DIGITAL NOTES

ON
SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

B.TECH II YEAR - II SEM

(2017-18)

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(Autonomous Institution – UGC, Govt. of India)
(Affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad, Approved by AICTE - Accredited by NBA & NAAC – ‘A’ Grade - ISO 9001:2015 Certified)
Maisammaguda, Dhulapally (Post Via. Hakimpet), Secunderabad – 500100, Telangana State, INDIA.

Software Engineering Page 1

 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

II Year B.Tech IT–II Sem L T /P/D C

4 -/ - / - 3

(R15A0511)SOFTWARE ENGINEERING

Objectives:

 To understand software process models such as waterfall and evolutionary models.

 To be aware of software requirements and SRS document.
 To learn the different software design and architectural styles.
 To understand software testing approaches such as unit testing and integration testing.
 To comprehend on quality control and quality assurance.

UNIT - I:
Introduction to Software Engineering: The evolving role of software, Changing Nature of
Software, Software myths.
A Generic view of process: Software engineering- A layered technology, a process
framework, The Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI), Process patterns, process
assessment, personal and team process models.
Process models: The waterfall model, Incremental process models, Evolutionary process
models, The Unified process.

UNIT - II:
Software Requirements: Functional and non-functional requirements, User requirements,
System requirements, Interface specification, the software requirements document.
Requirements engineering process: Feasibility studies, Requirements elicitation and
analysis, Requirements validation, Requirements management.
System models: Context Models, Behavioral models, Data models, Object models,
structured methods.

UNIT - III:
Design Engineering: Design process and Design quality, Design concepts, the design
model.
Creating an architectural design: Software architecture, Data design, Architectural styles
and patterns, Architectural Design.
Object-Oriented Design: Objects and object classes, An Object-Oriented design process,
Design evolution.
Performing User interface design: Golden rules, User interface analysis and design,
interface analysis, interface design steps, Design evaluation.

UNIT - IV:

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Testing Strategies: A strategic approach to software testing, test strategies for conventional
software, Black-Box and White-Box testing, Validation testing, System testing, the art of
Debugging.
Product metrics: Software Quality, Metrics for Analysis Model, Metrics for Design Model,
Metrics for source code, Metrics for testing, Metrics for maintenance.
Metrics for Process and Products: Software Measurement, Metrics for software quality.
Risk management: Reactive vs. Proactive Risk strategies, software risks, Risk identification,
Risk projection, Risk refinement, RMMM, RMMM Plan.

UNIT - V:
Quality Management: Quality concepts, Software quality assurance, Software Reviews,
Formal technical reviews, Statistical Software quality Assurance, Software reliability, The
ISO 9000 quality standards.

TEXT BOOKS :
1. Software Engineering A practitioner’s Approach, Roger S Pressman, 6th edition.
McGrawHill International Edition.
2. Software Engineering, Ian Sommerville, 7th edition, Pearson education.

REFERENCE BOOKS :
1. Software Engineering, A Precise Approach, Pankaj Jalote, Wiley India, 2010.
2. Software Engineering: A Primer, Waman S Jawadekar, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2008
3. Software Engineering, Principles and Practices, Deepak Jain, Oxford University
Press.

Outcomes:
 Ability to identify the minimum requirements for the development of application.
 Ability to develop, maintain, efficient, reliable and cost effective software solutions.
 Ability to critically thinking and evaluate assumptions and arguments.

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 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

INDEX

S. No Topic Page no
Unit

1 I Introduction to Software Engineering 5

2 I Evolving Role of Software 5

3 I A Generic view of process 7

4 I Process models 11

5 II Software Requirements 18

6 II Requirements engineering process 21

7 II System models 26

8 III Design Engineering 30

9 III Creating an architectural design 33

10 III Object-Oriented Design 37

11 III Performing User interface design 39

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 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT - I

INTRODUCTION:

Software Engineering is a framework for building software and is an engineering approach to

software development. Software programs can be developed without S/E principles and
methodologies but they are indispensable if we want to achieve good quality software in a
cost effective manner.
Software is defined as:
Instructions + Data Structures + Documents

Engineering is the branch of science and technology concerned with the design, building, and
use of engines, machines, and structures. It is the application of science, tools and methods to
find cost effective solution to simple and complex problems.
SOFTWARE ENGINEERING is defined as a systematic, disciplined and quantifiable
approach for the development, operation and maintenance of software.

The Evolving role of software

The dual role of Software is as follows:
1. A Product- Information transformer producing, managing and displaying information.
2. A Vehicle for delivering a product- Control of computer(operating system),the
communication of information(networks) and the creation of other programs.

Characteristics of software
• Software is developed or engineered, but it is not manufactured in the classical sense.
• Software does not wear out, but it deteriorates due to change.
• Software is custom built rather than assembling existing components.

THE CHANGING NATURE OFSOFTWARE

The various categories of software are
1. System software
2. Application software
3. Engineering and scientific software
4. Embedded software
5. Product-line software
6. Web-applications
7. Artificial intelligence software

• System software. System software is a collection of programs written to service other

programs
• Embedded software-- resides in read-only memory and is used to control products and
systems for the consumer and industrial markets.
• Artificial intelligence software. Artificial intelligence (AI) software makes use of
nonnumeric algorithms to solve complex problems that are not amenable to computation or
straightforward analysis

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• Engineering and scientific software. Engineering and scientific software have been
characterized by "number crunching" algorithms.

LEGACY SOFTWARE

Legacy software are older programs that are developed decades ago.
The quality of legacy software is poor because it has inextensible design, convoluted code,
poor and nonexistent documentation, test cases and results that are not achieved.
As time passes legacy systems evolve due to following reasons:
 The software must be adapted to meet the needs of new computing environment or
technology.
 The software must be enhanced to implement new business requirements.
 The software must be extended to make it interoperable with more modern systems or
database
 The software must be rearchitected to make it viable within a network environment.

SOFTWARE MYTHS
Myths are widely held but false beliefs and views which propagate misinformation and
confusion.
Three types of myth are associated with software:
- Management myth
- Customer myth
- Practitioner’s myth

MANAGEMENT MYTHS
• Myth(1)-The available standards and procedures for software are enough.
• Myth(2)-Each organization feel that they have state-of-art software development tools since
they have latest computer.
• Myth(3)-Adding more programmers when the work is behind
schedule can catch up.
• Myth(4)-Outsourcing the software project to third party, we can
relax and let that party build it.

CUSTOMER MYTHS
• Myth(1)- General statement of objective is enough to begin writing programs, the
details can be filled in later.
• Myth(2)-Software is easy to change because software is flexible

PRACTITIONER’S MYTH
• Myth(1)-Once the program is written, the job has been done.
• Myth(2)-Until the program is running, there is no way of assessing the quality.
• Myth(3)-The only deliverable work product is the working program
• Myth(4)-Software Engineering creates voluminous and unnecessary documentation and
invariably slows down software development.

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SOFTWARE ENGINEERING-A LAYERED TECHNOLOGY

Fig: Software Engineering-A layered technology

SOFTWARE ENGINEERING - A LAYERED TECHNOLOGY

• Quality focus - Bedrock that supports Software Engineering.
• Process - Foundation for software Engineering
• Methods - Provide technical How-to’s for building software
• Tools - Provide semi-automatic and automatic support to methods

A PROCESS FRAMEWORK
• Establishes the foundation for a complete software process
• Identifies a number of framework activities applicable to all software projects
• Also include a set of umbrella activities that are applicable across the entire
software process.

A PROCESS FRAMEWORK comprises of :

Common process framework
Umbrella activities
Framework activities
Tasks
Milestones, deliverables
SQA points

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 Umbrella activities
Framework activity #1

Software engineering action Work tasks

Work products
Task sets Quality assurance points
Project milestones

Work tasks
ask sets
Software engineering action T Work products
Quality assurance points
Project milestones

Framework activity #n

Software engineering action

Work tasks
Work products
Task sets Quality assurance points
Project milestones

Work tasks
Work products
Software engineering action Quality assurance points
Project milestones

\
A PROCESS FRAMEWORK
Used as a basis for the description of process models
Generic process activities
• Communication
• Planning
• Modeling
• Construction
• Deployment

A PROCESS FRAMEWORK
Generic view of engineering complimented by a number of umbrella activities
– Software project tracking and control
– Formal technical reviews
– Software quality assurance
– Software configuration management
– Document preparation and production
– Reusability management

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– Measurement
– Risk management

CAPABILITY MATURITY MODEL INTEGRATION(CMMI)

• Developed by SEI(Software Engineering institute)
• Assess the process model followed by an organization and rate the organization with
different levels
• A set of software engineering capabilities should be present as organizations reach different
levels of process capability and maturity.
CMMI process meta model can be represented in different ways
1.A continuous model
2.A staged model

Continuous model:
-Lets organization select specific improvement that best meet its business objectives and
minimize risk-Levels are called capability levels.
-Describes a process in 2 dimensions
-Each process area is assessed against specific goals and practices and is rated according to
the following capability levels.

CMMI
• Six levels of CMMI
– Level 0:Incomplete
– Level 1:Performed
– Level 2:Managed
– Level 3:Defined
– Level 4:Quantitatively managed
– Level 5:Optimized

CMMI
• Incomplete -Process is adhoc . Objective and goal of process areas are not known
• Performed -Goal,o bjective, work tasks, work products and other activities of software
process are carried out
• Managed -Activities are monitored, reviewed, evaluated and controlled
• Defined -Activities are standardized, integrated and documented
• Quantitatively Managed -Metrics and indicators are available to measure the process and
quality
• Optimized - Continuous process improvement based on quantitative feed back from
the user
-Use of innovative ideas and techniques, statistical quality control and other
methods for process improvement.

CMMI - Staged model

- This model is used if you have no clue of how to improve the process for quality software.
- It gives a suggestion of what things other organizations have found helpful to work first
- Levels are called maturity levels

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PROCESS PATTERNS
Software Process is defined as collection of Patterns.Process pattern provides a template. It
comprises of
• Process Template
-Pattern Name
-Intent
-Types
-Task pattern
- Stage pattern
-Phase Pattern
• Initial Context
• Problem
• Solution
• Resulting Context
• Related Patterns

PROCESS ASSESSMENT
Does not specify the quality of the software or whether the software will be
delivered on time or will it stand up to the user requirements. It attempts to keep a check on
the current state of the software process with the intention of improving it.

PROCESS ASSESSMENT
Software Process
Software Process Assessment
Software Process improvement
Motivates Capability determination

APPROACHES TO SOFTWARE ASSESSMENT

• Standard CMMI assessment (SCAMPI)
• CMM based appraisal for internal process improvement
• SPICE(ISO/IEC 15504)
• ISO 9001:2000 for software

Personal and Team Software Process

Personal software process
 PLANNING
 HIGH LEVEL DESIGN
 HIGH LEVEL DESIGN REVIEW
 DEVELOPMENT
 POSTMORTEM

Personal and Team Software Process

Team software process
Goal of TSP
- Build self-directed teams
- Motivate the teams
- Acceptance of CMM level 5 behavior as normal to accelerate software process
improvement
- Provide improvement guidance to high maturity organization

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 PROCESS MODELS

• Help in the software development

• Guide the software team through a set of framework activities
• Process Models may be linear, incremental or evolutionary

THE WATERFALL MODEL

• Used when requirements are well understood in the beginning

• Also called classic life cycle
• A systematic, sequential approach to Software development
• Begins with customer specification of Requirements and progresses through
planning, modeling, construction and deployment.

Communication
Planning
Modeling
Construction
Deployment

This Model suggests a systematic, sequential approach to SW development that begins at

the system level and progresses through analysis, design, code and testing

PROBLEMS IN WATERFALLMODEL
• Real projects rarely follow the sequential flow since they are always iterative
• The model requires requirements to be explicitly spelled out in the beginning,
which is often difficult
• A working model is not available until late in the project time plan

THE INCREMENTAL PROCESS MODEL

• Linear sequential model is not suited for projects which are iterative in nature
• Incremental model suits such projects
• Used when initial requirements are reasonably well-defined and compelling
need to provide limited functionality quickly
• Functionality expanded further in later releases
• Software is developed in increments

The Incremental Model

 Communication
 Planning
 Modeling
 Construction
 Deployment

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INCREMENT 1

Communication
Planning
Modeling
Construction
Deployment

INCREMENT 2

Communication
Planning
Modeling
Construction
: Deployment
:
:
:

INCREMENT N

Communication
Planning
Modeling
Construction
Deployment

THE INCREMENTAL MODEL

• Software releases in increments
• 1st increment constitutes Core product
• Basic requirements are addressed
• Core product undergoes detailed evaluation by the customer
• As a result, plan is developed for the next increment. Plan addresses the modification of
core product to better meet the needs of customer
• Process is repeated until the complete product is produced

THE RAD (Rapid Application Development) MODEL

• An incremental software process model

• Having a short development cycle
• High-speed adoption of the waterfall model using a component based construction approach
• Creates a fully functional system within avery short span time of 60 to 90 days

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The RAD Model consists of the following phases:
Communication
Planning
Construction
Component reuse
automatic code generation
testing
Modeling
Business modeling
Data modeling
Process modeling
Deployment
integration
delivery
feedback

THE RAD MODEL

• Multiple software teams work in parallel on different functions
• Modeling encompasses three major phases: Business modeling, Data modeling and process
modeling
• Construction uses reusable components, automatic code generation and testing

Problems in RAD
• Requires a number of RAD teams
• Requires commitment from both developer and customer for rapid-fire completion of
activities
• Requires modularity
• Not suited when technical risks are high

EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSMODEL

• Software evolves over a period of time

• Business and product requirements often change as development proceeds making a
straight-line path to an end product unrealistic
• Evolutionary models are iterative and as such are applicable to modern day applications

Types of evolutionary models

– Prototyping
– Spiral model
– Concurrent development model

PROTOTYPING

• Mock up or model( throw away version) of a software product

• Used when customer defines a set of objective but does not identify input,output,or
processing requirements
• Developer is not sure of:
– efficiency of an algorithm

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– adaptability of an operating system
– human/machine interaction

Communication Quick Plan

Quick Design

Build Prototype
Deployment & Delivery

STEPS IN PROTOTYPING
• Begins with requirement gathering
• Identify whatever requirements are known
• Outline areas where further definition is mandatory
• A quick design occur
• Quick design leads to the construction of prototype
• Prototype is evaluated by the customer
• Requirements are refined
• Prototype is turned to satisfy the needs of customer

LIMITATIONS OF PROTOTYPING
• In a rush to get it working, overall software quality or long term maintainability are
generally overlooked
• Use of inappropriate OS or PL
• Use of inefficient algorithm

THE SPIRAL MODEL

An evolutionary model which combines the best feature of the classical life cycle and
the iterative nature of prototype model. Include new element : Risk element. Starts in middle
and continually visits the basic tasks of communication, planning, modeling, construction and
deployment

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THE SPIRAL MODEL
• Realistic approach to the development of large scale system and software
• Software evolves as process progresses
• Better understanding between developer and customer
• The first circuit might result in the development of a product specification
• Subsequent circuits develop a prototype
• And sophisticated version of software

THE CONCURRENT DEVELOPMENT MODEL

•Also called concurrent engineering

•Constitutes a series of framework activities, software engineering action, tasks and their
associated states
•All activities exist concurrently but reside in different states
•Applicable to all types of software development
•Event generated at one point in the process trigger transitions among the states

A FINAL COMMENT ON EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS

• Difficult in project planning
• Speed of evolution is not known

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• Does not focus on flexibility and extensibility (more emphasis on high quality)
• Requirement is balance between high quality and flexibility and extensibility

THE UNIFIED PROCESS

Evolved by Rumbaugh, Booch, Jacobson. Combines the best features their OO models.
Adopts additional features proposed by otherexperts. Resulted in Unified Modeling
Language(UML). Unified process developed Rumbaugh and Booch. A framework for
Object-Oriented Software
Engineering using UML

PHASES OF UNIFIED PROCESS

• INCEPTION PHASE
• ELABORATION PHASE
• CONSTRUCTION PHASE
• TRANSITION PHASE

The Unified Process (UP)

UNIFIED PROCESS WORK PRODUCTS

Tasks which are required to be completed during different phases
1. Inception Phase
*Vision document
*Initial Use-Case model
*Initial Risk assessment
*Project Plan

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2. Elaboration Phase
*Use-Case model
*Analysis model
*Software Architecture description
*Preliminary design model
*Preliminary model

3. Construction Phase
*Design model
*System components
*Test plan and procedure
*Test cases
*Manual

4. Transition Phase
*Delivered software increment
*Beta test results
*General user feedback

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 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT II
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

IEEE defines Requirement as :

1. A condition or capability needed by a user to solve a problem or achieve an objective
2. A condition or capability that must be met or possessed by a system or a system
component to satisfy constract, standard, specification or formally imposed document
3. A documented representation of a condition nor capability as in 1 or 2

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
• Encompasses both the User’s view of the requirements( the external view ) and the
Developer’s view( inside characteristics)
User’s Requirements
--Statements in a natural language plus diagram, describing the services the system is
expected to provide and the constraints
• System Requirements --Describe the system’s function, services and operational condition

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
• System Functional Requirements
--Statement of services the system should provide
--Describe the behavior in particular situations
--Defines the system reaction to particular inputs
• Nonfunctional Requirements
- Constraints on the services or functions offered by the system
--Include timing constraints, constraints on the development process and standards
--Apply to system as a whole
• Domain Requirements
--Requirements relate to specific application of the system
--Reflect characteristics and constraints of that system

FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
• Should be both complete and consistent
• Completeness
-- All services required by the user should be defined
• Consistent
-- Requirements should not have contradictory definition
• Difficult to achieve completeness and consistency for large system

NON-FUNCTIONALREQUIREMENTS
Types of Non-functional Requirements
1.Product Requirements
-Specify product behavior
-Include the following
• Usability
• Efficiency
• Reliability
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• Portability
2.Organisational Requirements
--Derived from policies and procedures
--Include the following:
• Delivery
• Implementation
• Standard
3.External Requirements
-- Derived from factors external to the system and its development process
--Includes the following
• Interoperability
• Ethical
• Legislative

PROBLEMS FACED USING THE NATURAL LANGUAGE

1. Lack of clarity-- Leads to misunderstanding because of ambiguity of natural language
2. Confusion-- Due to over flexibility, sometime difficult to find whether requirements are
same or distinct.
3. Amalgamation problem-- Difficult to modularize natural language requirements

STRUCTURED LANGUAGESPECIFICATION
• Requirements are written in a standard way
• Ensures degree of uniformity
• Provide templates to specify system requirements
• Include control constructs and graphical highlighting to partition the specification

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS STANDARD FORM

• Function
• Description
• Inputs
• Source
• Outputs
• Destination
• Action
• Precondition
• Post condition
• Side effects

Interface Specification
• Working of new system must match with the existing system
• Interface provides this capability and precisely specified

Three types of interfaces

1.Procedural interface-- Used for calling the existing programs by the new programs
2.Data structures--Provide data passing from one sub-system to another
3.Representations of Data
-- Ordering of bits to match with the existing system
--Most common in real-time and embedded system

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The Software Requirements document
The requirements document is the official statement of what is required of the system
developers. Should include both a definition of user requirements and a specification of the
system requirements. It is NOT a design document. As far as possible ,it should set of WHAT
the system should do rather than HOW it should do it

The Software Requirements document

Heninger suggests that there are 6 requirements that requirement document should satisfy. It
should
• specify only external system behavior
• specify constraints on the implementation.
• Be easy to change
• Serve as reference tool for system maintainers
• Record forethought about the life cycle of the system.
• Characterize acceptable responses to undesired events

Purpose of SRS
• communication between the Customer,Analyst,system developers, maintainers, ..
• firm foundation for the design phase
• support system testing activities
• Support project management and control
• controlling the evolution of the system

IEEE requirements standard

Defines a generic structure for a requirements document that must be instantiated for each
specific system.
– Introduction.
– General description.
– Specific requirements.
– Appendices.
– Index.

IEEE requirements standard

1.Introduction
1.1 Purpose
1.2 Scope
1.3 Definitions, Acronyms and Abbreviations
1.4 References
1.5 Overview
2. General description
2.1 Product perspective
2.2 Product function summary
2.3 User characteristics
2.4 General constraints
2.5 Assumptions and dependencies
3. Specific Requirements
- Functional requirements

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-External interface requirements
- Performance requirements
- Design constraints
- Attributes eg. security, availability, maintainability,transferability/conversion
- Other requirements
• Appendices
• Index

REQUIREMENTS ENGINEERING PROCESS

To create and maintain a system requirement document . The overall process includes four
high level requirements engineering sub-processes:
1.Feasibility study
--Concerned with assessing whether the system is useful to the business
2.Elicitation and analysis
--Discovering requirements
3.Specifications
--Converting the requirements into a standard form
4.Validation
-- Checking that the requirements actually define the system that the customer wants

SPIRAL REPRESENTATION OF REQUIREMENTSENGINEERING PROCESS

Process represented as three stage activity. Activities are organized as an iterative process
around a spiral. Early in the process, most effort will be spent on understanding high-level
business and the use requirement. Later in the outer rings, more effort will be devoted to
system requirements engineering and system modeling
Three level process consists of:
1.Requirements elicitation
2. Requirements specification
3. Requirements validation

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FEASIBILITY STUDIES
Starting point of the requirements engineering process
• Input: Set of preliminary business requirements, an outline description of the system and
how the system is intended to support business processes
• Output: Feasibility report that recommends whether or not it is worth carrying out further
Feasibility report answers a number of questions:
1.Does the system contribute to the overall objective
2.Can the system be implemented using the current technology and within given cost and
schedule
3.Can the system be integrated with other system which are already in place.

REQUIREMENTS ELICITATION ANALYSIS

Involves a number of people in an organization.

Stakeholder definition-- Refers to any person or group who will be affected by the system
directly or indirectly i.e. Endusers, Engineers, business managers, domain experts.

Reasons why eliciting is difficult

1.Stakeholder often don’t know what they want from the computer system.
2.Stakeholder expression of requirements in natural language is sometimes difficult to
understand.
3.Different stakeholders express requirements differently
4.Influences of political factors Change in requirements due to dynamic environments.

REQUIREMENTS ELICITATION PROCESS

Process activities
1.Requirement Discovery -- Interaction with stakeholder to collect their requirements
including domain and documentation
2.Requirements classification and organization -- Coherent clustering of requirements from
unstructured collection of requirements
3. Requirements prioritization and negotiation -- Assigning priority to requirements
--Resolves conflicting requirements through negotiation
4. Requirements documentation -- Requirements be documented and placed in the next round
of spiral

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The spiral representation of Requirements Engineering

REQUIEMENTS DICOVERY TECHNIQUES

1. View points --Based on the viewpoints expressed by the stake holder

--Recognizes multiple perspectives and provides a framework for discovering
conflicts in the requirements proposed by different stakeholders
Three Generic types of viewpoints
1.Interactor viewpoint--Represents people or other system that interact directly with the
system
2.Indirect viewpoint--Stakeholders who influence the requirements, but don’t use the system
3.Domain viewpoint--Requirements domain characteristics and constraints that influence the
requirements.

2. Interviewing--Puts questions to stakeholders about the system that they use and the system
to be developed. Requirements are derived from the answers.
Two types of interview
– Closed interviews where the stakeholders answer a pre-defined set of questions.
– Open interviews discuss a range of issues with the stakeholders for better understanding
their needs.

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Effective interviewers
a) Open-minded: no pre-conceived ideas
b) Prompter: prompt the interviewee to start discussion with a question or a proposal

3. Scenarios --Easier to relate to real life examples than to abstract description. Starts with an
outline of the interaction and during elicitation, details are added to create a complete
description of that interaction
Scenario includes:
• 1. Description at the start of the scenario
• 2. Description of normal flow of the event
• 3. Description of what can go wrong and how this is handled
• 4.Information about other activities parallel to the scenario
• 5.Description of the system state when the scenario finishes

LIBSYS scenario
• Initial assumption: The user has logged on to the LIBSYS system and has located the
journal containing the copy of the article.
• Normal: The user selects the article to be copied. He or she is then prompted by the system
to either provide subscriber information for the journal or to indicate how they will pay for
the article. Alternative payment methods are by credit card or by quoting an organisational
account number.
• The user is then asked to fill in a copyright form that maintains details of the transaction and
they then submit this to the LIBSYS system.
• The copyright form is checked and, if OK, the PDF version of the article is downloaded to
the LIBSYS working area on the user’s computer and the user is informed that it is available.
The user is asked to select a printer and a copy of the article is printed

LIBSYS scenario
• What can go wrong: The user may fail to fill in the copyright form correctly. In this case,
the form should be re-presented to the user for correction. If the resubmitted form is still
incorrect then the user’s request for the article is rejected.
• The payment may be rejected by the system. The user’s request for the article is rejected.
• The article download may fail. Retry until successful or the user terminates the session..
• Other activities: Simultaneous downloads of other articles.
• System state on completion: User is logged on. The downloaded article has been deleted
from LIBSYS workspace if it has been flagged as print-only.

4. Use cases -- scenario based technique for requirement elicitation. A fundamental feature of
UML, notation for describing object-oriented system models. Identifies a type of interaction
and the actors involved. Sequence diagrams are used to add information to a Use case

Article printing use-case

Ar ticle printing

LIBSYS use cases

Article printing
Article search
User administration
Supplier Catalogue services
Library

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User
Library
Staff

REQUIREMENTS VALIDATION
Concerned with showing that the requirements define the systemthat the customer wants.
Important because errors in requirements can lead to extensiverework cost
Validation checks
1.Validity checks --Verification that the system performs the intended function bythe user
2.Consistency check --Requirements should not conflict
3. Completeness checks --Includes requirements which define all functions andconstraints
intended by the system user
4. Realism checks --Ensures that the requirements can be actually implemented
5. Verifiability -- Testable to avoid disputes between customer and developer.

VALIDATION TECHNIQUES
1.REQUIREMENTS REVIEWS
Reviewers check the following:
(a) Verifiability: Testable
(b) Comprehensibility
(c) Traceability
(d) Adaptability

2.PROTOTYPING

3.TEST-CASE GENERATION

Requirements management
Requirements are likely to change for large software systems and as such requirements
management process is required to handle changes.
Reasons for requirements changes
(a) Diverse Users community where users have different requirements and priorities
(b) System customers and end users are different
(c) Change in the business and technical environment after installation
Two classes of requirements
(a) Enduring requirements: Relatively stable requirements
(b) Volatile requirements: Likely to change during system development process or during
operation

Requirements management planning

An essential first stage in requirement management process. Planning process consists of the
following
1.Requirements identification -- Each requirement must have unique tag for cross
reference and traceability
2.Change management process -- Set of activities that assess the impact and cost of changes
3.Traceability policy -- A matrix showing links between requirements and otherelements of
software development
4.CASE tool support --Automatic tool to improve efficiency of change management

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process. Automated tools are required for requirements storage,change management and
traceability management

Traceability
Maintains three types of traceability information.
1.Source traceability--Links the requirements to the stakeholders
2. Requirements traceability--Links dependent requirements within the requirements
document
3. Design traceability-- Links from the requirements to the design module

A traceability matrix

Requirements change management

Consists of three principal stages:
1. Problem analysis and change specification-- Process starts with a specific change proposal
and analysed to verify that it is valid
2.Change analysis and costing--Impact analysis in terms of cost, time and
risks
3. Change implementation--Carrying out the changes in requirements document, system
design and its implementation

SYSTEM MODELS
Used in analysis process to develop understanding ofthe existing system or new system.
Excludes details. An abstraction of the system
Types of system models
1.Context models
2. Behavioural models
3.Data models
4.Object models
5.Structured models

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CONTEXT MODELS
A type of architectural model. Consists of sub-systems that make up an entire system
First step: To identify the subsystem.
Represent the high level architectural model as simple block diagram
• Depict each sub system a named rectangle
• Lines between rectangles indicate associations between subsystems
Disadvantages
--Concerned with system environment only, doesn't take into account other systems, which
may take data or give data to the model

The context of an ATM system consists of the following

Auto-teller system
Security system
Maintenance system
Account data base
Usage database
Branch accounting system
Branch counter system

Behavioral models
Describes the overall behaviour of a system.
Two types of behavioural model
1.Data Flow models
2.State machine models

Data flow models --Concentrate on the flow of data and functional transformation on that
data. Show the processing of data and its flow through a sequence of processing steps. Help
analyst understand what is going on
Advantages
-- Simple and easily understandable
-- Useful during analysis of requirements

State machine models

Describe how a system responds to internal or external events. Shows system states and
events that cause transition from one state to another. Does not show the flow of data within
the system. Used for modeling of real time systems
Exp: Microwave oven
Assumes that at any time, the system is in one of a number of possible states. Stimulus
triggers a transition from on state to another state
Disadvantage
-- Number of possible states increases rapidly for large system models

DATA MODELS
Used to describe the logical structure of data processed by the system. An entity-relation-
attribute model sets out the entities in the system, the relationships between these entities and
the entity attributes. Widely used in database design. Can readily be implemented using
relational databases. No specific notation provided in the UML but objects and associations
can be used.

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Library semantic model

Data dictionary entries

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OBJECT MODELS
An object oriented approach is commonly used for interactive systems development.
Expresses the systems requirements using objects and developing the system in an object
oriented PL such as c++
A object class: An abstraction over a set of objects that identifies common attributes. Objects
are instances of object class. Many objects may be created from a single class.
Analysis process
-- Identifies objects and object classes
Object class in UML
--Represented as a vertically oriented rectangle with three sections
(a) The name of the object class in the top section
(b) The class attributes in the middle section
(c) The operations associated with the object class are in lower section.

OBJECT MODELS
INHERITANCE MODELS
A type of object oriented model which involves in object classes attributes. Arranges classes
into an inheritance hierarchy with the most general object class at the top of hierarchy
Specialized objects inherit their attributes and services
UML notation
-- Inheritance is shown upward rather than downward
--Single Inheritance: Every object class inherits its attributes and operations from a single
parent class
--Multiple Inheritance: A class of several of several parents.

OBJECT MODELS
OBJECT AGGREGATION
Some objects are grouping of other objects. An aggregate of a set of other objects. The
classes representing these objects may be modeled using an object aggregation model
A diamond shape on the source of the link represents the composition.

OBJECT-BEHAVIORAL MODEL
-- Shows the operations provided by the objects
-- Sequence diagram of UML can be used for behavioral modeling

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 MALLA REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT III

DESIGN ENGINEERING
DESIGN PROCESS AND DESIGN QUALITY
ENCOMPASSES the set of principles, concepts and practices that lead to the development of
high quality system or product. Design creates a representation or model of the software.
Design model provides details about S/W architecture, interfaces and components that are
necessary to implement the system. Quality is established during Design. Design should
exhibit firmness, commodity and design. Design sits at the kernel of S/W Engineering.
Design sets the stage for construction.

QUALITY GUIDELINES
• Uses recognizable architectural styles or patterns
• Modular; that is logically partitioned into elements or subsystems
• Distinct representation of data, architecture, interfaces and components
• Appropriate data structures for the classes to be implemented
• Independent functional characteristics for components
• Interfaces that reduces complexity of connection
• Repeatable method

QUALITY ATTRIBUTES
FURPS quality attributes
• Functionality
* Feature set and capabilities of programs
* Security of the overall system
• Usability
* user-friendliness
* Aesthetics
* Consistency
* Documentation
• Reliability
* Evaluated by measuring the frequency and severity of failure
* MTTF
• Supportability
* Extensibility
* Adaptability
* Serviceability

DESIGN CONCEPTS
1. Abstractions
2. Architecture
3. Patterns
4. Modularity
5. Information Hiding
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6. Functional Independence
7. Refinement
8. Re-factoring
9. Design Classes

DESIGN CONCEPTS
ABSTRACTION
Many levels of abstraction.
Highest level of abstraction : Solution is slated in broad terms using the language of the
problem environment
Lower levels of abstraction : More detailed description of the solution is provided
• Procedural abstraction-- Refers to a sequence of instructions that a specific and
limited function
• Data abstraction-- Named collection of data that describe a data object

DESIGN CONCEPTS
ARCHITECTURE--Structure organization of program components (modules) and their
interconnection
Architecture Models
(a) Structural Models-- An organised collection of program components
(b) Framework Models-- Represents the design in more abstract way
(c) Dynamic Models-- Represents the behavioral aspects indicating changes as a function of
external events
(d). Process Models-- Focus on the design of the business or technical process

PATTERNS
Provides a description to enables a designer to determine the followings :
(a). Whether the pattern is applicable to the current work
(b). Whether the pattern can be reused
(c). Whether the pattern can serve as a guide for developing a similar but functionally or
structurally different pattern

MODULARITY
Divides software into separately named and addressable components, sometimes called
modules. Modules are integrated to satisfy problem requirements. Consider two problems p1
and p2. If the complexity of p1 iscp1 and of p2 is cp2 then effort to solve p1=cp1 and effort
to solve p2=cp2
If cp1>cp2 then ep1>ep2
The complexity of two problems when they are combined is often greater than the sum of the
perceived complexity when each is taken separately. • Based on Divide and Conquer strategy
: it is easier to solve a complex problem when broken into sub-modules

INFORMATION HIDING
Information contained within a module is inaccessible to other modules who do not need such
information. Achieved by defining a set of Independent modules that communicate with one
another only that information necessary to achieve S/W function. Provides the greatest
benefits when modifications are required during testing and later. Errors introduced during
modification are less likely to propagate to other location within the S/W.

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FUNCTIONAL INDEPENDENCE
A direct outgrowth of Modularity. abstraction and information hiding. Achieved by
developing a module with single minded function and an aversion to excessive interaction
with other modules. Easier to develop and have simple interface. Easier to maintain because
secondary effects caused b design or code modification are limited, error propagation is
reduced and reusable modules are possible. Independence is assessed by two quantitative
criteria:
(1) Cohesion
(2) Coupling
Cohesion -- Performs a single task requiring little interaction with other components
Coupling--Measure of interconnection among modules. Coupling should be low and
cohesion should be high for good design.

REFINEMENT & REFACTORING

REFINEMENT -- Process of elaboration from high level abstraction to the lowest level
abstraction. High level abstraction begins with a statement of functions. Refinement causes
the designer to elaborate providing more and more details at successive level of abstractions
Abstraction and refinement are complementary concepts.
Refactoring -- Organization technique that simplifies the design of a component without
changing its function or behavior. Examines for redundancy, unused design elements and
inefficient or unnecessary algorithms.

DESIGN CLASSES
Class represents a different layer of design architecture.
Five types of Design Classes
1. User interface class -- Defines all abstractions that are necessary for human computer
interaction
2. Business domain class -- Refinement of the analysis classes that identity attributes and
services to implement some of business domain
3.Process class -- implements lower level business abstractions required to fully manage the
business domain classes
4.Persistent class -- Represent data stores that will persist beyond the execution of the
software
5.System class -- Implements management and control functions to operate and
communicate within the computer environment and with the outside world.

THE DESIGN MODEL

Analysis viewed in two different dimensions as process dimension and abstract dimension.
Process dimension indicates the evolution of the design model as design tasks are executed as
part of software process. Abstraction dimension represents the level of details as each
element of the analysis model is transformed into design equivalent
Data Design elements
-- Data design creates a model of data that is represented at a high level of abstraction
-- Refined progressively to more implementation-specific representation for processing by
the computer base system
-- Translation of data model into a data base is pivotal to achieving business objective of a
system

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THE DESIGN MODEL
Architectural design elements. Derived from three sources
(1) Information about the application domain of the software
(2) Analysis model such as dataflow diagrams or analysis classes.
(3) Architectural pattern and styles Interface Design elements
Set of detailed drawings constituting:
(1) User interface
(2) External interfaces to other systems, devices etc
(3) Internal interfaces between various components

THE DESIGN MODEL

Deployment level design elements. Indicates how software functionality and subsystem will
be allocated with in the physical computing environment. UML deployment diagram is
developed and refined
Component level design elements Fully describe the internal details of each software
component. UML diagram can be used

CREATING AN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

What is SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE… The software architecture of a program or
computing system is the structure or structures of the system, which comprise software
components, the externally visible properties of those components and the relationship among
them.

Software Architecture is not the operational software. It is a representation that enables a

software engineer to
• Analyze the effectiveness of the design in meeting its stated requirements.
• • consider architectural alternative at a stage when making design changes is still relatively
easy .
• Reduces the risk associated with the construction of the software.

Why Is Architecture Important?

Three key reasons
--Representations of software architecture enables communication and understanding
between stakeholders
--Highlights early design decisions to create an operational entity.
--constitutes a model of software components and their interconnection

Data Design
The data design action translates data objects defined as part of the analysis model into data
structures at the component level and a database architecture at application level when
necessary.

DATA DESIGN AT ARCHITECTURE LEVEL

• Data structure at programming level
• Data base at application level
• Data warehouse at business level.

DATA DESIGN AT COMPONENT LEVEL

Principles for data specification:
1. Proper selection of data objects and data and data models

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2.Identification of attribute and functions and their encapsulation of these within a class
3.Mechanism for representation
representation of the content of each data object. Class diagrams may be
used
4.Refinement of data design elements from requirement analysis to component level design.
5.Information hiding
6.A library of useful data structures and operations be developed.
7.Software design and PL should support the specification and realization of abstract data
types..

ARCHITECTURAL STYLES
Describes a system category that encompasses:
(1) a set of components
(2) a set of connectors that enables “communication andcoordination
(3) Constraints
onstraints that define how components can be integrated to form the system
(4) Semantic
emantic models to understand the overall propertiesof a system

Data-flow
flow architectures
Shows the flow of input data, its computational components
omponents and output data
data. Structure is
also called pipe and Filter.
Filter Pipe provides path for flow of data
data. Filters manipulate data and
work independent ofits neighboring filter
filter. If data flow degenerates into a single line of
transform, it is
is termed as batch sequential.

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Call and return architectures
Achieves a structure that is easy to modify and scale .Two
Two sub styles
(1) Main program/sub program architecture
-- Classic program structure
-- Main program invokes a number of components, which in turn invoke still other
components
(2) Remote procedure call architecture
-- Components of main program/subprogram are distributed across computers over network

Object-oriented
oriented architectures
The components of a system encapsulate data and the operations
operations. Communication and
coordination between components is done via message

Layered architectures
A number of different layers are defined Inner Layer( interface with OS)
• Intermediate Layer Utility services and application
application function)
Outer Layer (User interface)

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 FIG: Layered Architecture

ARCHITECTURAL PATTERNS
A template that specifies approach for some behavioral characteristics of the system
Patterns are imposed on the architectural styles
Pattern Domains
1.Concurrency
--Handles multiple tasks that simulates parallelism.
--Approaches(Patterns)
(a) Operating system process management pattern
(b) A task scheduler pattern
2.Persistence
--Data survives past the execution of the process
--Approaches (Patterns)
(a) Data base management system pattern
(b) Application Level persistence Pattern( word processing software)

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3.Distribution
-- Addresses the communication of system in a distributed environment
--Approaches(Patterns)
(a) Broker Pattern
-- Acts as middleman between client and server.

Object-Oriented Design : Objects and object classes, An Object-Oriented design process,

Design evolution.
• Performing User interface design : Golden rules, User interface analysis and design,
interface analysis, interface design steps, Design evaluation.

Object And Object Classes

• Object : An object is an entity that has a state and a defined set of operations that
operate on that state.
• An object class definition is both a type specification and a template for creating
objects.
• It includes declaration of all the attributes and operations that are associated with
object of that class.

Object Oriented Design Process

There are five stages of object oriented design process
1)Understand and define the context and the modes of use of the system.
2)Design the system architecture
3)Identify the principle objects in the system.
4)Develop a design models
5)Specify the object interfaces

Systems context and modes of use. It specify the context of the system. it also specify
the relationships between the software that is being designed and its external environment.
• If the system context is a static model it describe the other system in that environment.
• If the system context is a dynamic model then it describe how the system actually interact
with the environment.

System Architecture
Once the interaction between the software system that being designed and the system
environment have been defined. We can use the above information as basis for designing the
System

Architecture.

Object Identification--This process is actually concerned with identifying the object classes.
We can identify the object classes by the following
1)Use a grammatical analysis
2)Use a tangible entities
3)Use a behaviourial approach
4)Use a scenario based approach

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Design model
Design models are the bridge between the requirements and implementation. There are two
type of design models
1)Static model describe the relationship between the objects.
2)Dynamic model describe the interaction between the objects

Object Interface Specification

It is concerned with specifying the details of the interfaces to an objects.
Design evolution. The main advantage OOD approach is to simplify the problem of making
changes to the design. Changing the internal details of an object is unlikely to effect any other
system object.

Golden Rules
1. Place the user in control
2. Reduce the user’s memory load
3. Make the interface consistent

Place the User in Control

• Define interaction modes in a way that does not force a user into unnecessary or undesired
actions.
• Provide for flexible interaction.
• Allow user interaction to be interruptible and undoable.
• Streamline interaction as skill levels advance and allow the interaction to be customized.
• Hide technical internals from the casual user.
• Design for direct interaction with objects that appear on the screen.

Make the Interface Consistent. Allow the user to put the current task into a meaningful
context. Maintain consistency across a family of applications. If past interactive models have
created user expectations, do not make changes unless there is a compelling reason to do
so.

USER INTERFACE ANALYSISAND DESIGN

The overall process for analyzing and designing a user interface begins with the creation of
different models of system function. There are 4 different models that is to be considered
when a user interface is to be analyzed and designed.

User Interface Design Models

User model —Establishes a profile of allend users of the system
Design model — A design model of the entire system incorporates data, architectural,
interface and procedural representation of the software.
A design realization of the user model
User’s Mental model (system perception) . the user’s mental image of what the interface is
Implementation model — the interface “look and feel” coupled with supporting information
that describe interface syntax and semantics

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Users can be categorized as
1.Novice – No syntactic knowledge of the system and little semantic knowledge of the
application or computer usage of the system
2.Knowledgeable,intermittent users- Reasonable semantic knowledge of the application but
low recall of syntactic information to use the system
3.Knowledgeable,frequent users- Good semantic and syntactic knowledge

User interface analysis and design process

• The user interface analysis and design process is an iterative process and it can
be represented as a spiral model
It consists of 5 framework activities
1.User,task and environment analysis
2.Interface design
3.Interface construction
4.Interface validation

User Interface Design Process

Interface analysis
-Understanding the user who interacts with the system based on their skill levels.i.e,
requirement gathering
-The task the user performs to accomplish the goals of the system are identified, described
and elaborated. Analysis of work environment.

Interface design
In interface design, all interface objects and actions that enable a user to perform all desired
task are defined
Implementation
A prototype is initially constructed and then later user interface development tools may be
used to complete the construction of the interface.
• Validation
The correctness of the system is validated against the user requirement

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Interface Analysis
Interface analysis means understanding
– (1) the people (end-users) who will interact with the system through the interface;
– (2) the tasks that end-users must perform to do their work,
– (3) the content that is presented as part of the interface
– (4) the environment in which these tasks will be conducted.

User Analysis
• Are users trained professionals, technician, clerical, o manufacturing workers?
• What level of formal education does the average user have?
• Are the users capable of learning from written materials or have they expressed a desire for
classroom training?
• Are users expert typists or keyboard phobic?
• What is the age range of the user community?
• Will the users be represented predominately by one gender?
• How are users compensated for the work they perform?
• Do users work normal office hours or do they work until the job is done?

Task Analysis and Modeling

Analysis Techniques
• Use-cases define basic interaction
• Task elaboration refines interactive tasks
• Object elaboration identifies interface objects(classes)
• Workflow analysis defines how a work process is completed when several people (and
roles) are involved
– What work will the user perform in specific circumstances?

Interface Design Steps

• Using information developed during interface analysis define interface objects and actions
(operations).
• Define events (user actions) that will cause the state of the user interface to change. Model
this behavior.
• Depict each interface state as it will actually look to the end-user.
• Indicate how the user interprets the state of the system from information provided through
the interface.

Interface Design Patterns. Patterns are available for

– The complete UI
– Page layout
– Forms and input
– Tables
– Direct data manipulation
– Navigation
– Searching
– Page elements
– e-Commerce

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Design Issues
• Response time
• Help facilities
• Error handling
• Menu and command labeling
• Application accessibility
• Internationalization

Design Evaluation Cycle : Steps:

Preliminary design
Build prototype #1
Interface evaluation is studied by designer
Design modifications are made
Build prototype # n
Interface
User evaluate's interface
Interface design is complete

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