Different types of sensors.

1. Temperature sensor

A temperature sensor is a device that collects information concerning the

temperature from a resource and changes it to a form that can be understood by
another device. These are commonly used category of sensors which detect
Temperature or Heat and it also measures the temperature of a medium.

Examples of Temperature Sensors

1. Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistor

A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a large, predictable, and
precise change in resistance correlated to variations in temperature. An NTC
thermistor provides a very high resistance at low temperatures. As temperature
increases, the resistance drops quickly. Because an NTC thermistor experiences such a
large change in resistance per °C, small changes in temperature are reflected very fast
and with high accuracy (0.05 to 1.5 °C). Because of its exponential nature, the output of
an NTC thermistor requires linearization. The effective operating range is -50 to 250 °C
for glass encapsulated thermistors or 150°C for standard.

2. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

An RTD, also known as a resistance thermometer, measures temperature by
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. An RTD consists
of a film or, for greater accuracy, a wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The
most accurate RTDs are made using platinum but lower-cost RTDs can be made from
nickel or copper. However, nickle and copper are not as stable or repeatable. Platinum
RTDs offer a fairly linear output that is highly accurate (0.1 to 1 °C) across -200 to
600 °C. While providing the greatest accuracy, RTDs also tend to be the most
expensive of temperature sensors.

3. Thermocouple
This temperature sensor type consists of two wires of different metals connected at two
points. The varying voltage between these two points reflects proportional changes in
temperature. Thermocouples are nonlinear, requiring conversion when used for
temperature control and compensation, typically accomplished using a lookup
table. Accuracy is low, from 0.5 °C to 5 °C. However, they operate across the widest
temperature range, from -200 °C to 1750 °C.
A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar electrical conductors
forming electrical junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a
temperature-dependent voltage as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage
can be interpreted to measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type of
temperature sensor.

4. Semiconductor-based sensors
A semiconductor-based temperature sensor is placed on integrated circuits (ICs).
These sensors are effectively two identical diodes with temperature-sensitive
voltage vs current characteristics that can be used to monitor changes in temperature.
They offer a linear response but have the lowest accuracy of the basic sensor types at
1 °C to 5 °C. They also have the slowest responsiveness (5 s to 60 s) across the
narrowest temperature range (-70 °C to 150 °C).

2. Digital Temperature Sensors:

These Digital Temperature Sensors are silicon-based temperature- sensing ICs

that provide accurate output through digital representations of the temperatures
they are measuring. This simplifies the control system’s design, compared to
approaches that involve external signal conditioning and an analog-to digital
converter (ADC).

3. Humidity & Temperature Sensors

The Temperature & Humidity sensors attribute a temperature & humidity sensor
complex with a measured digital signal output. By utilizing the technique and
temperature & limited digital-signal-acquisition humidity sensing technology, it
ensures high consistency and exceptional long-standing stability.

Applications of Temperature Sensors:

 They are weatherproof & designed for continuous

temperature measurement in air, soil, or water
 Exceptional accuracy and stability
 For measurements in complex industrial applications
 For measurements under rough operating conditions
2. Pressure Sensors:

The Pressure Sensor is an Instrument that apprehends pressure and changes it into an
electric signal where the quantity depends upon the pressure applied.

Turned parts for Pressure Sensors and Vaccum Sensors are few of the major pressure
sensors used in Industrial automation.

A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is an

expression of the force required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force
per unit area. A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of
the pressure imposed. For the purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.
Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications.
Pressure sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow,
speed, water level, and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure
transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders, pressure
indicators, piezometers and manometers, among other names.

Types of pressure measurements[edit]

silicon piezoresistive pressure sensors

Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of pressure ranges they measure, temperature ranges
of operation, and most importantly the type of pressure they measure. Pressure sensors are
variously named according to their purpose, but the same technology may be used under different
names.

 Absolute pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum.

 Gauge pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure gauge is an
example of gauge pressure measurement; when it indicates zero, then the pressure it is measuring
is the same as the ambient pressure.

 Vacuum pressure sensor

This term can cause confusion. It may be used to describe a sensor that measures pressures below
atmospheric pressure, showing the difference between that low pressure and atmospheric pressure,
but it may also be used to describe a sensor that measures absolute pressure relative to a vacuum.

 Differential pressure sensor

This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected to each side of the
sensor. Differential pressure sensors are used to measure many properties, such as pressure drops
across oil filters or air filters, fluid levels (by comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or
flow rates (by measuring the change in pressure across a restriction). Technically speaking, most
pressure sensors are really differential pressure sensors; for example a gauge pressure sensor is
merely a differential pressure sensor in which one side is open to the ambient atmosphere.

 Sealed pressure sensor

This sensor is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures pressure relative to some
fixed pressure rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which varies according to the location
and the weather).
Force collector types These types of electronic pressure sensors generally use a force collector
(such a diaphragm, piston, bourdon tube, or bellows) to measure strain (or deflection) due to applied
force over an area (pressure).

 Piezoresistive strain gauge

Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied
pressure, resistance increasing as pressure deforms the material. Common technology types are
Silicon (Monocrystalline), Polysilicon Thin Film, Bonded Metal Foil, Thick Film, Silicon-on-
Sapphire and Sputtered Thin Film. Generally, the strain gauges are connected to form a Wheatstone
bridge circuit to maximize the output of the sensor and to reduce sensitivity to errors. This is the
most commonly employed sensing technology for general purpose pressure measurement.

 Capacitive
Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied
pressure, capacitance decreasing as pressure deforms the diaphragm. Common technologies use
metal, ceramic, and silicon diaphragms.

 Electromagnetic
Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes
in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy current principle.

 Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the
sensing mechanism due to pressure. This technology is commonly employed for the measurement
of highly dynamic pressures.

 Strain-Gauge
Strain gauge based pressure sensors also use a pressure sensitive element where metal strain
gauges are glued on or thin film gauges are applied on by sputtering. This measuring element can
either be a diaphragm or for metal foil gauges measuring bodies in can-type can also be used. The
big advantages of this monolithic can-type design are an improved rigidity and the capability to
measure highest pressures of up to 15,000 bar. The electrical connection is normally done via a
Wheatstone bridge which allows for a good amplification of the signal and precise and constant
measuring results[1].

 Optical
Techniques include the use of the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to applied
pressure. A common example of this type utilizes Fiber Bragg Gratings. This technology is employed
in challenging applications where the measurement may be highly remote, under high temperature,
or may benefit from technologies inherently immune to electromagnetic interference. Another
analogous technique utilizes an elastic film constructed in layers that can change reflected
wavelengths according to the applied pressure (strain).[2]

 Potentiometric
Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied
pressure.

 Force balancing
Force-balanced fused quartz bourdon tubes use a spiral bourdon tube to exert force on a pivoting
mirror assembly, the reflection of a beam of light from the mirror senses the angular displacement
and current is applied to electromagnets to balance the force from the tube and bring the angular
displacement to zero, the current that is applied to the coils is used as the measurement. Due to the
extremely stable and repeatable mechanical and thermal properties of quartz and the force
balancing which eliminates most non-linear effects these sensors can be accurate to around
1PPM of full scale.[9] Due to the extremely fine fused quartz structures which must be made by hand
these sensors are generally limited to scientific and calibration purposes.
Other types
These types of electronic pressure sensors use other properties (such as density) to infer pressure
of a gas, or liquid.

 Resonant
Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in
gas density, caused by applied pressure. This technology may be used in conjunction with a force
collector, such as those in the category above. Alternatively, resonant technology may be employed
by exposing the resonating element itself to the media, whereby the resonant frequency is
dependent upon the density of the media. Sensors have been made out of vibrating wire, vibrating
cylinders, quartz, and silicon MEMS. Generally, this technology is considered to provide very stable
readings over time.

 Thermal
Uses the changes in thermal conductivity of a gas due to density changes to measure pressure. A
common example of this type is the Pirani gauge.

 Ionization
Measures the flow of charged gas particles (ions) which varies due to density changes to measure
pressure. Common examples are the Hot and Cold Cathode gauges.

Turned parts for Pressure Sensors

 These Pressure sensors are widely used in Industrial and
hydraulic systems, these are high pressure industrial automation
sensors also used in climate control systems.

Vaccum Sensors

Vaccum Sensors are used when the Vaccum pressure is below

atmospheric pressure levels and it can be difficult to sense
through mechanical methods. These sensors generally depend
on a heated wire with electrical resistance correlating to
temperature. When vaccum pressure increases, convection falls
down and wire temperature up rises. Electrical resistance
increases proportionally and is calibrated adjacent to pressure in
order to give an effective measurement of the vaccum.

Applications of Pressure Sensors:

 Used to measure pressure below than the atmospheric pressure at a given

location
 Used in weather instrumentation, aircrafts, vehicles, and any other machinery
that has pressure functionality implemented
 Pressure sensors can be used in systems to measure other variables such as
fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude

MEMS Sensors (Micro-electro-mechanical Systems)

These MEMS industrial automation sensors convert measured mechanical signals into electrical
signals. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are a class of devices characterised both by their
small size and the manner in which these are made. These are made up of component sizes
between 1 and 100 micrometres. MEMS devices can vary from simple structures to extremely
complex electromechanical systems with multiple moving elements under the control of integrated
microelectronics.
Generally, MEMS consist of mechanical microstructures, microactuators, microsensors and
microelectronics in one package.

MEMS accelerometers

These sensors are used in smartphones for various controls including switching between landscape
and portrait modes, anti-blur capture and pocket-mode operation. They are generally two types of
MEMS accelerometers: variable capacitive and piezoresistive.

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Variable capacitive (VC) MEMS accelerometers are the lower range, high sensitivity devices used
for structural monitoring and constant acceleration measurements. Piezoresistive (PR) MEMS
accelerometers are the higher range, low sensitivity devices used in shock and blast applications.

MEMS gyroscopes

These detect the angular displacement of an object. MEMS gyros are used for vehicle stability
control.

MEMS gyroscopes are used in automotive roll-over prevention and airbag systems, image
stabilization, and have many other potential applications [1].

MEMS pressure sensors

These sensors are used in automotive, industrial, medical, defence and aerospace applications. It
also finds useful application in Washing Machines, Industrial Machinery, Beverage Machines, etc.

MEMS magnetic field sensors

A MEMS magnetic field sensor is a small-scale microelectromechanical system (MEMS) device for
detecting and measuring magnetic fields (Magnetometer).Many of these operate by detecting effects
of the Lorentz force: a change in voltage or resonant frequency may be measured electronically, or a
mechanical displacement may be measured optically. These sensors find use in position sensing,
current detection, speed detection, vehicle detection, space exploration, etc. Fluxgate sensors.
These find many applications in space research, geophysics, mineral prospecting, automation and
industrial process control.

Acceleration and Motion MEMS are few important sensors used in industrial automation.

Acceleration sensors

Micro-electro-mechanical Systems (MEMS) Acceleration Sensors are one of the main inertial
sensors; and are dynamic sensor competent of have a greater range of sensing capabilities.

Motion sensors
Micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) motion sensors use data processing algorithms designed
on a motion interaction platform which integrates numerous low-cost MEMS motion sensors with
ZigBee wireless technology to carry personified interactions while working together with machines.
Sensor signal processing systems mainly solve noise cancellation; signal smoothing, gravity
influence partition, coordinate system alteration, and position information recovery .Widely used in
the automotive Industry in ABS technology.

Applications of MEMS Sensors:

 These have numerous applications ranging from industry, entertainment, sports to

education. For example, triggering airbag deployments or monitoring of nuclear reactors
 Used to measure static acceleration (gravity), tilt of an object, dynamic acceleration in an
aircraft, shock to an object in a car, vibration of an object. Cell phones, washing machines or
computers
 Used to detect motion

Torque sensors

The torque sensors complete with essential mechanical stops, raise overload capacity and offer
additional guard during mounting and operation.

Rotating Torque & Torque Transducers are few important sensors used in industrial automation.

Rotating Torque Sensors

This Rotating Torque industrial automation sensors used for measuring reaction of rotating torque.
These torque meters complete with essential mechanical stops increase surplus capacity and offer
extra safety during mounting and operation.
 Infrared IR Sensor Circuit Diagram
and Working Principle
 ELECTRONICS
 SENSORS
24 COMMENTS

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of the
surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion.These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it
that is called as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate
some form of thermal radiations. These types of radiations are invisible to our eyes, that
can be detected by an infrared sensor.The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting
Diode) and the detector is simply an IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the
same wavelength as that emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode,
The resistances and these output voltages, change in proportion to the magnitude of the
IR light received.

IR Sensor

IR Sensor Circuit Diagram and Working Principle

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor module in an electronic
device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be used to
detect obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real time.This circuit
comprises of the following components
R sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. Some of the
typical applications of different types of sensors are
The speed sensor is used for synchronizing the speed of multiple motors. The temperature
sensor is used for industrial temperature control. PIR sensor is used for automatic door
opening system and Ultrasonic sensor are used for distance measurement.
IR Sensor Applications
IR sensors are used in various Sensor based projects and also in various electronic devices
which measures the temperature that are discussed in the below.
Radiation Thermometers
IR sensors are used in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon
the temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the
following features

 Measurement without direct contact with the object

 Faster response
 Easy pattern measurements
Flame Monitors
These types of devices are used for detecting the light emitted from the flames and to
monitor how the flames are burning. The Light emitted from flames extend from UV to IR
region types. PbS, PbSe, Two-color detector, pyro electric detector are some of the
commonly employed detector used in flame monitors.

Moisture Analyzers
Moisture analyzers use wavelengths which are absorbed by the moisture in the IR region.
Objects are irradiated with light having these wavelengths(1.1 µm, 1.4 µm, 1.9 µm, and
2.7µm) and also with reference wavelengths. The Lights reflected from the objects
depend upon the moisture content and is detected by analyzer to measure moisture (ratio
of reflected light at these wavelengths to the reflected light at reference wavelength). In
GaAs PIN photodiodes, Pbs photoconductive detectors are employed in moisture
analyzer circuits.
Gas Analyzers
IR sensors are used in gas analyzers which use absorption characteristics of gases in the
IR region. Two types of methods are used to measure the density of gas such as
dispersive and non dispersive.

Gas Analizer

Dispersive: An Emitted light is spectroscopically divided and their absorption

characteristics are used to analyze the gas ingredients and the sample quantity.
Non dispersive: It is most commonly used method and it uses absorption characteristics
without dividing the emitted light. Non dispersive types use discrete optical band pass
filters, similar to sunglasses that are used for eye protection to filter out unwanted UV
radiation.
This type of configuration is commonly referred to as non dispersive infrared (NDIR)
technology. This type of analyzer is used for carbonated drinks, whereas non dispersive
analyzer is used in most of the commercial IR instruments, for an automobile exhaust gas
fuel leakages.

IR Imaging Devices
IR image device is one of the major applications of IR waves, primarily by virtue of its
property that is not visible. It is used for thermal imagers, night vision devices, etc.
 IR Imaging Devices

For examples Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, an atmosphere, and human tissue all
features emit IR radiation. The Thermal infrared detectors measure these radiations in IR
range and map the spatial temperature distributions of the object/area on an image.
Thermal imagers usually composed of a Sb (indium antimonite), Gd Hg (mercury-doped
germanium), Hg Cd Te (mercury-cadmium-telluride) sensors.

An electronic detector is cooled to low temperatures using liquid helium or liquid

nitrogen’s. Then the Cooling the detectors ensures that the radiant energy (photons)
recorded by the detectors comes from the terrain and not from the ambient temperature
of objects within the scanner itself an IR imaging electronic devices.

Thus, this is all about IR sensor circuit with working and applications. These sensors are
used in many sensor based electronics projects. We believe that, you might have got a
better understanding of this IR sensor and its working principle.Furthermore, any doubts
regarding this article or projects please give your feedback by commenting in the
comment section below.Here is a question for you, can the infrared thermometer operate
in complete darkness?
X

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Torque Transducers

These torque transducers utilize superior strain gage technology to indulge the most challenging
necessities for static and dynamic applications of sensors.

Applications of Torque Sensors:

 Used to Measure the speed of rotation and maintenance necessities

 Used to measure Mass and mass moment of inertia
 The amount of the torque to be calculated, from the point of vision of quasi-static process
 Used to measure the highest speed of rotation, oscillating torque