Teacher Guidance

and
Glossary

An Overview of Grammar
 It’s a Case of Grammar!

Teacher Notes

Introduction: What is grammar?

As you might expect, there are differing views about what exactly grammar is.
And there are different ‘grammars’ influenced by the person studying the
language, what they’re focusing on, and how they choose to describe it.

That might sound strange as we’re often told (by our own teachers or by
public figures or the media) that grammar is simply the ‘rules of language’,
and is somehow therefore ‘set’. But this is where we find different ways of
thinking about grammar:

Older approaches use what’s known as prescriptive grammar. This sees

grammar as a set of rules dealing with the syntax and word structures of a
language. It’s prescriptive because it seeks to outline the language as
certain people think it should be used - rules that must be obeyed!

The problem with this approach is that it only deals with how some people
think language ought to be used, rather than how it actually is used.
‘Incorrect’ language then becomes demonised, with some people even linking
‘bad’ grammar to society’s ills: sometimes even issues as serious as crime on
the streets and a reason for poverty!

Prescriptive grammar ignores the fact that children live in a world where
grammar exists in many forms: formal and informal, where they encounter
texts (spoken and written) in Standard English as well as many other forms of
dialects and Non-Standard English – where the so-called ‘rules’ are broken all
the time.

Modern linguistics (the study of language) takes a slightly different approach,

known as descriptive grammar. Linguists study all aspects of language to
describe, rather than prescribe, how it’s used.

Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used

by speakers and writers. We need to remember that, as teachers, we are
teaching a fairly complex subject area to primary school aged children and
continually finding ways to make the connection between spoken grammar
and written grammar in all its forms – including Standard English.
The linguist David Crystal summed up a way in which children can understand
grammar:

‘Grammar is the study of how we make sentences’

And in practical terms, this largely covers what we focus on with children,
particularly in the primary phase. We also look at how grammar affects word
structures, such as tenses or affixes. And we consider how grammar secures
the cohesion of a whole text. But understanding sentences, playing with
them, changing them and manipulating them to achieve particular effects, is
the bread and butter of grammar learning.

When studying language, whether it’s a professor of linguistics or a child in

the classroom, we have common ways of talking and thinking about language.
We look at ‘chunks’ of meaning, from the smallest to the biggest ‘chunks’:

WORDS

Words convey meaning, but this is often only clear when they work with other
words. Groups of words working together, in grammatical terms, are called:

PHRASES

Phrases work together to form the next ‘level up’ when talking about
sentences:

CLAUSES

A clause contains a subject and a verb so it contains a ‘complete’ idea.

We can also then call it a simple sentence, so the next ‘chunk’ to study is:

SENTENCES
WORDS elephant hopeful swimming bright me

In order to talk about language, describing its patterns and functions and
effects, we need words to explain our meaning. So in when learning grammar
we use specific terminology – words to talk about words. A good starting
point is word classes. These are ways of grouping words according to the
way they’re used, or the ‘job’ they do in a sentence.

PHRASES
When more than one word does the same ‘job’ as a single word, we call it a
phrase. Each individual word could still be put into a word class, but now
we’ve ‘moved up a level’ to describe how they work as a group. We can talk
about whole phrases ‘acting’ in the same way as single words:

Noun phrases are groups of words that together act as a noun

the friendly elephant a hopeful child my silver ring

Verb phrases (or verb chains) have more than one word acting as the verb

was jumping had been swimming will be going

Adjectival phrases consist of more than one word functioning as an adjective

clear, bright blue like the sky exceptionally tasty

Adverbial phrase is a ‘broad’ term that covers phrases functioning in several

ways, for example adding detail about where, when, how or
how often something takes place

quick as a flash in the field after midnight every Monday

CLAUSES the friendly elephant was swimming in the lake

After phrase, the next size of ‘chunk’ is the clause. Clauses can be formed by
a combination of several elements, known as:

subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial

While a phrase might just be one of those elements, such as the verb or the
adverbial, a clause must have at least a subject (the friendly elephant) and a
verb (was swimming).

A main or independent clause is one that makes sense just on its own. (We
could also call it a simple sentence, but that’s the next ‘chunk’ up.)

A subordinate clause doesn’t make sense on its own because it’s directly
linked to a main clause. They usually use subordinating conjunctions or
relative pronouns to add extra information.

SENTENCES the friendly elephant was swimming in the lake

because it was a really hot day

The next ‘chunk’ or way of thinking about language is sentences. A main

clause that can stand on its own can also be called a simple sentence. This
is because a simple sentence means one that consists of just one clause.

A compound sentence, on the other hand, is made up of two or more main

clauses. This means each clause could be a sentence on its own, but the
author or speaker has chosen to join them together:

the friendly elephant swam and squirted its trunk but was still hot

Whereas a complex sentence contains one main clause, and one or more
subordinate clauses that can’t make sense on their own:

the friendly elephant swam in the lake until the sun went down

Often the subordinate clause can come before or after the main clause, and
can even be ‘dropped into’ or embedded within the main clause:

the elephant, who was fed up of being hot and dusty, swam in the lake
Punctuation
Punctuation is the way we show grammatical boundaries and show the reader
how to understand the text.

We use capital letters to show the start of a sentence. And we can mark the
end of a complete idea (sentence) using a full stop. But we can also end it
with a question mark or exclamation mark. This tells the reader the sentence
has a particular function (i.e. a question, command or exclamation), and also
gives them some indication of the expression or emotion they should read
into it.

Within sentences, we use commas to separate chunks of meaning, for clarity

and to make it easier to read.

Colons and semi-colons can be used to join sentences, to show a direct link
between the information they contain.

Punctuation shows the reader how the information in a text is ‘chunked up’ to
make sense. Those chunks will be words, phrases, clauses and sentences.

Summary
 Grammar is the study of how sentences are constructed to create meaning
and effects on a reader.

 Words go together to make up phrases, which ‘act’ as different word

classes

 Clauses are formed of different elements, but must have a verb and a
subject

 Clauses are the basis of sentences. A simple sentence has one clause.
Compound and complex sentences contain at least two clauses

 Punctuation clarifies grammatical boundaries between words, phrases,

clauses and sentences and guides the reader’s understanding
 It’s a Case of Grammar Training Pack

Working with Word Classes

This section will:

 Clarify the terminology used to talk about words

 Develop confidence in identifying how words are used in sentences

Introduction
It’s sometimes thought that grammar is all about labelling words. But teaching
children simply to ‘circle the adverbs in a sentence’ is missing the point of
grammar. Grammar is about exploring how words work together to create
meaning and effects. And in order to have those discussions, we need words
to talk about words – known as ‘metalanguage’.

The words we use to talk about language vary over time and we use different
‘grammars’. Howver, there are some widely established terms that are useful
to teach children. A good starting point is word classes.

Word classes are a way of describing how words function in sentences.

They’re not labels that can be ‘fixed’ to particular words though. Look at how
the word light can function:

I saw a light (noun)

I will light the candles (verb)

What a light, tasty sponge cake! (adjective)

Talking point: can you think of other words that can function as more
than one word class?

The most familiar word classes are:

noun adjective determiner pronoun

verb adverb preposition conjunction

Noun table apple sky hope river explanation

The ‘job’ of nouns is to name or label things. It’s the biggest word class of all,
but they can be further grouped into different types of noun:

 Nouns can be singular or plural: table, apple, sky / dogs, people, horses

 Common nouns are general terms for things: city, teacher, supermarket

 Whereas proper nouns are specific names: Paris, Mr Brown, Tesco

 Collective nouns name groups of individuals: team, herd, family, flock

 Abstract nouns are intangible things that can’t be quantified: hope, beauty

Adjective soft grizzly powerful green beautiful

Adjectives are words that add information about a noun. They often come just
before the noun (beautiful person, grizzly bear) or after a verb linked to the
noun (the horse was powerful).

Adjectives can also allow us to show comparisons:

 Comparatives can be formed by adding –er: old/older, high/higher

 Or by adding more before the adjective: more important, more useful

 Superlative forms can be formed by adding –est or most:

oldest, highest, most important, most useful

Talking point: children often over-use adjectives in their writing. Try

adding as many as you can into one sentence, then
refine it by eliminating all but the most effective.
Determiner the a an my some five these

Determiners work with nouns to limit or ‘determine’ something about them,

such as which one you’re referring to, or how many of something. Their job is
to ‘focus in’ on the noun. They usually come at the start of a noun phrase:

 the grizzly bear, an interesting play, a walking stick

‘The’, ‘a’ and ‘an’ are a type of determiner called articles. Older grammars,
based on the study of Latin, used the term ‘articles’ rather than ‘determiners’.
Modern linguistics uses determiners as a broader term. It also includes other
words that tell us which noun is the focus of attention:

this house, my house, five houses, some houses, that house

Pronoun that it this her their they which

Pronouns are words that can stand in place of a noun. They mean that we
don’t have to repeat full noun phrases or parts of a sentence:

The shaggy old dog wagged its tail.

Instead of:

The shaggy old dog wagged the shaggy old dog’s tail.

We sub-divide pronouns into different types, including:

 reflexive pronouns refer the action of a verb back onto the noun:

I washed myself, they finished it themselves, you can see for yourself

 possessive pronouns show ownership: mine, his, hers, its, yours

 demonstrative pronouns to show what you’re referring to: this, that

 interrogative pronouns for questions that can be answered by a noun:

which? what? who? whose?

 relative pronouns link subordinate clauses to a noun phrase: the cat

which is asleep on my lap, the girl who said she would go home
Verb walk barked will be going ran listened

Verbs are essential to sentences as they convey what’s happening. With

children we sometimes refer to verbs as ‘doing’ words, but this can be too
simple a definition. Verbs can show an action, but they can also indicate a
‘state of being’ or process, such as be, feel, remember, wonder, seem.

Verbs can be single words, or they can be formed by more than one word,
such as:

will be going, was walking, has remembered, didn’t know

When more than one word does the ‘job’ of a verb, we call it a verb phrase or
verb chain.

The extra or ‘helping out’ verbs, like be, have and do, are known as auxiliary
verbs. We use them to form the past, present and future tenses and to show
the continuity of actions:

 Past: the dog was barking, had been barking

 Present: the dog is barking

 Future: will bark, is going to bark

Auxiliary verbs can also be modal verbs. These are words that allow us to
show the extent, possibility or necessity of something happening:

I might visit my Gran, I should visit my Gran, I would visit my Gran

In English, verbs change according to whether they’re referring to an action in

the past or present. This is called inflection. We can use the way they
change to sort them into two categories: regular and irregular verbs.

If a verb is regular, its past tense ends in –ed : barked, called, wanted, stared

If it’s irregular, it doesn’t follow a set pattern: make / made, catch / caught

Talking point: how many modal verbs can you think of? Try taking
one main verb, e.g. eat, and see how many different
ways you can use it in a sentence.
Adverb very slowly finally before everywhere

An adverb is a single word that adds more information to a verb, or to an

adjective or other adverb. Mostly, they tell us when, how, where or how
frequently something happens. But they can also intensify or ‘lessen’ an
adjective or adverb:

 He ate his lunch quickly (showing how he ate)

 Yesterday they launched a new campaign (showing when)

 We went outside (where we went)

 You always look good in a hat (how often)

 The staff were extremely helpful (intensifying)

 This handwriting is barely legible! (‘lessening’ or diminishing effect)

 She responded very rudely (with another adverb)

When more than one word does the ‘job’ of an adverb, we call it an adverbial
phrase:

over here, all through the winter, not at all, quick as a flash, really well

And we can even have whole clauses that function in the same way as an
adverb – called an adverbial clause:

The children ran faster than they’d ever run before (how they ran)

Before they went to bed, Mrs Bear told the cubs a story (when)

She sat where I’d been sitting earlier (where)

One important function of adverbs is to join sentences and maintain the

cohesion of a text. This means they can also fall under a broader term often
used in education: connectives. These words still tell us when, how, where or
how often something happens. But they can also show other aspects of
meaning:

 Firstly, we should thank our hosts (listing or indicating time)

 Personally, I think that’s wrong (showing the speaker’s attitude)

 Furthermore, it should be stopped! (showing additional information)

  However, not everyone agrees (showing opposition)

 Therefore, we should come to a decision (indicating result)

 Anyway, that’s what I would do (reinforcing)

Finally, it’s also worth noting that adverbs are very ‘mobile’ within a sentence.
They can be used at the beginning, in the middle, at the end, before or after
the subject or the verb; and for this reason they give the speaker or author
many choices. Changing the position of an adverb can change the rhythm or
emphasis of a sentence:

Tomorrow I’m going to see a film with my friends.

I’m going to see a film tomorrow with my friends.
I’m going to see a film with my friends tomorrow.

Relentlessly, the boy complained that his feet were sore.

The boy complained, relentlessly, that his feet were sore.
The boy complained that his feet were sore relentlessly.

Talking point: in the sentences above, what difference does the

position of the adverb make? Can you think why or
when you might choose to say it a particular way?

Preposition with at behind in under over on

A preposition is a word that shows how two parts of a clause or phrase are
linked. Usually they link information to a noun or noun phrase. And we often
think of prepositions showing where something is:

 The number on the door

 The flowers in the garden
 Put it inside the cupboard

But they can also act as adverbials, showing how, where or when something
happens:

 Proceeding with some trepidation (how)

 The clock stopped at 9.30 (when)
 We waited by the bus stop (where)
When a preposition starts a group of words working together like this, we call
it a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase can have an adverbial
function, adding detail about a verb as above (e.g. by the bus stop). Or they
can have an adjectival function, describing something about the noun:

the big dog in the garden, the girl with long black hair

When these phrases act adverbially, they can be moved around just as much
as a single adverb.

We danced all night beneath the stars.

Beneath the stars, we danced all night.

The dog dashed towards us with its teeth bared.

With its teeth bared, the dog dashed towards us.

Talking point: why might an author choose to start their sentence

with the prepositional phrase? What kind of texts or
writing might use that kind of structure?

Conjunction and when because although until but

Conjunctions are words that join two parts of a sentence. The conjunction
you choose shows the relationship between the two ‘chunks of information’.
Co-ordinating conjunctions show the two parts are equally balanced:

Words: bread and butter

Phrases: all the king’s horses and all the king’s men
Clauses: It’s getting late and I’m tired.

Words: heads or tails

Phrases: on the train or by bus
Clauses: We can go now or we can wait until later.

Words: tired but happy

Phrases: out of sight but not out of mind
Clauses: I like fish but I love chips.
Joining clauses with and, but and or means both parts are equally important or
‘weighted’. They could each stand alone as a main or independent clause.
Sentences joined in this way are called compound sentences:

 It’s getting late and I’m tired.

 We can go now or we can wait until later.

 I like fish but I love chips.

Other conjunctions are used to add more information about a main clause.
Their ‘job’ is to show how one bit of information is related to, or depends on,
another. We call them subordinating conjunctions. They make one clause
subordinate to another:

 John was unhappy because the football match was cancelled.

 We will have to go home if it doesn’t stop raining.

 While you were out, your manager called.

some subordinating conjunctions

because although if when since

while until unless which who

When subordinating conjunctions are used to join clauses, they create a

complex sentence.

Talking point: Try joining clauses with different conjunctions from

the examples above. Start with a sentence like
‘My pet lion roared until / when / if he ate his lunch.’
How does a different conjunction affect the meaning
of the sentence?
Summary
We most commonly use eight word classes: eight different ‘jobs’ words can
do in a sentence. Some words can work in more than one of these classes.

noun adjective determiner pronoun

sky big these it
queen grizzly my which

verb adverb preposition conjunction

barked slowly with and
ran next at because

A noun names things.

A pronoun stands in place of a noun.

A determiner focuses in on the particular noun.

An adjective tells you more about a noun.

A verb tells you an action, event or state that occurred.

An adverb tells you how, when or where something happened.

Prepositions tell you how parts of a sentence, particularly nouns, are linked to
other information, such as where something is.

Conjunctions join words, phrases and clauses within a sentence.

Remember though, that some words (for example round) can be used in
different ways in different contexts. The classification depends upon the ‘job’
the word is doing in a particular sentence.

You rock!
You rule!
 Exploring Clauses

This section will:

 Explain the terminology of clause elements

 Illustrate different ways that clauses can be put together

 Build confidence in discussing the structure of sentences

Introduction
When we learn English, we learn vocabulary, but we also learn the
conventions of putting those words together. For most of us that’s an intuitive
process acquired through listening and speaking to others. We learn that
there are expected ways of using word order (syntax), for example. In English
we wouldn’t say ‘the lap on my sitting is cat the’ because the word order
doesn’t make sense. But as we become more proficient with language, we
can manipulate choices of word order or phrasing to achieve different effects.

You might choose not to discuss all the concepts and terms in this section
with children. However it’s useful to have an awareness of clause structures
in order to feel confident when discussing sentences with them.

Talking point: start by writing three sentences – one as short

as you can make it, one long, and one medium
length. Use them as examples as we go on.

Clause Elements

Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. A sentence can have one
clause, or it can be made up of several clauses. When we look more closely
at how each clause is put together, we can separate it into different parts,
called clause elements. A clause can be made from various combinations of
these five elements:

subject verb object complement adverbial

Subject Verb (SV)

A clause expresses an ‘event’ or someone doing something. The person or

object that’s the focus of the sentence is called the subject:
 the boy, the northeasterly wind, the most beautiful queen, you

But in order to form a clause, you must have a verb – something that that
subject is doing or ‘being’:

S V
the boy was eating
the northeasterly wind howled
the beautiful queen slept

These are known as SV (subject, verb) sentences. The subject can be a

noun phrase, a single noun, or a pronoun standing in for a noun.

Talking point: Can you identify the subject and the verb in the
three sentences you wrote earlier? Remember
they might be single words or could be phrases.

Subject Verb Object (SVO)

The ‘action’ of a clause is the verb. Sometimes a clause includes a bit more
detail about the thing or person affected by that action, known as the object.
Clauses like this are known as SVO clauses.

S V O
the postman delivered a parcel

the beautiful queen gave a speech

But note that not all verbs ‘take’ an object. Some make sense just by
themselves:

S V O
the lion roared
snow is falling
Sometimes a clause can have two ‘types’ of object. The direct object is the
person or thing directly affected by the verb. The indirect object is the
person or thing ‘receiving’ the direct object (ie. indirectly affected by the verb):

S V (direct) O (indirect) O

the postman delivered the parcel to my house

the beautiful queen gave a speech to her subjects

Subject, Verb, Complement (SVC)

The complement element of a clause refers back to a noun or noun phrase.

It’s often used when a verb shows a ‘state’, such as feeling or being, rather
than an action. The complement tells you more about the ‘state’ of the noun.
It’s usually formed by an adjective or another noun phrase:

S V C
the children were feeling happy

my dragon is hungry

Talking point: Do any of your sentences include an object element

Or have you used a complement element? If not,
try writing a SVO or SVC sentence.
Adverbials

An adverb is a single word that adds detail about when, where, how or how
often something happens. Adverbial is a term used to describe words or
phrases (and even whole clauses) doing the same ‘job’ as an adverb. It’s a
‘broad’ term that includes words working in various ways:

S V A
the lion roared loudly
the lion roared for hours
the lion roared in the jungle
the lion roared every morning

The adverbial element can often be moved around in a clause and still make
sense. This means it can change the focus, rhythm or emphasis of a
sentence. It gives the author or speaker more choices about how they
communicate what they have to say:

S V A
the happy frog hopped into the pond

A S V
into the pond the happy frog hopped

A S V C
at sunset the frog was happy

And a clause can contain more than one adverbial element:

At the end of the day, the teacher was wearily marking books in
the classroom.

Talking point: start a sentence and see how many adverbial

elements you can add without using a verb, such as
‘The bear went over the mountain, to the woods…’
 Some examples of different clause structures:

A S V C
On Friday my daughter was eleven.

S V O A A
We had a party in the church yesterday.
hall

S V O O A
Everyone sang Happy to her after tea.
Birthday

S V C
The best game of all was pin the tail on the donkey.

A S V A A
Fortunately all the behaved really well the whole
children time.

Using the Active and Passive Voice

When we talk or write about an event, there are two different ways that we
can express the ‘action’. These are called the active and passive forms, or
‘voice’.

The active voice focuses on the person or thing doing the action:

S V O
Bill Gates founded Microsoft

But if the verb ‘takes’ or works with an object, we can change the sentence to
focus on the thing affected by the action instead:

passive Subject V passive Agent

Microsoft was founded by Bill Gates

The passive voice means the object becomes the subject of the clause. The
verb becomes a verb phrase (usually with the auxiliary verb ‘be’ and the ‘–ed’
form of the main verb). We add the word ‘by’ and the subject becomes the
‘agent’ – the person performing the action.
But what’s the point of all that swapping around? The passive voice is useful
when we don’t need to say who’s doing the action because it’s obvious:

our extension was built last summer (by builders!)

And particularly useful if we don’t know who did the action:

flowers were left at the side of the road; 45 votes were cast in favour

The passive also allows us to be tactful, more polite or less confrontational:

I was pushed in the corridor / that girl pushed me in the corridor

a mistake has been made here / you made a mistake here

And it’s also common when writing formal or impersonal texts:

The seeds were planted in soil and watered daily (impersonal)

I Talking
planted the seeds
point: in soil and Jake
try rephrasing each watered them
of the three every daybelow
sentences (personal)
so
that they use the passive voice:

ACTIVE: PASSIVE?
The Romans invaded Britain.
The queen ate a cream cake.
The teacher was marking books.
Summary

 A clause is a group of words that expresses an event. It usually contains

a subject and a verb. If a new verb is introduced, it creates a new clause.

S V
The queen was eating.

 But it can also include other elements known as complement, object and
adverbial. The adverbial element is more ‘mobile’ than the others.

S V O A
The queen was eating a cream cake very carefully.

A S V O
Carefully, the queen was eating a cream cake.

 A clause can be composed in the active or passive voice. This allows us

to focus on the person or object affected by the action, rather than the
person who did it.

Talking point: can you think of examples where you’ve seen the
passive voice used? It’s often seen in signs, such as
‘thieves will be prosecuted’, but why do they use it?
 Sorting Out Sentences

This section will:

 Explain different sentence structures

 Clarify the role of conjunctions in joining sentences

 Outline the function of sentences

Introduction
When studying sentences, we can sort them into different categories
according to how they’re structured. This means looking at how many
clauses a sentence has, as well as how the information in those clauses is
joined together. The three sentence types we commonly discuss with children
are:

simple compound complex

Simple sentences
The simplest kind of sentence is made of just one clause. That clause
contains a subject and a verb; or in other words, someone doing something.
The subject might be a person, an animal, a ‘thing’ or just ‘it’, and can be a
single noun or a longer noun phrase. The verb might be a single word, like
‘sat’ or ‘whispered’, or a longer verb phrase, such as ‘had been living’.

A simple sentence can also have other clause elements, such as adverbial
phrases adding detail about how, when, where or how often the ‘event’
happened. But as long as there is only one verb (or verb phrase), it’s just one
clause, and therefore a simple sentence:

The wind howled.

The crazy-brained scientist grinned.
My bouncy dog wagged his tail enthusiastically.
Somewhere in the darkness, an owl was calling to the night.

Talking point: Choose one of the sentences from the examples

above. How much detail can you add to it without
using another verb?
Compound sentences
When a new verb is introduced to a sentence, it forms a new clause:

The wind howled and pounded at the walls.

The crazy-brained scientist grinned but no-one else was smiling.
My bouncy dog wagged his tail enthusiastically until I fed him.

We then have choices about how we join those ‘events’ or ‘chunks of

information’ together. The way the clauses are joined determines whether it’s
a compound or complex sentence.

Conjunctions are words that join parts of a sentence together. Each

conjunction tells you something about how the two ‘chunks of information’
relate to each other. Co-ordinating conjunctions are used when the
clauses are of equal importance, or equally ‘balanced’, and could each make
sense on their own:

The dog barked and the child woke up and the owl screeched.
The sun was shining but the breeze was cold.

Sometimes, when the subject of two or more clauses is the same, you can
remove the second subject rather than repeat it:

The dog barked and the dog yelped.

The dog barked and yelped.

Talking point: Can you think of children whose writing uses ‘and’
repeatedly to join clauses? What effect does it
have on the reader? How could it be improved?
Complex sentences
Sometimes clauses tell us more about the main idea (main clause), making
one subordinate to or dependent on the other. Subordinating
conjunctions do this by showing a direct relationship between the ‘chunks of
information’. Changing the conjunction changes that relationship, and
therefore the meaning of a sentence:

The mouse squeaked because the cat ran past.

The mouse squeaked until the cat ran past.

The mouse squeaked unless the cat ran past.

When there is a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses it’s
called a complex sentence. The subordinate clause can’t make sense on its
own, because the conjunction shows it relates to something else:

because the cat ran past… until the cat ran past…

It can’t stand alone, but the subordinate clause can come before or after the
main clause. If the subordinate clause comes first, we often use a comma to
show the grammatical boundary between clauses. If the main clause comes
first, the conjunction signals a new clause so we tend not to use a comma:

When the sun shone through the curtains, the child woke up.

The child woke up when the sun shone through the curtains.

A subordinate clause can act as an adverbial, adding more information about

the action of the main clause. But clauses can also act like an adjective,
telling you more information about a noun (often the subject of the sentence).
These are called relative clauses and they start with a relative pronoun:

who whom whose which that

The house, which was immaculate, was sold very quickly.

The magician, whose hat had vanished, laughed nervously.

There is another type of subordinate clause known as non-finite clauses.
These start with a non-finite verb (usually made by the form of the verb
ending with –ing or –ed). They also wouldn’t make sense just on their own:

Smiling to herself, Mary at last returned to the staffroom.

Tired from studying all afternoon, Sue had gone out for a walk.

And like a relative clause, they can be ‘dropped into’ the main clause:

Mary, smiling to herself, at last returned to the staffroom.

Sue, tired from studying all afternoon, had gone out for a walk.

Talking point: Write a simple sentence (one main clause).

How many different ways you can add to it by using
a subordinate clause?

Functions of Sentences

As well as looking at the structure of sentences, we can also categorise them

according to the function they serve when we speak or write:

 Statements: provide information without requiring a response.

It is Thursday today. Vehicles are left at owner’s risk.

 Questions: ask for information so usually do require a response.

What day is it? Would you like a cup of tea? When?

 Commands: tell someone to do something, as with instructions.

Hang your coat up there. Look where you’re going!

 Exclamations: express a strong response or emotion.

Well, I never! Ouch! It’s completely unbelievable!
The difference functions are formed in several ways, such as the use of
imperative verbs (put, hang, sit, walk, look etc.) for commands, or changing
the word order to create a question, or even just by changing the intonation
when we speak.

In written sentences, punctuation marks are used to indicate questions and

exclamations. We’ll look at punctuation further in the next section.

Summary

 Sentences are formed of one or more clauses. A main clause can

make sense on its own. A subordinate clause can’t – it only makes
sense when joined to a main clause.

 A simple sentence contains one main clause (one subject and one
verb).

 Clauses can be joined by conjunctions. These are words that indicate

the relationship between the ‘chunks’ of information.

 Compound sentences contain main clauses that could each stand

alone and make sense. The clauses are joined by co-ordinating
conjunctions.

 Complex sentences contain a main clause and one or more

subordinate clauses. They’re joined by subordinating
conjunctions, or relative pronouns, or start with a non-finite verb.

 Sentences can have different functions: question, command,

statement and exclamation.

Talking point: effective readers and writers learn to change and

manipulate sentences for particular effects. Choose a subject for
a sentence and see how many different ways you can write about
it. For example, if you start with ‘the birds are singing’, can you
change it into a question, an exclamation, a command, a
compound sentence or a subordinate clause?
 Playing with Punctuation

This section will:

 review the range of punctuation marks

 consider how to use them accurately and for effect

Introduction
Punctuation marks allow a writer to direct how a word, phrase, sentence or
whole text should be read. They’re a bit like signposts, telling the reader when
to stop, pause, read with expression, and even how to think about the
information.

Punctuation separates a text into meaningful ‘chunks’. This allows us to be

clear and precise about our meaning. And understanding a full range of
punctuation creates choices about the most effective way to get our meaning
across.

In spoken English, we use volume, pace, facial expressions and intonation to

make our meaning clear. Written English loses those elements, so we use
punctuation to help the reader see how we want them to read it.

Full stop .
A full stop is used to show the end of a complete idea. Often when children
struggle with using full stops, it’s because they’re not clear about what we
mean by a sentence, so they don’t know where it ends. Talking about ‘chunks
of information’ can help children decide when they’ve finished one idea or
point and separate it from the next.

The dog was barking. It was so loud it woke the whole street.

Talking point: How do you explain the concept of a ‘sentence’ to

children? There are no set rules that apply to all
sentences, but what are helpful guidelines?
Question mark ?
A question mark is used at the end of an interrogative sentence or question.
In speech our intonation often goes ‘up’ at the end of a question. So a
question mark tells us how to read aloud, or how to ‘hear’ it in our heads as we
read silently.

What was that? Why does it always rain? Are you ready?

Exclamation mark !
An exclamation mark is used at the end of a sentence or an interjection to
show strong emotion. It gives the reader information about the author or
character’s response to a situation, idea or event. When reading aloud, it tells
us to change our tone of voice to express that response.

exclamation: What a shame!

command: Leave right now!
declarative: It’s a goal!
interjection: Oh No!

Comma ,
A comma helps the reader by separating parts of a sentence. It allows an
author to be precise about their meaning, which makes it easier for the reader
to follow and understand. Commas sometimes correspond to a pause in
speech.

We use commas to separate items in a list (but usually not before and):

I got to the restaurant, sat down and started to eat.

I had my favourite dinner of chicken, salad, beetroot and chips.

And we use them to mark off extra information we’ve added in:
 Stanley, my grandson, is five years old this week.

Or after a subordinate clause that begins a sentence:

Even though it was late, we decided to go to the cinema.

They’re often used with connecting adverbs (however, on the other hand etc.):

Eventually, John decided he wouldn’t go with us.

Incorrect use of the comma: ‘the comma splice’

When children start to use commas, they often use them incorrectly to mark
any grammatical boundary. For example, instead of using a full stop to end
sentences, they repeatedly use commas. When a comma is the only link
between the clauses, it is known as ‘the comma splice’.

Mary turned round expecting her brother to be standing there, all of

a sudden the people in the restaurant started singing Happy
Birthday, she couldn’t believe what was happening, it was great,

A simple way of deciding whether a comma is being used to ‘splice’ main

clauses is to see if you could substitute a full stop. In this example, full stops
would work:

Mary turned round expecting her brother to be standing there. All

of a sudden the people in the restaurant started singing Happy
Birthday. She couldn’t believe what was happening. It was great.

So to correct a comma splice you can use a full stop, but this can create
rather stilted writing. Alternative ways of joining clauses could be a dash, a
semi-colon or possibly a colon. Alternatively, you could link the clauses
using a subordinating or coordinating conjunction.
Although the comma splice is an incorrect way of joining clauses, the other
options are more a matter of the author’s choice and intentions:

She turned round expecting her brother to be standing there but all
of a sudden the people in the restaurant started singing Happy
Birthday. She couldn’t believe what was happening – it was great!

Talking point: How many other ways could you punctuate the
sentences above? How would you decide which
were the best or most effective options?

Semi-colon ;
A semi-colon can be used to separate two main clauses in a sentence. This
means they’re clauses that could stand separately as simple sentences. Or
they could be joined with a co-ordinating conjunction.

I liked the film. The acting and storyline were excellent.

I liked the film and the acting and storyline were excellent.

But if you want to show the reader that these ‘chunks of information’ are
closely related, you can use a semi-colon instead. It tells the reader that the
clauses are separate, but that they should be considered part of the same
point or issue:

I liked the film; the acting and storyline were excellent.

The same applies when semi-colons are used to separate items in a list. If the
items consist of longer phrases, or if they’re parts of a process such as an
explanation in a technical manual, the semi-colon separates the ‘chunks’ but
shows they still belong together:

I need a kilo of caster sugar; one pack of butter; half a kilo of sifted
plain flour, preferably wholegrain and some fresh yeast.
Colon :
A colon has two familiar uses. It’s used to introduce a list or a following
example to illustrate a point:

Children must bring: a drink, sun cream, a hat and a packed lunch.

And it’s also used to explain or emphasise what you’ve just written. Often this
means joining two clauses when the second explains something about the
first:

He became seriously ill: the water was very dirty.

New Zealand is the perfect destination: from snowy mountains to

hot springs and beaches, there’s something here for everyone!

Dash -
A dash is used to indicate additional information, or sometimes to add a
comment or afterthought. Dashes may be used to replace other punctuation
marks like colons, semi-colons, commas or brackets, but this is usually in
informal writing such as notes, messages to friends or emails.

It was a great day out – everyone really enjoyed it!

My mum – who never liked Bob – said I was better off without him.

Hyphen -
A hyphen is used to join words together when the meaning of a phrase might
otherwise be unclear. We sometimes also use them to show a line-break
when a word can’t fit onto one line, though this is becoming increasingly
uncommon.

In fact, hyphens are generally being used less than in the past. They used to
be used to join the two parts of a compound noun:

car-park cow-boy city-centre fast-lane

But it is much more usual these days for them to be written as single words:

bedroom headache football hairbrush

Or as separate words without a hyphen:

sea shell drum stick copy cat door bell

But when making compound adjectives, or longer phrases describing a noun,

hyphens are used to be clear about the meaning:

A long-lost friend my two-year-old nieces my two year-old nieces

They’re often used when a word has a prefix, although this varies according to
the prefix, the author’s choice, or whether the word might be misread without it:

co-educate
non-existent
ex-wife

re-cover (cover it again) as opposed to recover (save it)

Talking point: How does the hyphen change the meaning in these
phrases: a man eating shark or a man-eating shark?
A long, lost friend or a long-lost friend?

Brackets (Parenthesis)

A parenthesis is a word or phrase inserted into a sentence to explain or

elaborate. It may be placed in brackets:

Sarah and Alice (the two bridesmaids) skipped

happily at the back of the church.

or between dashes:
 Ted is considered green fingered – his onions were the best in
show – but sometimes he forgets to water his plants.

or commas:

Ted is, I believe, a very talented gardener.

Brackets are often used to show an author’s giving an aside – sharing their
opinion or adding a detail that’s not part of the main idea, but that they want
the reader to know:

He became very angry at that remark (not that I blamed him).

The term parentheses (plural of parenthesis) can also refer to the brackets
themselves.

Apostrophe ’
There are two main uses of the apostrophe:

 to show that letters have been omitted (omission)

 to indicate possession

The apostrophe for omission

Sometimes we miss letters out of a word because it’s quicker to say or write.
This is called a contraction. We use an apostrophe to show the reader that
there are letters missing:

he is = he’s
who has = who’s
I am = I’m
they are = they’re
will not = won’t

In formal written style, it is more usual to use the full form.

The apostrophe in possession

When we want to show something belongs to someone, we can use an

apostrophe. It’s quicker than saying ‘the bone that belonged to the dog’ or ‘the
toolbox that belongs to my mum’. Instead, we add an apostrophe on to the
person or thing it belongs to, then add an ‘s’.

the dog’s bone

my mum’s toolbox
Sarah’s lunchbox
one week’s holiday

Most plurals already end with an ‘s’ so we just add the apostrophe:

the boys’ changing room my parents’ new car

But irregular plurals (e.g. men, children) do need the apostrophe and the ‘s’.

Men’s Clothing Department the children’s toys

It’s important to note that possessive pronouns don’t need an apostrophe at

all. It’s their job to show something belongs to someone, so they don’t need
an apostrophe to do it for them:

yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its

This sometimes causes confusion with its (belonging to it) and it’s (it is).

Ellipsis …
Ellipsis is the term used for three dots that show something has been omitted
or is incomplete.
Speech marks or inverted commas “ ” ‘ ’
We use inverted commas, commonly known as speech marks, to show the
words that someone speaks. They go before the first word and after the last
word that is said.

Daniel said, “Wait for me!”

‘Where are we going?’ I replied.

Although traditionally we’ve taught children to recognise the ‘66’ and ‘99’ of
double speech marks, most published texts nowadays use single inverted
commas (‘…’) which look less ‘fussy’ on the page. However, in handwritten
work, double speech marks (“…”) are often more noticeable.

Summary

 Punctuation marks are used to separate ‘chunks of meaning’ or

grammatical boundaries.

 Although there are some ways in which punctuation marks can be used
incorrectly, often the ‘right’ one to use is down to the author’s intentions.

 Punctuation marks signal how a reader should interpret information.

 Different texts use punctuation in different ways, such as semi-colons in

formal texts, and dashes in less formal writing.

Talking point: Look around the room or in any written material you
have to hand. Which punctuation marks do you
notice? Why are some used more than others?
 It’s a Case of Grammar!

Glossary

Abbreviation

An abbreviation is a shortened version of a word or group of words. For example:

Approx. (approximately)
PTO (please turn over)
Etc. (et cetera)

abbreviation is called an acronym

when the initial letters of a group of words and can be pronounced as a single word:

NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

Laser – Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Accent

Accent means the way words are pronounced. The features of accents vary according to
the speaker’s regional or social background. Accent is different from dialect, as it doesn’t
refer to the vocabulary or grammar the speaker uses. It refers only to how they pronounce
the words.

Acronym see abbreviation

Active and Passive Voice

Active voice and passive voice are two ways of expressing action. The active voice
focuses on the person doing the action (known as the agent):

James smashed the robot model.

The passive voice focuses on the object or person affected by the action:

The robot model was smashed by James.

The passive voice also allows us to avoid saying who did the action: (e.g. The robot model
was smashed). It’s useful for being tactful or not apportioning blame.

It’s also used in impersonal reports such as scientific writing and news articles, where the
person doing the action is irrelevant (e.g. the flowers were watered every 24 hours), or
unknown (money and jewellery were stolen).
The passive voice can be formed when a verb works with an object.

Subject Verb Object Adverbial

Bill Gates founded Microsoft in 1975.
The decorators will paint the extension next week.
Shahina broke your vase at playtime.

The object moves to the front of the clause to become the passive subject.
The subject moves to the end and is preceded with ‘by’ (or left out completely).
And a form of the auxiliary verb ‘be’ is added to the ‘–ed’ participle of the main verb:

‘to be’ (or

Passive Subject Verb Passive Agent Adverbial
‘got’)

Microsoft was founded by Bill Gates in 1975

The extension will be painted next week.

Your vase got broken at playtime.

Note: occasionally ‘got’ is used instead of ‘be’. Also, some irregular verbs don’t use the ‘–
ed’ participle, e.g. ‘got broken’, ‘was caught’.

Adjective

Adjectives are words used to describe something or someone (nouns or pronouns).

They can be used before a noun: busy day bright shirt

Or after a verb: I am busy That shirt looks bright

Adverb

Adverb and adverbial are terms used to describe words working in several ways.

Adverbs are single words often used to add extra meaning to a verb. They can tell us how,
where, when and how often something takes place:

How: slowly, cheekily, carefully

Where: here, there, away, outside

When: now, yesterday, soon, tomorrow

How often: always, never, frequently

But adverbs can also add information about an adjective, another adverb or even a whole
sentence:

They fully enjoyed the holiday (adverb with a verb)

She’s really pretty (adverb with adjective)

I walk very slowly (adverb with another adverb)

Frankly, he shouldn’t have said it (adverb with whole sentence)

They can also show intensity (extremely fierce) or the extent to which something happens (I
almost fell over), or even the speaker’s attitude (fortunately, annoyingly).

Adverbs also function to make links between chunks of information such as phrases,
sentences and paragraphs: firstly, however, therefore, finally etc.

Adverbial phrase is a term that describes a group of words doing the ‘job’ of a single
adverb, such as after that, ever so much, a little while later, all of a sudden.

An adverbial clause is a clause that does the same ‘job’ as a single adverb, such as
adding information about when, where, how or how often something happens:

Finally we got back home (single adverb)

After sitting in traffic for hours, we got back home (adverbial clause)

Note: Although many adverbs do have the ending ‘-ly’ this can’t be used as a general rule
for identifying adverbs. Some adjectives also have the ‘-ly’ ending (lovely, silly, friendly),
and many adverbs don’t: very, nevertheless, although etc. Focusing on the ‘job’ the word
does in the sentence should help children recognise adverbs.

Affix

An affix is part of a word that has meaning but isn’t a word by itself, such as un-, dis-, or -
ness. These parts are added onto a word to change its meaning:

unlucky disappointed happiness

An affix can be added at the beginning of the word (a prefix) or the end (a suffix)
Agreement (also known as concord)

Sometimes we change the form of a verb so that it ‘agrees’ with the subject doing the
action. For example, when using the present tense we often change the verb according to
whether one person or more is involved:

My son likes playing in the garden. My children like playing in the garden.
The verb ‘be’ shows agreement in the past tense, too:

I was you were he/she was they were we were

Sometimes a determiner must also agree with a noun according to whether it’s singular or
plural:

My son had his lunch outside. My children had their lunch outside.

Note: some regional dialects do not use the verb ‘be’ in the way described above. You
might hear ‘we was going’ or ‘I were going’, for example. Children need to become aware
of differences between non-standard dialects and Standard English, and to understand that
each is appropriate to different contexts. They make speak one way at home, for example,
but when writing we use Standard English agreement.

Antonym

An antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning to another, such as heavy / light, fast /
slow etc. A word can have several antonyms, e.g. slow / quick, swift, speedy

Apostrophe

An apostrophe is a punctuation mark that has two functions. It can show where letters are
missing from a word, known as omission. And it can show something belongs to someone
(possession):

Omission:

Usually two words join together when we shorten verbs with an apostrophe (also called a
contraction). The apostrophe shows where letters have been missed out:

do not = don’t
who is = who’s
it is = it’s
could not = couldn’t

And sometimes they show letters missing from other words or phrases, such as o’clock (of
the clock).Possession:

The apostrophe comes directly after the thing or person to whom the ‘item’ belongs. When
it’s just one person involved, we add an ‘-s’ too:

my dad’s car the dog’s toy a week’s wages

But if more than one person or thing is involved, we just add an apostrophe straight after
the plural word:

my parents’ house the boys’ football kit the dogs’ toys

Often a plural already has an ‘-s’ on the end, so we don’t need to add another. But irregular
plurals aren’t formed by adding an ‘-s’ onto the word. In these cases, the apostrophe goes
directly after the word and ‘-s’ is added after that:

children’s toys women’s dresses the men’s changing room

Note: possessive pronouns often cause confusion. The ‘job’ of these words is to show
something belongs to someone. So they don’t need an apostrophe to do it for them: mine,
yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its.

The distinction between ‘its’ and ‘it’s’ is an important one:

The council is closing one of its schools.

(No apostrophe as its shows the school belongs to the council.)

She said it’s a long time until the next bus.

(Apostrophe shows ‘it is’ has been shortened and the ‘i’ missed out.)

Article

This term refers to the words the (known as the definite article) and a or an (known as the
indefinite article). They are part of a larger group of words known as determiners.

Aspect see tense

Auxiliary Verbs

Verbs can be grouped into those that work on their own, called main verbs, and those that
work with other verbs, called auxiliary verbs. These words ‘help out’ the main verb by
showing shades of meaning such as time or possibility. There are two kinds of auxiliary
verbs:

Be, have and do are the most common. They allow us to show differences in tense,
number or duration:

I am going he was going they have been going

Or of contrasting meaning: she does not like he didn’t go.

But they can also act as main verbs in their own right: I am happy, she has a new hat
Modal verbs can’t be used on their own so always work with a main verb. They’re used to
express possibility or necessity, and to form the future tense. They include:

can, may, will, shall, must, could, might, would

Modal verbs create subtle but important changes in meaning:

I might tidy my room I must tidy my room I could tidy my room

Clause

Clause is a term that describes a group of words giving information about an event or
situation. Usually it involves at least a subject and a verb, i.e. someone doing something:

The hungry giraffe nibbled at the tree. It was raining. My friend Julie is singing.

If the information is only about the subject (the hungry giraffe, ‘it’, My friend Julie) we’d call
that group of words a phrase.

Similarly if we had a verb with no subject (i.e. no-one ‘doing’ the verb), it would be a
phrase (nibbled at the tree, was raining, is singing).
tired
Only when we put both parts together does it become a clause:

A giant panda (phrase: we don’t know what the panda did or what happened)

A giant panda rolled down the hill (clause: someone did something)

A sentence is made up of one or more clauses. A clause can be a complete sentence on

its own, called a simple sentence.

If there two or more clauses in a sentence, it may have a main clause and one or more
subordinate clauses.

A main clause makes sense on its own. A subordinate clause adds more information to the
main clause, so can’t stand alone. It’s dependent on – or subordinate to – the main clause.

I like peanut butter (main clause )

I like peanut butter, even though it’s fattening (subordinate clause in bold)

A subordinate clause can come at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence:

Although it was very cold, Simon climbed the mountain in good time.
I went to school on Tuesday, having got up late, and arrived just after nine.
You’ll be successful if you work hard.
And sometimes a subordinate clause can be ‘embedded’ in the main clause:

The old witch, who lived in a deserted cavern, chanted her spells in the dark.

Occasionally, a clause might not have a verb in it, but the verb is implied. Often it’s a form
of the verb ‘be’ that can be assumed:

Glad to be back, Tom went inside. (He was glad to be back)

The porridge, although hot, was eaten quickly. (Although it was hot)

Coherence and Cohesion

Coherence refers to the logical flow and content of a text. The ideas should be consistent
and relevant so it makes sense to the reader.

Cohesion refers to grammatical features that ‘hold’ the text together, such as use of
connecting adverbs or consistent use of tense and pronouns.

Colon

A colon is a punctuation mark that is has two main functions. It tells the reader that you’re
going to amplify or explain what you’ve just said:

Mum was angry: it was the third time they’d tried to fix it and failed.

And it’s also used to introduce a list or following examples, as above.

Comma

A comma is a punctuation mark used to show ‘chunks’ of meaning, and to guide the way
someone reads a sentence. They’re often used to separate clauses, items in a list,
additional information, or to show a reader when to pause so that the meaning of the
sentence is clear:

My favourite foods are chocolate, chips, sausages and jelly.

I arrived at the gym, had a swim and then came home.

Bob, my faithful dog, is nearly fifteen years old.

On the other hand, I think that might be a good idea.

Compound word

A word that is formed of two other words, e.g. football, hairbrush, cowboy

Conjunction

Conjunctions are words that join phrases and clauses in sentences. Their job is to show
the relationship between two chunks of information. For example, some conjunctions are
co-ordinators, which means they show two parts of the sentence are equally important or
balanced:

I bought a car and I drove off into the sunset.

Dave likes chips but I prefer mashed potato.
Do you want the red toy or the blue toy?

Then there are subordinating conjunctions, which show that one piece of information is
dependent on, or subordinate to, the other. They’re used in complex sentences to show
how one clause relates to another:

We went inside because it was raining.

Although it was late, Sara was still awake.
My dragon roared until I gave him his dinner.

The most common subordinating conjunctions are: after, although, as, because, before, if,
once, since, that, though, unless, until, when, where and while.

Note: children sometimes use subordinating conjunctions without really understanding the
subtle differences in meaning. It’s worth spending time exploring how these words affect
the meaning of a sentence, for example comparing ‘My dragon roared until I gave him his
dinner’ with ‘…since I gave him his dinner’.

Connectives

‘Connectives’ is a term often used in education to describe words that join parts of a
sentence or text. Some connectives are conjunctions, which link clauses or phrases
within a sentence.

Connectives can also be adverbs (or adverbial phrases and clauses) used to link
sentences together. These connect ideas but the sentences remain separate:

Susan said we should go. Nevertheless, we stayed.

Adverbial words and phrases make these links in several ways. They can add information
(moreover, furthermore) or show opposition (on the other hand, however). They can be
used to reinforce or explain (besides, for example) and to create lists or indicate time
(firstly, finally, meanwhile, later on). And they can show the result of something, or the
speaker’s attitude towards it (consequently, therefore, fortunately).
Dash

A dash is a punctuation mark used to show an interruption to a sentence, or to drop in

additional information. If it’s in the middle of the sentence, pairs of dashes are used. But if
the extra information is added at the end, only one is necessary:

The problem is – if you’ll pardon my bluntness – that you’re doing it wrong.

It was a fabulous concert – even better than last year!

Determiner

Determiners are words that tell you more information about a noun. They usually go before
a noun to ‘determine’ something about it, such as how many of something (a, some, five) or
who it belongs to (my, his, your), or which one you’re referring to (the, this, that, these):

That’s my house. Which way shall we go? Please bring back six eggs.

Some determiners can also act as pronouns. In these cases the noun is implied rather
than stated:

Those are mine. Do you want this? Which of them is right?

Dialect

A dialect is a way of speaking associated with a particular place or region. It’s distinguished
by particular vocabulary or grammatical constructions. For example, a bread roll might be
called a ‘barm cake’ in some regional dialects. And often verbs use non-standard forms,
such as ‘be’ in the past tense: I were, they was etc.

Standard English is what’s termed a ‘social’ dialect. It’s not linked to a region, but is used
in certain social situations such as the media, law, government and education.

Note: a dialect is separate from accent, although many dialects are spoken with a regional
accent.

Direct speech and indirect speech

When we want to write down what someone says, we have two ways of doing so. We can
write the exact words that are said, known as direct speech. Speech marks (also called
inverted commas) are used directly before and after the words that are spoken:

John said, “I want to go home now.”

“Would you like to come with me?” said Mum.
Indirect speech reports what someone said, but doesn’t use their exact words. For that
reason, speech marks aren’t necessary:

John said he wanted to go home.

Mum asked if they wanted to go with her.

Note: traditionally we’ve taught children to use double inverted commas (“…”) for direct
speech. Nowadays much published material, such as children’s books, uses single
inverted commas: Ben said ‘Wait for me!’

Double negative

In non-standard dialects double negatives are often used to reinforce or emphasise a

point:.

I didn’t do nothing! I never got no homework. I don’t know nothing about it!

Standard English, which we use when writing and in particular social situations, does not
use double negatives. Standard English forms are slightly different:

I didn’t do anything! I didn’t get any homework. I know nothing about it!

Ellipsis

Sometimes when speaking and writing we miss words out so that we don’t have to repeat
information. This is known as ellipsis:

Mitul said he would win the race, and he did! (win the race)

‘Are you going to the park later?’ ‘I am.’ (going to the park later)

Ellipsis is also the name given to three dots that show information has been left out, or that
something is incomplete: The door slammed. The lights went out. Then silence…

Exclamation mark

An exclamation is a word, phrase or sentence that expresses the speaker’s emotion or

surprise. To show that in writing, we use an exclamation mark:

What a fantastic singer! That’s ridiculous!

When very strong emotion is being expressed this is called an interjection:

Oh dear! Good grief! Get out now! Ouch!

Finite and non-finite verbs

A finite verb form shows whether something happens in the past or present, and how many
people are involved. This form of the verb is only used for certain information, so it’s limited
or ‘finite’. For example:

was is only used to show something happened in the past

is is limited to showing the present

were shows more than one person involved (they were rather than they was)

The non-finite form of a verb doesn’t change whether it’s used to talk about the past or
present. It can also apply to one person or more than one, so it isn’t limited to a tense or
number. These non-finite forms usually end with –ing or –ed, or are the base form of the
verb:

I was waiting they are waiting she will be waiting

he liked the story liked by everyone, she is very popular

they didn’t hear she can hear when will you hear?

Non-finite verbs allow us to withhold information about when something happens or how
many people are involved, for example to build up tension or create humour:

Crashing, shouting and wailing like a banshee, Grandma was having a bad day.

When a non-finite verb form is used to start a subordinate clause, it’s called a non-finite
clause: snuggled under a blanket, the kittens snored peacefully

Grapheme

A grapheme is the way we write down the sounds we use in words. Graphemes are formed
by one or more letters to represent each of the 44 phonemes used in English.
Some sounds can be represented by several graphemes, such as the /ay/ sound in these
words:
play weigh they rain same
Homograph

Homographs are words that are spelt the same but have different meanings, such as:

paper tears easily he cried salty tears

Homophone

Homophones are words that sound the same but have a different meaning or spelling:

bear and bare sleigh and slay there and their

Hyphen

A hyphen is a punctuation mark used to join parts of words or whole words together to
clarify meaning, or show they belong together. They’re used in several ways, such as:

With some prefixes: co-operate

To show a break in a word at the end of a line: ordin-arily
To clarify meaning: re-cover as opposed to recover
To join words working as an adjective or noun: good-looking man, passer-by

Imperative

An imperative is a form of sentence that directs someone to do something. The subject

(person doing the verb) is often left out, as with instructions:

put the bag on the table wait here Stop!

Infinitive

The infinitive is the form of a verb as it is without any additions or changes (e.g. –ed to
change it to the past tense).

Catch = infinitive catches = present tense caught = past tense

Inflection

Inflection refers to a change at the end of a word to show the past or present, or to show
number or comparatives, for example: talk / talks / talked, quick / quickest

Metalanguage

This refers to the language we use to talk about language, or words to talk about words. It
includes what’s often termed ‘grammatical terminology’, such as sentence, verb,
determiner, clause, preposition, phrase etc. Having a grasp of this terminology allows
children to be precise when talking about the choices and effects of language.

Modal verb see Auxiliary verbs

Modelling

This is a teaching strategy that involves demonstrating a skill or process. A key feature is
to ‘model’ the thought processes involved (such as the choices an author makes when
writing) by voicing your thoughts as you carry out the task.
Morpheme

The smallest part of a word that has meaning. The word elephant has only one morpheme
as it can’t be split into smaller parts. Unhelpful has three morphemes: un- (meaning ‘not’),
help and –ful (full of something).

Noun

A noun is a word that’s used to ‘name’ or ‘label’ something such as a person, an object or a
concept. Nouns can be categorised into various groups, such as:

Proper nouns are names: Mrs Jones, Tesco, London, April, Buddhism
Common nouns are more general: neighbour, shop, city, month, religion
Collective nouns refer to a group: herd, team, flock, band, pack
Count nouns are things that can be quantified or ‘counted’: wolves, cars, feet
Non-count nouns are not quantifiable or ‘countable’: music, happiness, sky
Concrete nouns are ‘tangible’: banana, bottle, mirror, flower
As opposed to abstract nouns, which aren’t: jealousy, elegance, hope

A noun phrase is what we call a group of words doing the ‘job’ of a noun:

great big house shiny new car old tree Billy Goat Gruff

Paragraph

A paragraph is a division in a piece of writing, setting the text out into sections. This makes
it easier to read, and can signal changes in meaning, time, topic, place or argument. It’s
also used to show a new speaker when writing dialogue.

Paragraphs are usually started on a new line, or have a line space between the end of one
paragraph and the start of another.

Parenthesis

Parenthesis refers to a word or phrase added into a sentence for extra information. It’s
usually shown by brackets ( ) or a dash – or commas.

Participle

Participles are words formed from verbs that can ‘participate’ in another grammatical
function or word class:

I was walking (verb) my walking stick (as an adjective, modifying a noun)

The most common participles are the –ed and –ing forms of verbs (e.g. soaked, running).
Older grammars referred to the past participle (verbs ending with –ed) and the present
particple (-ing endings). However modern grammars avoid this distinction as it can be
misleading. Both –ing and –ed participles can be used when talking about the past, present
or future:

I baked a cake these are baked potatoes the salmon will be baked

they were running I am running late will you be running tomorrow?

Passive voice see active voice

Person

It’s possible to refer to someone in different ways, known as the first person, second
person and third person. First person refers to when the speaker refers to themselves: I
went to the farm. The second person is used when referring to your audience or reader:
you went to the farm. And the third person is used when referring to someone else – a
‘third party’: he, she, they, the animals, the king went to the farm.

Phoneme

The smallest sound that can be identified in a word. There are approximately 44 phonemes
used to make the words of the English language.

Phrase

A phrase is term used to describe a group of words working together. A phrase can do the
‘job’ of a single word class, such as a noun, verb, adjective, adverb or preposition:

Noun phrase: really fancy hat, final countdown, the best bread in town
Verb phrase: was going, tidied up, has been reading, might have done Adjectival phrase:
as big as a house, brand spanking new, bright red
Adverbial phrase: under the bridge, ever so soon, really quickly
Prepositional phrase: over here, down the road, with my friends

Note: when a phrase starts with a preposition (e.g. with, by, at, down etc.) it can work as
an adjective: the dog with a waggy tail or as an adverb: they wandered by the brook

Prefix see Affix

Preposition

A preposition is a word that shows how two bits of information are related, usually in terms
of time or space. They usually go just before a noun or noun phrase. Prepositions give
information about when something is, or happens: at 2:30, in the morning, before me. And
they show where something is: on, behind, over. They can also show possession (of my
family), means of doing something (by sea) or who’s involved (with everyone).

Note: traditional grammars say that you mustn’t end a sentence with a preposition: ‘with
whom are you going?’ rather than ‘who are you going with?’ This idea is based on the study
of Latin grammar applied to English. Modern grammars don’t make such a distinction
because in English it is possible (if considered informal) to use prepositions at the end of
sentences, and often makes better sense: ‘what did he look like?’ as opposed to ‘like what
did he look?’

Pronouns

Pronouns are used to replace a noun or noun phrase, so that we don’t have to repeat it: the
box was heavy so I put it (the box) down. They can be grouped according to the different
ways they function:

Personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, us, they, the, it
Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its
Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, themselves, itself
Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, those, these
Interrogative pronouns: who, what, which, whose
Relative pronouns: (link subordinate clauses to a noun) which, that, who
Indefinite pronouns: someone, anything, some, few

Relative clause

A relative clause is a subordinate clause that adds information about a noun or noun
phrase. It starts with a relative pronoun:

My friend, who will be arriving soon, is coming with me.

The house that we want to buy is over there.

Root word

A root word the basic form of a word to which prefixes and suffixes can be added to make
new words: dis- organise -d fear –less un- surprise – ing -ly
Semi-colon

A semi-colon is a punctuation marked used to join clauses in sentence. The clauses could
stand as independent sentences, but a semi-colon shows they’re closely related. It guides
the reader to see a strong connection between the two ideas:

It was a beautiful day; we walked over the fields for hours.

It was the best of times; it was the worst of times.

They’re often used to break up longer sentences when sharing complex information. For
example, in a technical report the author might have to explain in detail, but wants to keep
all related points together:

The car goes slower down a ramp with a carpeted surface; although it doesn’t travel
far on the floor; while on a smooth surface it travels faster and further.

Semi-colons also separate items in a list if they consist of longer phrases. With single
words commas are used, but for more complex lists semi-colons are clearer:

You will need: a large plastic bowl; a pair of oven gloves; a bar of chocolate

Sentence

Defining a sentence can be difficult as there are no set criteria that apply to all sentences.
Some notions are helpful, such as ‘a complete idea’ or ‘a group of words expressing an
action’ and that ‘make sense together’.

Sentences are formed of clauses. A simple sentence has one main clause:

The sun was shining brightly in the sky.

A compound sentence is formed by two clauses that are equally ‘important’ or ‘balanced’.
Each could work as a main clause but they’ve been joined into one sentence.
Coordinating conjunctions and, but and or show the clauses are ‘equal’:

The sun is shining and the birds are singing.

It was dark but we weren’t afraid.
Shall we go now or come back later?

A complex sentence has a main clause and one or more clauses that are dependent on it.
These subordinate clauses (underlined below) tell us more about the main clause, so they
don’t make sense on their own:

Although the gates were locked, we could see through the bars into the park.
As we drove past the house, which we’d only just left, we saw Mr Lal arrive.
Singular and plural

Singular forms of words are used to refer to one thing: a tree, my house, the frog

Plurals refer to more than one: some trees, our houses, those frogs

Often the plural is formed by adding –s or –es, although some plurals are irregular, such as
mice, children, sheep, teeth.

Some words such as verbs, pronouns and determiners have different singular and plural
forms:

He was cooking. They were cooking.

This is her book. Those are their books.

Standard English

Standard English is a notion familiar to many people, but few can explain exactly what it is.
Linguists call it a ‘social dialect’ as it’s a variety of English used in certain social contexts
(as opposed to regional dialects which are used in geographical areas). It can be spoken
with any accent and is the variety of English usually used for writing. It’s also used in
‘public’ contexts such as government, law, education and the media. Other countries have
their own standard forms, such as American or Australian Standard English.

The specifics of standard English boil down to a relatively small number of vocabulary
choices and certain standard or non-standard grammatical structures, such as:

Standard English Non-standard dialects

No double negatives: we didn’t do anything we didn’t do nothing
Vocabulary differences: haven’t / aren’t ain’t
Verb agreement: I was, you were, they are I were, you were, they were or I was, you was
Use of adverbs: come quickly! run easily Adverbs to describe a verb: come quick! run easier
Singular and plural: you Variations: you, youse, thee, thou

Children learning to master English need to become aware of how language is used in
different contexts, such as to talking to friends or giving a formal presentation, and to
explore the differences between spoken and written English.
Subject and Object

A clause can be formed of several elements doing a particular ‘job’, known as subject,
verb, object, complement and adverbial. Usually for a clause to make sense it requires at
least a subject and a verb, although it can have several or all of these elements.

Subject Verb Direct Indirect Complement Adverbial

Object object
the tiger stalked its prey
my brother made a sandwich for me this morning
the old oak tree groaned in the mighty wind
I was hungry
they wrote a letter to the press

The subject of a sentence is the person or thing the words are talking about. The object is
the person or thing affected by the action of the verb. Some verbs have a direct object (the
thing directly affected): Jake kicked the ball, and an indirect object (receiving or affected by
the object): Jake kicked the ball to Sophie.

Suffix see Affix

Synonym
A synonym is a word that has the same meaning as another, such as: hot and sweltering,
boiling, burning, scorching etc.

Syntax

Syntax is the study of how words are put together in a sentence to ensure it makes sense.
English has accepted patterns of syntax, such as: the big red bus that went past, rather
than: the red bus big that past went.

Tense

Tense is the form of a verb that indicates time – the past, present or future:

I went I am going I will go

The verb changes depending on whether it refers to the past or present, known as
inflection. In English the future tense isn’t inflected; it’s formed by the use of auxiliary
verbs: I will talk, they shall take it with them, he might do that, I could go.

Verbs can also show aspect, closely related to tense. This allows us to express the
duration, continuity or completeness of an action.
The perfective aspect uses the verb ‘have’ and is used for action continued in the past or
is still going on up to the present:

I have lived here for years (present perfective)

I had lived there for years (past perfective)

The progressive aspect indicates action that continues, and uses the –ing form of verbs.
It can work with past, present or future tenses:

I am living here I was living here I will be living here

And with the perfective aspect, too:

I have been living here for years I had been living there for years

Text type

This term that groups texts (spoken or written) according to their purpose. Some texts are
intended to instruct or persuade the audience to do something. Other texts aim to report
factual information or recount factual events. Others still tell stories, or use language
poetically, or explain processes. The divisions are not clear-cut and some texts could fit
into more than one ‘type’. For example a leaflet advertising a theme park is both providing
information and trying to get someone to visit (persuasion).

Text type ‘labels’ help us identify general conventions for the kind of vocabulary, text layout
and sentence structure we use when speaking and writing. For example, recipes are a
form of instructions often set out in a familiar way, such as starting with ingredients, using
bullet points or sequential language, and starting sentences with imperative verbs.

Verb

A verb is a word whose ‘job’ is to show an action, event, process or ‘state of being’. In
English the verb form changes to show the past or present tense. We use auxiliary verbs
to form the present tense (e.g. will be going).

Word class

Word classes are terms used to group words according to how they function in sentences.
Traditional grammars (dating back to classical times) identified eight ‘parts of speech’:
noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction, article and interjection. Although
these worked for Ancient Greek and Latin, the study of Modern English takes a broader
view, incorporating terms such as determiner and adverbial.

Word classes are not there simply to ‘label’ words in a sentence. They allow us to discuss
language with precision, providing a common metalanguage through which we can discuss
the infinite possibilities, choices, meanings and effects of language.
This booklet is sold as part of ‘It’s a Case of Grammar ‘ by Thinking Child ; not to be sold
separately.
Published by Thinking Child www.thinkingchild.org.uk

Information and enquiries: 01604 491511 [email protected]

By Sue Dixon & Mary Hopper ©2013 Thinking Child
The name Thinking Child and the logo are registered Trade Marks

Pages from this publication may only be photocopied by the purchasing institution for
individual teachers.
The material may not be reproduced in any other form or for any other purpose without
the prior permission of the publisher.
Printed in the UK by Print Projects Northampton Ltd.

To book a Thinking Child literacy training

session in your school please contact us

Tel: 01604 491511

email: [email protected]