasks
perfect, but it increases the odds of ● Classroom assessment practices
successful transfer and problem- should include measures of
solving transfer and problem solving
● Students should have experience CRITICAL THINKING
identifying problems for ● Critical thinking- evaluating the
themselves accuracy, credibility, and worth of
○ Problem finding- people info and lines of reasoning
must identify and define ● Forms of critical thinking
problems that stand their ○ Verbal reasoning-
way understanding and
● To minimize negative transfer, evaluating persuasive
differences between two ideas techniques found in oral
should be emphasized and written language
● Instruction in general problem- ○ Argument analysis-
solving skills (cognitive and Discriminating between
metacognitive) can be helpful reasons that do or don’t
● Students should learn strategies support a conclusion
for defining ill-defined problems ○ Probabilistic reasoning-
● Students’ early attempts to solve determining the likelihood
problems should be scaffolded and uncertainties
○ Intelligent Tutoring associated with various
Systems- guide students events
through complex subject ○ Hypothesis testing-
matter and problems can judging the value of data
tailor guidance to difficult and research results in
areas terms of methods used to
● Small group problem solving obtain them and their
activities can also promote potential relevance to
effective problem-solving certain conclusions
strategies Development, Individual, and
○ Internalization (Vygotsky) Cultural in Critical Thinking
● Authentic activities can increase ● Critical thinking skills
the probability that students will emerge gradually over the
 course of childhood and
adolescence
● To some degree, learner’s
tendency to think or not to
think critically depends on
their personality traits
○ Critical thinkers:
open-minded, enjoy
intellectual
challenges, and can
emotionally handle
the idea of being
wrong
● If understanding of another
person is accepted by the
learner, his understanding
of the topic is cumulated
● An influential factor is
cultural upbringing
○ Listen to elders
Fostering Critical Thinking in
the Classroom
● Not all sources of info
should be trusted
● Encouraging critical
thinking, the teacher must
walk the fine line between
critically evaluating
persuasive arguments and
scientific evidence
● Critical thinking
encompasses such variety
of cognitive skills,
strategies for encouraging
my be varied
○ Encourage some
intellectual
skepticism
○ Model critical
thinking
○ Hold debates
○ Help students
understand that
critical thinking is
essential in
deliberating about
important issues