Department of Metallurgy

Practical Book
& Materials Engineering

PHYSICAL METALLURGY-II
Name: __________________
Roll Number: __________________
Prepared by: Aqsa Shaikh

Mehran University of Engineering &

Technology, Jamshoro
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr./Miss. ___________________
bearing Roll No. ______________ of 5th Semester 3rd Year,
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering has
carried out the necessary practical work as per course of
Physical Metallurgy-II for the year 2019.

Date:

Practical Incharge
 Subject: Physical Metallurgy-II Subject Teacher: Sir M. Ishaque Abro Taxonomy Level: 2
Course Code: MT-311 Lab Supervisor: Sir Ashique Ali PLOs: 1 & 10
Psychomotor: Draw net and clean phase diagrams of binary Batch: F16 MT (third year 5th semester) Student’s Roll No:
alloy system and microstructures of plain carbon steel.

Practical Rubrics Sig of

Lab Page
S.No: 1 2 3 4 Total Date
Supp/ No:
Guided Lab Tech
A 5 5 5 5 15/20
1 SOP of the equipment and tools used for the conduct of the practical related with subject.
2 Develop the cooling curve of pure tin.
3 Develop the cooling curve of pure lead.
4 Study the microstructure of as cast structure of pure lead and tin samples.
5 Study the microstructure of steel and cast iron samples.
6 Determine the hardness of steel and cast iron samples.
7 Determine the hardness of lead and tin samples.
B Open Ended Lab
8 Study the effect of tin addition on the solidification behavior of lead.
9 Study the effect of carbon content on the microstructure of steel.
C Complex Engineering Problem
10 Why the performance of parts being manufactured by local automobile industry is not
as good as the imported parts? Support your answer with suitable example of auto part.
Total Points Marks

Rubric Rubric Strong (5 Points) Competent (4 Points) Developing (3 Points)

No.
1 Knowledge Adequate knowledge Medium knowledge Weak knowledge
2 Procedure/ Performance Very satisfactorily followed procedure Satisfactorily followed procedure The procedure could be better followed
3 Data evaluation and Presentation Clearly and concisely evaluated and Appropriately evaluated and presented Evaluation and presentation is not as
presented good as it could be
4 Courtesy and Safety protocols Followed very strictly. Followed strictly. Followed very strictly.

i
 MEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING &TECHNOLOGY
FRM-001/00/QSP-004
DEC.01, 2001
TENTATIVE TEACHING PLAN (PRACTICAL)
Subject: - Physical Metallurgy-II
BATCH: F16 MT (Third YEAR 5th SEMESTER) Course Code: MT-311
Name of the Teacher: Prof. Dr. M. I Abro
Starting Semester Starting Date: 15.10.2018 Semester Suspension Date: 15.02.2019

S. No.
No Topic Classes
A Guided Lab
SOP of the equipment and tools used for the conduct of the practical related
1 with subject. 1
2 Develop the cooling curve of pure tin. 1
3 Develop the cooling curve of pure lead. 1
4 Study the microstructure of as cast structure of pure lead and tin samples. 2
5 Study the microstructure of steel and cast iron samples. 2
6 Determine the hardness of steel and cast iron samples. 1
7 Determine the hardness of lead and tin samples. 1
B Open Ended Lab
8 Study the effect of tin addition on the solidification behavior of lead. 2
9 Study the effect of carbon content on the microstructure of steel. 2
C Complex Engineering Problem
Why the performance of parts being manufactured by local automobile industry
is not as good as the imported parts? Support your answer with suitable
10 example of auto part. 2
Total 15

Signature of Teacher: Dated:

Remarks of DMRC:

Signature of Chairman: Dated:

ii
 GUIDED LAB
Improving student’s understanding of the nature of experimental physics is often
an explicit or implicit goal of undergraduate laboratory physics courses.
However, lab activities in traditional lab courses are typically characterized by
highly structured, guided labs that often do not require or encourage students to
engage authentically in the process of experimental physics.

OPEN-ENDED LAB
Open-ended laboratory activities can provide a more authentic learning
environment by, for example, allowing students to exercise greater autonomy in
what and how physical phenomena are investigated. Engaging in authentic
practices may be a critical part of improving student’s beliefs around the nature
of experimental physics.

COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM LAB

The characteristics of the Complex Engineering Problem consist of a wide
range of technical, engineering and other related topics, it provides no
obvious solutions and it requires a depth in engineering knowledge to solve
the problem. Meanwhile, the Complex Engineering Activities involve a
variety of resources such as human, finance, information and materials and
require interaction between the technical, engineering and other topics.

iii
 Caution
1. Do not play with electricity.
2. Carelessness not only destroys the valuable equipment in the lab but also
costs your life.
3. Mere conductivity of the experiment without a clear knowledge of the
theory is of no value.
4. Before you turn on a switch, think of the consequences.
5. Do not start the experiment until the experimental setup is verified.

‘Instructions to the Candidates’

1. Students should come with thorough preparation for the experiment to be
conducted.
2. Students will not be permitted to attend the laboratory unless they bring the
practical record fully completed in all respects pertaining to the experiment
conducted in the previous class.
3. Experiment should be started only after the staff-in-charge has checked the
experimental setup.
4. All the calculations should be made in the observation book. Specimen
calculations for one set of readings have to be shown in the practical record.
5. Wherever graphs are to be drawn, A-4 size graphs only should be used and
the same should be firmly attached to the practical record.
6. Practical record should be neatly maintained.
7. They should obtain the signature of the staff-in-charge in the observation
book after completing each experiment.
8. Theory regarding open-ended lab and complex engineering problem,
experiment should be written in the practical record before procedure in
your own words.

iv
 CONTENT

S.No: Title of Practical Page No:

1 SOP of the equipment and tools used for the conduct of the 1
practical related with subject.

2 Develop the cooling curve of pure tin. 16

3 Develop the cooling curve of pure lead. 20

4 Study the microstructure of as cast structure of pure lead 24

and tin samples.

5 Study the microstructure of steel and cast iron samples. 28

6 Determine the hardness of steel and cast iron samples. 32

7 Determine the hardness of lead and tin samples. 35

8 Study the effect of tin addition on the solidification behavior 38

of lead.

9 Study the effect of carbon content on the microstructure of 42

steel.

10 Why the performance of parts being manufactured by local 46

automobile industry is not as good as the imported parts?
Support your answer with suitable example of auto part.

v
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 01

(Guided Lab)

Objective:
SOP of the equipment and tools used for the conduct of the practical related with subject.
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP):
Standard operating procedures are written, step-by-step instructions that describe how to
perform a routine activity. Students should complete them in the exact same way every time so
that the practical work can remain consistent.

Standard operating procedures help maintain safety and efficiency. A standing operating
procedure should never be difficult to read or vaguely worded. It should be brief, easy to
understand and contain actions steps that are simple follow. A good standard operating
procedure should clearly outline the steps and inform the students of any safety concerns.

Muffle Furnace:

Muffle Furnace is a box-type oven or kiln for high-temperature applications (up to 1200 ºC). It
is normally used for performing conventional heat treatment process like annealing,
normalizing, hardening and tempering. Main parts of muffle furnace are:

1
 6

1. Door.
2. Furnace.
3. Door Lever.
4. Red Screw Button.
5. Furnace Thermostat.
6. Pair of Tong.

Operating Procedure:
1. First of all open the Door (1) of furnace (2) with the help of Door Lever (3).
2. Set the required temperature by rotating clockwise the Red Screw Button (4) using
screw driver.
3. Close the Main Door (1) slowly.
4. Switch “ON” the main button.
5. Now wait till the temperature approaches to set temperature. Make sure that furnace
thermostat (5) works properly by noting automatically switch on and off function.
6. Put your specimen into the furnace (2) and wait for desired time interval.
7. Take out your specimen from furnace (2) with the help of Pair of Tong (6) and switch
“OFF” the furnace as and when the test is over.

2
Precautions:

1. Make sure the Door (1) is close when the furnace is “ON”.
2. Make sure that main power supply is “OFF” when the test is over.

Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine:

This hardness test uses a direct-reading instrument based on the principle of differential depth
measurement. This test is carried out by slowly raising the specimen against the indenter until
a fixed minor load is applied. Then the major load is applied through a loaded lever system.
The Rockwell test gives direct reading of hardness number on dial gauge.

There are two Rockwell machines, the normal tester for relatively thick sections, & the
superficial tester for thin sections. The minor load is 10kg on the normal tester & 3kg on the
superficial tester. A variety of indenters & loads may be used, & each combination determines
a particular Rockwell Scale. Indenters include hard steel balls “1/16, 1/8, ¼ & 1/2inch in
diameter & a 120° conical diamond (brale) point.

Major loads are usually 60, 100 & 150kg on the normal tester & 15, 30 & 45kg on the
superficial tester. The Rockwell Hardness Testing Machine (Model: RH-3N) available in
Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering is of 150kg capacity.

3
Main parts of Rockwell hardness testing machine are:

8. Larger Pointer.
9. Outer Ring.
10. Crank Handle.
11. Elevating Screw
12. Weights.

4
Operating Procedure:

1. Select the proper Indenter (1) & insert it in the bottom of the Plunger Rod (2).
2. Place specimen securely upon Anvil (3).
3. Elevate specimen and bring it into contact with penetrator by means of Capstan (4), &
elevate specimen further until Small Pointer (5) of Indicating Gauge (6) touches Red
Dot (7), and minor load is applied.
4. Turn the Outer Ring (9) of Indicating Gauge (6) till the zero point on the dial is
exactly back of larger pointer.
5. Push Crank Handle (10) backward very slowly to apply major load.
6. Watch the Large Pointer (8) till it comes to reset, then pull Crank load to release the
major load.
7. Read hardness number referring either red or black scale of the dial. Note red scale is
referred when diamond indenter is used and black scale if steel ball is used.
8. After the test is complete, turn the Capstan (4) back & bring the Elevating Screw (11)
down to its original position & remove the test piece.

Precautions:

1. For soft materials use Steel Ball Indenter & for hard materials use diamond
penetrator.
2. Change Weights (12) from 150kg to 100kg when using steel ball.
3. There are two scales on Rockwell Testing machine “B” & “C” scale.
4. “B” scale uses a steel ball indenter whereas diamond cone penetrator is employed for
measuring hardness on “C” scales.

Note:

1. B-scale is for testing materials of medium hardness such as low & medium carbon
steels in the annealed condition.
2. C-scale is commonly used for testing the hardness of alloy cast irons.

5
Metallography Testing Machines:

Metallography is the technique to prepare the specimen for micro structural study of the metals
& alloys. It is a basic tool used to examine metal or alloy at micro level in order to reveal metal
imperfections such as voids, impurities, and surface and sub-surface cracks, type of
microstructure and grain size. The Metallographic Lab of Department of Metallurgy &
Materials Engineering consists of the following equipment which are listed below:

1. High Speed Specimen Cut-Off Machine.

2. Mounting Machine.
3. Grinding Machine.
4. Polishing Machine.
5. Etching Operation.
6. Metallurgical Microscope.

6
MAIN PARTS OF CUTTING MACHINE:

7
Cutting Operation:

1. The specimens for metallography are obtained by using the Metallographic cut of
machine.
2. Before cutting operation, first of all fill the tap water in the build-in Coolant Tank (1)
up to a line marked inside the tank.
3. Add the 1liter cutting oil into the coolant tank in order to improve the tool’s life.
4. Open a Protective Cover (2).
5. Fit a Cutting Tool (3) into the Rotating Pulley (4) tightly.
6. Mount the specimen tightly between two Clamping Jaws (5), through Cap Screw (6)
with the help of wrench.
7. After the specimen has been mounted properly close the PVC Protective Cover (2).
8. Now press a Switch Button (7) of the Grinding Wheel (8) to start the rotation of the
Grinding Wheel (9).
9. Press a switch button of the Coolant Water Pump (9) to circulate the water.
10. Pull the Lever (10), given at the right-hand side, in forward direction very slowly in
order to move the specimen towards the cutting wheel. Note a noise will generate as
and when the specimen touches with the cutting wheel.
11. Keep pulling the handle to forward direction till the cutting operation completes. The
decrease in pulling load of the handle will be noticed which as and when cutting is
completed.
12. Remove the specimen by:
13. Pushing the Lever (10) backward direction.
14. Stop the water pump and cutting wheel.
15. Open the clamping jaws (5).

Precautions of Cutting Operation:

1. When the motor is stopped due to an accidental over-loading, switch off the motor
2. & separate the cutting wheel from the specimen being cut.
3. When dry-cutting is requested, the pump switch should remain in “OFF” position.
4. After completing the cutting operation wash and lubricate the machine parts.
5. Replace the oil in the gear box at least twice a year.
6. After the operation has been finished, the sure to.
7. Check frequently the coolant tank for the proper volume of the coolant water.
8. Be careful that quantity of coolant should not decrease during cutting operation.

8
9
Mounting Operation:

1. Press the Main Switch Button (1) to start the machine.

2. Take the Lower Ram (2) to its top position by setting the Three-Way Switch (3) to its
upper position.
3. Apply Mold Release Powder (4) to the Lower Ram (2) & place the specimen on the
lower ram.
4. Set the Three-Way Switch (3) to the lower position to move down the ram up to the
appropriate distance from the top. Note that the distance of the ram from top should be
approximately equivalent to the required height of the sample to be mounted.
5. Set the three-way switch to the middle position and fill the gap with Mounting Resin
(5).
6. Place the Bayonet Closure (6) over the powder and set the tree-way switch to the lower
position. Rotate the Handle (7) of Bayonet Closure (6) at 90º to fix the cap.
7. Set the process parameters like Heating and Cooling Timers (8), and temperature to
desired value.
8. Press Process Starting Button (9) to start the mounting operation will proceed
automatically and the Heating & Cooling Lamps (10) indicates about both operations
starting & ending.
9. Set the pressure by rotating the Pressure Adjusting Button (11) to desire value and the
pressure will be indicated at Pressure Gauge (12).
10. When the heating & cooling operations are completed, set the three-way switch to the
lower position.
11. Release the Bayonet Closure (6) by turning the handle to its original position.
12. Set the three-way switch to up position for ejection of specimen from the Cylinder (13).
13. When the specimen has been ejected, set the three-way switch to middle position.
14. Follow the steps given above for next mounting.

Precautions of Mounting Operation:

1. The cooling time should not be reduced less than 5min, & the heating time should be
little bit greater than cooling time.
2. The cylinder & especially the rams should always be free from hardened resin.
3. Always check the supply of water before starting the mounting machine.
4. Mounting machine must be clean by dry cloth after completing the mounting operation.

10
11
Grinding Operation:

1. Fix the emery paper of desired number ranging from 180 to 1200 mesh on the
2. Rotating Disc (1) and fix it with placing over the Metal Ring (2).
3. Place now the plastic ring to protect yourself from water.
4. Open the Water Valve (3) to dilute the emery paper and sample. Water flow rate should
be slow.
5. Start the rotating disc by pressing the Power Switch (4).
6. Handle the specimen over the Emery Paper (5) slightly. Make sure that load on
specimen is at center of sample, and specimen is placed very flatten over the paper.
7. Any misalignment in handling the specimen will cause development of inclined
surface. Always use light pressure applied at the center of the sample.
8. Continue grinding until all the projections on specimen surface remove. Always change
the location and direction of specimen and so that specimen surface should be free from
scratches.
9. Change the next grade of emery paper to proceed the grinding further. Always use the
coarser grinding paper at initial stage and finer at the final stage.
10. After the final grinding operation on 1200 paper, wash the sample in water followed by
alcohol and dry it before moving to the aluminum or diamond polishers.

Precautions of Grinding Operation:

1. First of all check that plastic tubes are properly connected to water supply and drain
system.
2. Check the tightness of driving belt.
3. Lubricate the bearings of machine properly.
4. Do not use acetone to clean the emery paper or machine.

12
Polishing Operation:

1. Fix the Polishing Cloth (1) over the Rotating Disc (2) of the polisher.
2. Fill the Hoper (3) with alumina powder and water having 1:20 ratio respectively.
3. Close the Hoper (3) with special disc attached with agitator.
4. Start the machine and open the Hoper Valve (4) so that slurry of polishing media drops
over the cloth.
5. Hold the specimen on the suitable location of the rotating cloth manually. Make sure
that specimen is placed centrally and it is not inclined. Note: continue polishing
operation till the mirror like surface develops.
6. Clean the specimen surface with water at the end of the polishing operation.
7. After completing the polishing with alumina slurry, change the Polishing Cloth (1) and
fix another.
8. Place very small drop of the diamond paste over the cloth, start machine and hold
carefully the specimen on to it. Note the grades of diamond paste depend on the details
of specimen required. Therefore use the diamond paste from coarser grade to fine grade.

13
Etching Operation:

The purpose of etching is two-fold. Firstly it removes a thin layer of polishing media, like
alumina powder and diamond paste, on the surface. Secondly etchant reacts with the metallic
surface and develops the contrast between phases present with the grains and grain boundaries.
Following are the main steps in etching;

1. Select appropriate etchant and prepare it as per the standard procedure.

2. Take suitable quantity of the etchant into china dish and dip the sample for a moment
into it.
3. Wash the sample and check under microscope.
4. If microstructure is not visible then either increase or decrease the etching time.
5. Repeat the etching till the visible microstructure observe.

The success of metallography depends on the choice of suitable etchant. Commonly following
etchants are in practice.

Material Etchant
Steel 2% Nital
Stainless Steel Ferric Chloride
Copper & Alloys Ferric Chloride
Aluminum & Alloys Sodium Hydroxide
Zinc & Alloys Sodium Hydroxide

14
15
Microscopic Analysis:

1. Switch “ON” the main power supply.

2. Switch the Power Supply Button (1) to “ON” position.
3. Increase the light intensity of the bulb by Rotating Knob (2) to a desired level.
4. Don’t increase the light to maximum limit in order to minimize the chances of bulb
fusion.
5. Place the polished surface of the specimen over the Stage (3) and clamp it with Stage
Clips (4).
6. Select the appropriate Objective Lens (5) and rotate the Objective Lens Holder (6) so
that the objective lens illuminate the light on to the sample surface.
7. Select the appropriate Eye Lens (7) and focus the specimen by moving up and down
the stage with the help of Stage Vertical Movement Handle (8).
8. Tune the image focus rotating the Analyzer Knob (9).
9. Change the location of the specimen in horizontal direction by rotating the Stage
Cross Movement Handle (10).
10. Change the eye lens or objective lens if the required information is not achieved.

16
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 02

(Guided Lab)

Objective:
Develop the cooling curve of pure tin.

Apparatus:
Muffle furnace, electronic balance, Digital Thermometer, stop watch, graph paper, crucible
and pair of tongs.

Material:
Pure tin (Sn 100 g).

Theory:

Cooling curves are the graphical representation of time against temperature. Normally they are
used to know the solidification rate during casting of the component. Cooling curves are also
drawn to obtain phase diagrams of alloys.

17
Suppose you have some pure molten Tin and allow it to cool down until it has all solidified,
plotting the temperature of the lead against time as you go. You would end up with a typical
cooling curve for a pure substance. Throughout the whole experiment, heat is being lost to the
surroundings - and yet the temperature doesn't fall at all while the Tin is freezing. This is
because the freezing process liberates heat at exactly the same rate that it is being lost to the
surroundings.

Procedure:
1. Weight 10gms of Sn in electronic weight balance and put in the crucible.
2. Open the Door of furnace with the help of Door Lever.
3. Set the temperature at 232 oC.
4. Switch on the main power supply to “ON” the furnace.
5. Now wait till the temperature approaches to set temperature. Make sure that furnace
thermostat works properly by noting automatically switch on and off function.
6. Put your crucible into the furnace and wait till the metal melts.
7. Take out the crucible from furnace with the help of Pair of Tong.
8. Insert the thermocouple into molten metal and start digital thermometer and start stop
watch immediately.
9. Read the temperature after the intervals given in table.

10. Prepare a graph of the temperature-time data obtained. Plot time on the x-axis, beginning
with time at 0.0 minutes, and time on the y-axis. Now plot the cooling curve between
temperature and time using the data given in table.

18
Precautions
1. Make sure the Door is close when the furnace is “ON”.
2. Make sure that main power supply is “OFF” when the test is over.

Data Table:

S.No: Time (sec) Temperature (0C)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

19
Graph:
Plot your data from this experiment on the set of axes in the graph. Time is plotted horizontally
on the X-axis (abscissa) and temperature vertically on the Y-axis (ordinate).

20
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 03

(Guided Lab)

Objective:
Develop the cooling curve of pure lead.

Apparatus:
Muffle furnace, electronic balance, thermometer, and stop watch, graph paper, crucible, and
pair of tongs.

Material:
Pure lead (Pb 100 g).

Theory:

Cooling curves are the graphical representation of time against temperature. Normally they are
used to know the solidification rate during casting of the component. Cooling curves are also
drawn to obtain phase diagrams of alloys.

21
Suppose you have some pure molten Lead and allow it to cool down until it has all solidified,
plotting the temperature of the lead against time as you go. You would end up with a typical
cooling curve for a pure substance. Throughout the whole experiment, heat is being lost to the
surroundings - and yet the temperature doesn't fall at all while the Lead is freezing. This is
because the freezing process liberates heat at exactly the same rate that it is being lost to the
surroundings.

Procedure:

1. Open the door of furnace with the help of Door Lever.

2. Set the required temperature by rotating Red Screw Button clockwise using screw driver
at 327Co
3. Close the Main Door of furnace slowly.
4. Switch on the main power supply, and make sure that the furnace is ON.
5. Weigh out 10gms of Lead and then put in the crucible.
6. Wait until the temperature approaches to the required temperature. Make sure that the
furnace thermostat works properly by observing on and off function of automatic switch.
7. Put your crucible into the furnace and wait till the metal melts.
8. Take out molten metal from the furnace using a Pair of Tongs and switch “OFF” the
furnace as and when the crucible is taken out.
9. Insert the thermocouple into molten metal and start thermometer and stop watch
immediately.
10. Read the temperature after each interval given in the table.

22
 11. Prepare a graph of the temperature-time data obtained. Plot time on the x-axis, beginning
with time at 0.0 minutes, and time on the y-axis. Now plot the cooling curve between
temperature and time using the data given in table.

Precautions:
1. Make sure that the Door is closed when the furnace is “ON”.
2. Make sure that main power supply is “OFF” when the test is over.

Data Table:

S.No: Time (sec) Temperature (0C)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

23
Graph:
Plot your data from this experiment on the set of axes in the graph. Time is plotted horizontally
on the X-axis (abscissa) and temperature vertically on the Y-axis (ordinate).

24
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 04

(Guided Lab)

Objective:

Study the microstructure of as cast structure of pure lead and tin samples.

Apparatus:

Metallurgical microscope, cutting machine, mounting machine, grinding and polishing

machine, dryer and etchant.

Material:

Lead, tin samples and 2% Nital etchant (2 ml nitric acid in 100 ml methanol or ethanol).

Theory:
Metallography can be defined as
 The visual study of the constitution and structure of materials.
 The descriptive science of the structure and properties of metals.
 Is the study of metals by optical and electron microscopes.

 This technique focuses on science of preparing, interpreting, and analyzing

microstructures in engineered materials, to better understand materials behavior and
performance.

 Metallography can give information concerning a material’s composition, previous

treatment and properties.

Particular features of interest are,

Grain size Phases present

Chemical homogeneity Distribution of phases

25
Specimen preparation for metallography is as follows:

1. Specimen sectioning or cutting

2. Mounting
3. Grinding
4. Polishing
5. Etching
6. Optical microscopic

 Sectioning: Sectioning is the most important step in preparing specimens for physical
or microscopic analysis.

 Mounting: The primary purpose of mounting specimens is for convenience in handling

specimens of difficult shapes or sizes during the subsequent steps of preparation and
examination. A secondary purpose is to protect and preserve extreme edges or surfaces
defects during preparation.

26
 Grinding: The specimen is ground on grinding machine progressively with finer SiC
waterproof papers from 120 to 1000 grit, to produce a reasonably flat surface, it is
lubricated with water to keep it cool and to remove the grinding products.

 Polishing: In order to obtain a highly reflective surface that is free from scratches and
deformation, the specimens must be carefully polished before they can be examined
under the microscope.

 Etching: It is carried out on the properly dried specimen obtained from fine polishing
step. Etching involves chemically treating the specimen surface using a mild acidic or
alkaline solution. The etching differentially attacks various microstructural features as
a result of their different chemical affinities. This differential attack leads to a non-
similar reflection of light into the objective.

27
  Optical Microscopy: It is the final step of metallography, entails examination of
materials using visible light to provide a magnified image of the micro- and
macrostructure. It is used to characterize structure by revealing grain boundaries, phase
boundaries, inclusion distribution, and evidence of mechanical deformation.

Procedure:
1. Cut one piece from the each lead and tin bar (provided) either with a hacksaw or
cutting machine of 15x15mm size.
2. Mount the above specimens in different directions one in the longitudinal and the
other in the transverse direction in mounting machine or in cold setting resin (by
guidance of technician).
3. Grind the specimens on rough polisher use paper 320 grit abrasive paper followed
by 400,600,800 and 1200.
4. Polish either on rotating wheel or on stationary emery paper of size 700/800/1000
by hand.
5. Carry on final polishing with the use of diamond paste size 6 Micron.
6. Wash these specimens after each polishing with distilled water followed by alcohol
and dry them with Air dryer.
7. View microstructure under the microscope; if structure is still dull then repeat
polishing on the diamond paste wheel for longer period.

28
Result:

29
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 05

(Guided Lab)

Objective:

Study the microstructure of steel and cast iron samples.

Apparatus:

Metallurgical microscope, cutting machine, mounting machine, grinding and polishing

machine, dryer and etchant.

Material:

Steel, cast iron samples and 2% Nital etchant (2 ml nitric acid in 100 ml methanol or ethanol)
or Picral etchant (4% picric acid in 100ml ethanol) especially for steels.

Theory:

Metallography can be defined as

 The visual study of the constitution and structure of materials.
 The descriptive science of the structure and properties of metals.
 Is the study of metals by optical and electron microscopes.

 This technique focuses on science of preparing, interpreting, and analyzing

microstructures in engineered materials, to better understand materials behavior and
performance.

 Metallography can give information concerning a material’s composition, previous

treatment and properties.

Particular features of interest are,

Grain size Phases present

Chemical homogeneity Distribution of phases

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Specimen preparation for metallography is as follows:

1. Specimen sectioning or cutting

2. Mounting
3. Grinding
4. Polishing
5. Etching
6. Optical microscopic

 Sectioning: Sectioning is the most important step in preparing specimens for physical
or microscopic analysis.

 Mounting: The primary purpose of mounting specimens is for convenience in handling

specimens of difficult shapes or sizes during the subsequent steps of preparation and
examination. A secondary purpose is to protect and preserve extreme edges or surfaces
defects during preparation.

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 Grinding: The specimen is ground on grinding machine progressively with finer SiC
waterproof papers from 120 to 1000 grit, to produce a reasonably flat surface, it is
lubricated with water to keep it cool and to remove the grinding products.

 Polishing: In order to obtain a highly reflective surface that is free from scratches and
deformation, the specimens must be carefully polished before they can be examined
under the microscope.

 Etching: It is carried out on the properly dried specimen obtained from fine polishing
step. Etching involves chemically treating the specimen surface using a mild acidic or
alkaline solution. The etching differentially attacks various microstructural features as
a result of their different chemical affinities. This differential attack leads to a non-
similar reflection of light into the objective.

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  Optical Microscopy: It is the final step of metallography, entails examination of
materials using visible light to provide a magnified image of the micro- and
macrostructure. It is used to characterize structure by revealing grain boundaries, phase
boundaries, inclusion distribution, and evidence of mechanical deformation.

Procedure:
1. Cut one piece from the each steel and cast iron bar (provided) either with a hacksaw
or cutting machine of 15x15mm size.
2. Mount the above specimens in different directions one in the longitudinal and the
other in the transverse direction in mounting machine or in cold setting resin (by
guidance of technician).
3. Grind the specimens on rough polisher use paper 180 grit abrasive paper followed
by 400,600,800 and 1200.
4. Polish either on rotating wheel or on stationary emery paper of size
700/800/900/1000 by hand.
5. Carry on final polishing with the use of diamond paste size 6 Micron.
6. Wash these specimens after each polishing with distilled water followed by alcohol
and dry them with Air dryer.
7. View microstructure under the microscope; if structure is still dull then repeat
polishing on the diamond paste wheel for longer period.

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Result:

34
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 06

(Guided Lab)

Objective:

Determine the hardness of steel and cast iron samples.

Apparatus:
Rockwell hardness testing machine.

Material:
Cleaned and smoothed surface steel and cast iron samples.
Theory:

Hardness is the property of a material (metal) to resist abrasion, indentation (or penetration). It
is the resistance of a material to permanent deformation of the surface. In other words, one can
define it as the resistance of the metal to penetration by an indenter.

The Rockwell Hardness Test uses as Rockwell hardness testing machine to measure the
impression depth when using a known load to make by a hard test point. Soft metals will result
in a deeper impression and low hardness numbers. It is more difficult to make an impression
using hard metals, resulting in higher hardness numbers.

35
A dial indicates the hardness number. In this test, a 1/16″ steel ball for softer metals or a 120°
diamond cone for hard metals is pressed into the surface by a deadweight acting through several
levels. The dial gage indicates hardness using the Rockwell “B” and “C” scales. The Rockwell
number will be higher, the harder the piece. As an example, you will not see a reading of more
than 30 to 35 on the Rockwell “C” scale for machine able steel. At the same time, you will see
a reading of 63 to 65 for a hardened speed cutter. A “C” scale and a diamond point are needed
when doing a hard steel test. If testing nonferrous metal, use a “B” scale and a steel ball.

Type of Type of Scale Total load(P)

specimen Indenter Kg-F
Hard metals Diamond cone C (Black 150
graduations)
Soft metals Steel Ball (1/16”) B (Red 100
graduations )

The Rockwell test is more rapid and leaves a smaller and less conspicuous indentation on the
workpiece. To ensure accuracy, the test surface should be flat and free from scale, pits, and
foreign materials. Oiled surfaces generally give slightly lower readings than dry ones because
of reduced friction under the indenter. The bottom surface also should be free from scale, dirt,
or other foreign substances that might crush or flow under the test pressure and so affect the
results.

36
Procedure:

1. Put gently the specimen in contact with the indenter.

2. Apply a preliminary (or minor) force (load) (of 10 kg).
3. Automatically or manually zeroing the penetration measuring instrument or dial gage
4. Apply gradually the total (or major) force (load) (of 60, 100 or 150 kg)
5. Remove gently the total force (load).

Observation:

Total
S.No: Specimen Type of HRC Average
load(P)
Kg-F Indenter 1 2 3 HRC
1 Steel

2 Cast Iron

Result:

Rockwell hardness Number of given specimen is

1. Steel =
2. Cast Iron =

37
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 07

(Guided Lab)

Objective:

Determine the hardness of lead and tin samples.

Apparatus:
Rockwell hardness testing machine.
Material: Cleaned and smoothed surface lead and tin samples.
Theory:

Hardness is the property of a material (metal) to resist abrasion, indentation (or penetration). It
is the resistance of a material to permanent deformation of the surface. In other words, one can
define it as the resistance of the metal to penetration by an indenter.

The Rockwell Hardness Test uses as Rockwell hardness testing machine to measure the
impression depth when using a known load to make by a hard test point. Soft metals will result
in a deeper impression and low hardness numbers. It is more difficult to make an impression
using hard metals, resulting in higher hardness numbers.

38
A dial indicates the hardness number. In this test, a 1/16″ steel ball for softer metals or a 120°
diamond cone for hard metals is pressed into the surface by a deadweight acting through several
levels. The dial gage indicates hardness using the Rockwell “B” and “C” scales. The Rockwell
number will be higher, the harder the piece. As an example, you will not see a reading of more
than 30 to 35 on the Rockwell “C” scale for machine able steel. At the same time, you will see
a reading of 63 to 65 for a hardened speed cutter. A “C” scale and a diamond point are needed
when doing a hard steel test. If testing nonferrous metal, use a “B” scale and a steel ball.

Type of Type of Scale Total load(P)

specimen Indenter Kg-F
Hard metals Diamond cone C (Black 150
graduations)
Soft metals Steel Ball (1/16”) B (Red 100
graduations )

The Rockwell test is more rapid and leaves a smaller and less conspicuous indentation on the
workpiece. To ensure accuracy, the test surface should be flat and free from scale, pits, and
foreign materials. Oiled surfaces generally give slightly lower readings than dry ones because
of reduced friction under the indenter. The bottom surface also should be free from scale, dirt,
or other foreign substances that might crush or flow under the test pressure and so affect the
results.

39
Procedure:

1. Put gently the specimen in contact with the indenter.

2. Apply a preliminary (or minor) force (load) (of 10 kg).
3. Automatically or manually zeroing the penetration measuring instrument or dial gage
4. Apply gradually the total (or major) force (load) (of 60, 100 or 150 kg)
5. Remove gently the total force (load).

Observation:

Total
S.No: Specimen Type of HRB Average
load(P)
Kg-F Indenter 1 2 3 HRB
1 Lead

2 Tin

Result:

Rockwell hardness Number of given specimen is

1. Lead =
2. Tin =

40
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 08

(Open Ended Lab)

Objective:

Study the effect of tin addition on the solidification behavior of lead.

Research and Forming Hypothesis:

(Hint: What is the lab about? Discuss what you are investigating and why. What are your
goals?)

41
Materials and Methods:

(Hint: Explain how you went about investigating the question. Discuss the steps in designing
and conducting the experiment, including your set up, the equipment you use and how you
use them or use drawings to help illustrate your work.)

42
List and Analyze the Collected Data:
(Hint: Use tables, graphs or charts to organize and present your data. Does your data address
your goals? Justify your data.)

43
Conclusion/Result:

44
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 09

(Open Ended Lab)

Objective:

Study the effect of carbon content on the microstructure of steel.

Research and Forming Hypothesis:

(Hint: What is the lab about? Discuss what you are investigating and why. What are your
goals?)

45
Materials and Methods:

(Hint: Explain how you went about investigating the question. Discuss the steps in designing
and conducting the experiment, including your set up, the equipment you use and how you
use them or use drawings to help illustrate your work.)

46
List and Analyze the Collected Data:
(Hint: Use tables, graphs or charts to organize and present your data. Does your data address
your goals? Justify your data.)

47
Conclusion/Result:

48
Name & Roll No: ________________________________________ Marks: ____________

Signature of the Lab Tutor: ______________________ Date: ______________

PRACTICAL NO. 10

(Complex Engineering Problem)

Objective:

Why the performance of parts being manufactured by local automobile industry is not as good
as the imported parts? Support your answer with suitable example of automobile parts.

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50