Veltech Rangarajan Dr.

Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology

School of Mechanical and Construction

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Minor Project – II (Aircraft Design Project-2 )

Submitted by

1. V. VEERANJANEYULU 16UEAE0065

2. S.OM VIJAY 16UEAE0049

3. K. THULASI RAM 16UEAE0025

 POWERPLANT SELECTION:

• From the first weight estimate, we can have a rough idea of the weight of the power-plant
that is to be used.
• The total weight of the power-plant (0.055W) requires being approximately 15,443.5 kg.
• Choice of engine is a Turbofan for obvious reasons such as higher operating fuel
economy & efficiency for high payloads.
• Engines can be used in combination of 2 x 7721.8 kg engines. Or
• 3 x 5147.85 kg engines. Or
• 4 x 3860.6 kg engines providing enough thrust for Take-off.
• Most of the aircraft in the 250-350 passenger category were found to have 2 engines and
4 engines. Hence the preference is towards having three engines (Trijet).

A list of engines with weight and thrust matching our requirements are chosen and are
tabulated below.

Engine Name Dry weight Max Thrust Thrust to Bypass

(kg) (kN) Weight ratio Ratio

Rolls Royce
4788 320 6.8:1 5
Trent 772B-60

Pratt & Whitney

4270 310 7.4:1 5
PW4000-100

CFM
International 3990 151 3.9:1
6.4
CFM56-5C4

General Electric
4104 240 6:1 4.4
CF6-50

Pratt & Whitney

4030 250 6.3:1 4.8
JT9D-7R4H1

The preferable choice of engine, from those listed above would be the Rolls Royce Trent
772B-60 engine which meets our demand of weight and powers. Airbus A330 and Boeing 777
aircrafts uses these engines which are similar in payload capabilities such as the one under
design.
Details about the selected engine:

Rolls Royce Trent 772B-60

Since its launch with Cathay Pacific in 1995, the Trent 700 has built up the greatest service
experience on the A330. As the only engine specifically designed for the A330 it delivers the
greatest performance over the widest range of operational and environmental conditions.

The Trent 700 marked the birth of a new family of engines; it incorporates revolutionary
advances in wide chord hollow titanium fan blade technology, Full Authority Digital Engine
Control (FADEC) and 3-D aerodynamics, whilst maintaining the three-shaft design
characteristics of low weight, high strength and exceptional performance retention.

As part of a successful and expanding family, the Trent 700 has benefited through continuous
improvement as technology has flowed from later generation family members. Incorporation
of the HP module from the Trent 800 enabled the Trent 700 to deliver the best performance of
any engine on the A330 whilst delivering long on-wing life and low maintenance costs.
Improvements in the LP turbine and other technology flowed from the Trent 1000 will ensure
the Trent 700 delivers the lowest fuel burn on the A330. Having been selected by over 40
operators of the A330, the Trent 700 is the most popular engine on the aircraft. This is apparent
in China where 100 per cent of A330 operators have selected the Trent 700 and in

the Middle East it has 80 per cent market share. The engine’s unrivalled high and hot
performance gives Trent 700 customers a distinct operating advantage. All this contributes to
a leading market share of around 50 per cent. In addition to its capability the Trent 700 has
superb environmental credentials as the cleanest and quietest engine on the A330.

As a complete package the Trent 700 provides any customer with the greatest flexibility.

Technical Details

Engine : Trent 772B-60

Thrust : 71,100lb
Bypass ratio : 5.0
Inlet mass flow : 2030lb/sec
Fan diameter : 97.4in
Length : 154in
Stages : Fan, 8 IPC, 6 HPC, 1 HPT, 1 IPT, 4 LPT
Certification : Jan 1994
EIS : Mar 1995
WING SELECTION:
After the final weight estimation of the aircraft, the primary component of the aircraft
to be designed is the wing. The wing weight and its lifting capabilities are in general, a function
of the thickness of the airfoil section that is used in the wing structure. The first step towards
designing the wing is the thickness estimation. The thickness of the wing, in turn depends on
the critical mach number of the airfoil or rather, the drag divergence Mach number
corresponding to the wing section.

The critical Mach number can well be delayed by the use of an appropriate Sweep- back
angle to the wing structure. The natural choice of the standard series is the 65 series which is
designed specifically for use in high-speeds.

WING GEOMETRY DESIGN:

• The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the Wing loading
(W/S), Aspect Ratio (b2/S), Taper ratio (λ) and the Sweepback angle at quarter chord
(Λqc).

• The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used to find the
Wing area S (from W/S).The value of S also enables us to calculate the Wingspan b
(using the Aspect ratio). The root chord can now be found using the equation.

2 S

Croot
b  (1 )
The tip chord is given by,

Ctip   Croot

POSITION OF WING:

The location of the wing in the fuselage (along the vertical axis) is very important. Each
configuration (Low, High and mid) has its own advantages but in this design, the Low- wing
offers significant advantages such as

1.Uninterrupted Passenger’s cabin.

2. Placement of Landing gear in the wing structure itself.

3.Location of the engine on a low-wing makes Engine-overhaul easier.

 4.Permits usage of the Wing carry through box which alone can admit the amount of fuel that we
require to carry.

5.Landing gear usually becomes high in such wing configurations and therefore, provides greater
ground clearance ad reduces the amount of fuselage upsweep that is to be provided.

6.Low wing affects the flow over the horizontal tail to minimum extent.

7.The low-wing requires that some-amount of dihedral angle is provided for lateral stability. As of
now, the dihedral angle is assumed to be 5 degrees, but it may be subject to change in the stability
analysis.

WING PLANFORM

WING SETTING ANGLE

The wing has to be set at angle to the fuselage center line such that during cruise, the
fuselage is in a level condition (parallel to the direction of the velocity vector). This requires
that the wing setting angle correspond to the angle which will produce the desired C L for cruise.
The CL that will be obtainable from an airfoil section (for a given angle of attack) is given by:

CL =0.9 x Cl x cosΛ.
Cl=2×𝑊/𝜌×𝑣2×𝑆
DESIGN CALCULATION:

(First Estimation)

Croot Calculation:
 Wing chord root(Cr) = (2*S) / (B* (1+taper ratio)
 = (2*124.60) / 34.29*(1+0.159)
= 6.27 m

Ctip Calculation:
 Wing chord tip (Ct) = taper ratio * Cr
= 0.159*6.27
= 0.99m

Cmean Calculation:
Cm = 2/3×𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡×(1+λ+λ2 )(1+λ)
Cm = 2/3×6.27×1.02

= 4.27m

Coefficient of Lift Calculation:

Section Lift Coefficient:

Cl= 2×𝑊/𝜌×𝑣2×𝑆
Cl = 2×642.05×9.8/0.3715×243.3^2

=0.572
Wing Lift Coefficient:
CL =0.9 x Cl x cosΛ
CL =0.9 x 0.572 x cos35

= 0.42
It is to be found that following parameters were estimated for the aircraft designed.

DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS VALUES

W/S (kg/m2) 642.05

Wing area S (m2) 124.60
Aspect Ratio 9.44
Span b (m) 34.29
Taper ratio (𝛌) 0.159
Root Chord (m) 6.27
Tip chord (m) 0.99
Lift coefficient (CL) 0.42
Sweepback Angle(∆) 35
TAIL SELECTION:

Calculation:

Horizontal stabiliser:

.Horizontal stabiliser (Sh)= 16% of wing area

= 32.78m^2

Sweep angle = 35 deg

Aspect ratio = 6.16

Horizontal stabiliser span (Bh) = sq root (AR*Sh)
= 14.2 m
Taper ratio = 0.203
Chr = (2 * Sh) / Bh (1+ taper ratio)

= 3.84 m

Cht = taper ratio * Chr

= 0.78 m

Vertical stabiliser :
Vertical stabiliser area = ( 0.10 * wing area)

= 26. 44 m^2

Aspect ratio = 0 .7

Vertical tail span (B v) = √(𝐴𝑅 × 𝑆𝑣_)

=4.30m

Taper ratio = 0.271

 AIRFOIL SELECTION:

The airfoil is the main aspect and is the heart of the airplane. The airfoils affects the cruise
speed landing distance and take off, stall speed and handling qualities and aerodynamic
efficiency during the all phases of flight
Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions, design/selection,
families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift curve slope, characteristic
curves.

The following are the airfoil

geometry and definition:

Chord line: It is the straight line

connecting leading edge (LE) and
trailing edge (TE).

Chord (c): It is the length of

chord line.

Thickness (t): measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it (subsonic typically 12%).

Camber (d): It is the curvature of section, perpendicular distance of section mid-points from
chord line as a % of it (sub sonically typically 3%).

Angle of attack (α): It is the angular difference between chord line and airflow direction.

The following are airfoil categories:

Early it was based on trial & error.
NACA 4 digit is introduced during 1930’s.
NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for increased CLmax.
NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar flow.
Modern it is mainly based upon need for improved aerodynamic characteristics at speeds just
below speed of sound.

NACA 4 Digit
– 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).
– 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from leading
edge (LE)).
– 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 5 Digit
– 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.
– 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from LE).
– 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).
NACA 6 Digit
– 1st digit: identifies series type.
– 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from leading
edge (LE)).
– 3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value for
satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).
– 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.
– 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)

The airfoil that is to be used is now selected. As indicated earlier during the calculation of the
lift coefficient value, it becomes necessary to use high speed airfoils, i.e., the 6x series, which
have been designed to suit high subsonic cruise Mach numbers.

t/c Calculation:

𝑡/ 𝑐 =0.3𝑀 1𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑠Δ−𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑠Δ]^ 1/3[1− (5+ (𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑠Δ)^ 2 /5+(𝑀#)^2)^3.5]^2/3

Taking 𝑀# = 1.05 - 0.25 CL (cruise)
Where,
M = Drag Divergence Cruise Mach Number = 0.85
Δ = Sweep Back Angle = 35° at Quarter Chord
CL (cruise) = 0.42
Substituting the values in the above equation, we get,
𝑡 /𝑐 = 0.12
NACA 6-series Airfoils having t/c ratio of 0.12

TE LE
Thickness Camber Lift Coeff. Lift-to-Drag Stall Angle Angle Radius
Name (%) (%) (CL) (L/D) (deg) (deg) (%)

NACA 63-212 12 1.1 1.035 36.2 5.5 11.7 1.5

NACA 63-412 12 2.2 1.159 44.3 5.5 11.6 1.5

NACA 64(1)-112 12 0.6 0.936 32.1 4.5 9 1.5

NACA 64(1)-212 12 1.1 1.008 37.5 4.5 12.3 1.5

NACA 65(1)-212 12 1.1 0.971 31.7 3.5 10.8 1.3

NACA 65(1)-412 12 2.2 1.107 44.8 4 10.8 1.3

 NACA 66(1)-212 12 1.1 0.957 32.5 -0.5 14 1.3

From the above list of airfoils, the one chosen is the 65(1)-412 airfoil which has the
suitable lift coefficient for the current design.

In order to obtain better span-wise distribution of lift and to have better stalling
characteristics (the root should stall before the tip so that the pilot may realize and avoid a stall
by sensing the vibrations on his control stick), it is usually necessary to provide a lower t/c to
the tip section and a higher t/c to the root section.

Hence,

Section used at the mean aerodynamic chord - 65(1)-412

Section used at the tip - 65-410

Section used at the root - 65(2)-415

CHORD AIRFOIL (Cl)max

ROOT 65(2)-415 1.238

MEAN 65(1)-412 1.107

TIP 65-410 1.015

Airfoil Geometry:

NACA 65-410 (tip)

NACA 65(1)-412 (mean)

NACA 65(2)-415 (root)

Control surface:
Aileron=20% of wing chord
=0.20*6.27
=1.254m

Elevator=20%of horizontal stabilizer chord

=0.20*3.84
=0.768

=20% of horizontal stabilizer area

=0.20*32.78
=6.556

Elevator =8.53m

Rudder =15% of vertical stabilizer chord

=0.15*9.67
=1.4505

=30% of vertical stabilizer area

=0.30*26.44
=7.932

Rudder=5.47m
Estimation of Load Factor Limits and V-n Diagram:

In accelerated flight, the lift becomes much more compared to the weight of the
aircraft. This implies a net force contributing to the acceleration. This force
causes stresses on the aircraft structure. The ratio of the lift experienced to
the weight at any instant is defined as the Load Factor.
n = ρ*v^2*Cls/2*w
In this section, we estimate the aerodynamic limits on load factor, and
attempt to draw the variation of load factor with velocity, commonly known
as the V­n Diagram. The V‐n diagram is drawn for Sea Level Standard
conditions.

Using the above formula, we infer that load factor has a quadratic variation with velocity.
However, this is true only up to a certain velocity. This velocity is determined by
simultaneously imposing limiting conditions aerodynamically ((CL)max) as well as
structurally (nmax).

V-n diagrams are developed during the design process either in the conceptual or very early
preliminary design stages •

Four factors affect a V-n Diagram

– MGTOW

– Altitude

– Configuration of aircraft: clean, stores, cruise or landing, etc.

– Symmetry of loading
V-N Diagram:
nmax= (V/Vs)2

nmax=Load factor

V=Speed of the aircraft

Vs=Stalling speed of the aircraft

TO Find Point A

At point A, n value is 1

Vs2= (2*W/S*n)/ (den*Clmax)

= (2*642.05*1)/ (0.194*1.3)

=71.35 m/s

At Point A (71.35, 1)

To Find Point B

At Point B, n value is 3.5

Vs2= (2*W/S*n)/ (den*Clmax)

= (2*642.05*3.5)/ (0.194*1.3)

=133.49m/s

At Point B (133.49, 3.5)

To Find Point C

At Point C, n value is 3.5

Dive Velocity Vd=1.55*Vc

=1.55*243.3

=377.11m/s

At point C (377.11, 3.8)

To Find Point F

At Point F, n value is -1.5

Vs2= (2*W/S*-n)/ (den*Clmax)

= (2*642.05*1.5)/ (0.194*1.3)

=87.40m/s

At Point F (87.40,-1.5)

To Find Point E

At Point E, n value is -1.5

And its corresponding to cruise velocity Vc=243.3m/s

At Point E (243.3,-1.5)

To Find Point G

At Point G, n value is -1

Vs2= (2*642.05*1)/ (0.194*1.3)

=71.35m/s

At Point G (71.35,-1)
 V-n Diagram
4

3
Load Factor

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

-1

-2
Velocity
Gust Envelope:
In order to calculate the gust load factors ,the following FAR standards are used

For velocities up to High angle of attack(Va),Cruise velocity(Vc),Dive velocity(Vd) of gust

velocity at sea level is

S.NO V(m/s) U(FT/S)

1 HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK(VA) 50

2 CRUISEVE VELOCITY(VC) 50

3 DIVE VELOCITY(VD) 66

Gust alleviation factor K = u*1.03/(6.95+ u(1.03))

Airplane Mass ratio u= 2*w/ ρ*c*a*g*s

For the aircraft at sea level

Ρ=1.225

w/s=642.05kg/m^2

g =9.81m/s^2

a=0.139 rad
Calculation:
u= 2*w/ ρ*c*a*g*s

=2*80000/1.225*4.66*0.139*9.81*124.02

=1284.1/446.02

u = 2.87

K = u*1.03/(6.95+ u(1.03))

=2.87*1.03/6.95+2.87(1.03)

=2.9561/9.9061

K = 0.298

a) U value for above 50000ft

HIGH ANGLE OF ATTACK(VA) -50

CRUISEVE VELOCITY(VC) -50

DIVE VELOCITY(VD) -66

UV=K*U
=0.29*15.24

=4.41m/s
Velocity at high AOA

From point B

The velocity at high angle of attack is from point B , V=133.49m/s

Δn= v* ρ*57.3*a* UV/(2*w/s)

=133.49*1.225*57.3*0.139*/1284.1

=5743.7/1284.1

Δn=4.47

b) To find gust load corresponding to cruiseve velocity

UV=K*U
=0.29*15.24

=4.41m/s

T he velocity at cruiseve velocity v=243.3m/s

Δn= v* ρ*57.3*a* UV/(2*w/s)

=243.3*1.225*57.3*0.139*/1284.1

=10468.5/1284.1

Δn=8.15
c)To find gust load corresponding to the DIVE VELOCITY

UV=K*U
=0.29*20.11

=4.41m/s

The velocity at Dive velocity v=377.11m/s

Δn= v* ρ*57.3*a* UV/(2*w/s)

=377.11*1.225*57.3*0.139*/1284.1

=21450.73/1284.1

Δn=16.70
LIFT DISTRIBUTION FOR THE AIRCRAFT – SCHRENCK’S CURVE:
While performing a structural analysis of the aircraft, it is of essence that we
investigate the effects of various loads acting on different parts of the aircraft.
As such, the lift force is the most important force acting on the aircraft –
specifically the wing – and the lift distribution on the wing is critical in
determining several factors such as the shear force and bending moment
distribution along the span of the wing, the torque distribution on the wing and
so on.

The Schrenck’s curve is used to approximate the lift distribution along the
span of the wing. In obtaining the Schrenck’s curve, we assume that the
actual lift distribution can be approximated by considering the average of two
types of distributions – one is a trapezoidal lift distribution, in which, the lift
per unit span at any section of the wing is assumed to be proportional to the
chord of the wing at that section; the other is an elliptic lift distribution, which
represents an ideal case of maximum wing planform efficiency (Ostwald
planform efficiency, e=1).

Trapezoidal Lift Distribution:

In this distribution, we assume section lift per unit span to be

proportional to the section wing chord. As such,

Lu = CL × q × V2 × S /2*b

Lift at root= q * v ^ 2 * Cl*Croot/2

=0.194*243.3*243.3*1.3*6.27/2

=46802.2N/m

Lift at tip= q*v^2* Cl*Ctip/2

=0.194*243.3*243.3*1.3*0.99/2

=7389.8N/m
Knowing the values of L’ at the wing tip and root, we obtain the equation of
the trapezoidal lift distribution of the wing:

Lu = 4496.23837 × (1.9652 + 0.25475555556x) 0 ≤ x ≤ 18

Lu = 4496.23837 × (1.9652 + 0.25475555556 × (36 — x))

18 ≤ x ≤ 36

L(Trapez)
35000
Lift per Unit Span (N/m)

30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Distance along span from wingtip (m)

Elliptic Lift Distribution:
This lift distribution assumes an ideal and efficient use of the wing
area for lift generation. The wing area required to generate a required
lift is found to be minimum when the planform is elliptic in shape.

In this distribution, we assume the lift per unit span to vary in a

semi‐ elliptic shape, with the major axis of the semi ellipse
coinciding with the span of the wing. The area enclosed between the
lift distribution curve and the span axis is equivalent to the total lift,
which in turn is equal to the weight of the aircraft. Using this, we
obtain the length of the semi‐minor axis of the semi‐ellipse. Thus, the
elliptic lift distribution is obtained.

For the aircraft,

W= 689795.918N
Span ,b= 36m=2A
From 0.5 *π*AB=W
B=24396.54003

Using the above values, we have the equation of the elliptic lift
distribution as follows:

Lu = 24396.54003(1-(x-18)^2/324))^0.5

The elliptic lift distribution thus obtained is shown below:

 L(Elliptic)
30000

25000
Lift per Unit Span (N/m)

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 5 10Distance15 20 from wingtip
along span 25 (m)30 35 40

Schrenck’s Curve:
Schrenck’s curve is an approximation for the lift distribution along the
span for the wing. The equation of the curve is obtained by taking the
average of the trapezoidal and elliptic lift distributions. Thus, the
equation for Schrenck’s curve is given as follows—

Lu=(0.5*(4496.23837*(1.9652+0.25475555556*x+24396.54003*
(1-((x-18)^2/324))^(1/2))))

0 ≤ x ≤ 18

Lu =(0.5*(4496.23837*(1.9652+0.25475555556*(35-

x)+24396.54003*(1-(x-18)^2/324))^(1/2))))

18 ≤ x ≤ 36

In all the above expressions, the origin (x=0) is assumed to lie at

the tip of the port wing.

Drag estimation:

The drag polar is expressed as

CD = CD0 + KCL2

Where K = 1/πAe

e = Oswald efficiency factor

Parasite drag CD0 = Cfe(SWET/SREF)

Where, Cfe = equivalent skin friction drag coefficient;

Swet = Wetted area of the airplane

Swet/Sref = 5.5

The estimation of K is carried out next and then the value of CD0 is deduced
using the earlier calculation that (L/D)max = 17.5

ESTIMATION OF K:

Oswald efficiency factor,

1/e = 1/ewing + 1/efuselage + 0.05

ewing = 0.84 for an unswept wing

A = 7.6 and λ = 0.4 ewing for a swept wing is,

ewingΛ = ewingΛ=0 cos (Λ-5)

= 0.84 cos (35-5)

=0.84cos(30)
ewingΛ=0.7274

1/efuselage = 0.1

1/e = 1/0.727+ 0.1+ 0.05

1/e=1.374+0.1+0.05

1/e=1.524

Therefore, e = 0.656

K = 1 / πAe

= 1 / π x 9.44*0.656

=1/3.14*9.44*0.656

= 1/19.44

K=0.0514

(L/D)max = 1 / 2√(CD0 )

CD0 = 1 / 4K (L/D)2 max

= 1 / 4 x 0.0514x 17.52

= 1/62.96

CD0=0.0158
Cfe = 0.0158 / 5.5

= 0.0028

The drag polar is:

CD = 0.0158 + 0.0514 CL2

Drag, D = (1/2) ρV2SCD

Cruise:

ρ = 0.194 (at 15.5 km altitude)

V = 243.3 m/s

S = 124.2 m2

Drag, D = 0.5 x 0.194 x 243.32 x 124.2 x (0.0158 + 0.0514 x 1.32 )

Dcruise = 73.21 KN

Lcruise =(1/2) ρV2SCL

=0.5*0.194243.3^2*124.2*1.3^2

Lcruise = 927.08kN

also,

(T/W)cruise = 1 / (L/D)cruise

T/W = 0.078

T = 0.078 x (80000 x 9.81)

Tcruise = 61.97 kN

In straight and level flight, D ~ T

Here, Dcruise and Tcruise calculated are almost equal.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS: