 Introduction

Sensors are electrical or mechanical components that are used to measure a property or
behavior of an object or system. Some sensors measure properties directly, other sensors
measure properties indirectly, using conversions or calculations to determine results. Sensors
are used by scientists and engineers during research and testing activities, but they can also
be found in many household objects, such as temperature sensors in an oven to
accelerometers in an automobile airbag system. Sensors are generally categorized by the type
of phenomenon that they measure, rather than the functionality of the sensor itself.

While sensors are used frequently by engineers and scientists in their studies, sensors are also
use in many household products. Sensors can be found in many everyday objects, including
touch-sensitive buttons and screens, infrared remote controls, motion-sensitive lighting, and
home thermostats.
Discussion
Sensors and Transducers
The words 'sensor' and 'transducer' are both widely used in the description of measurement
systems. The former is popular in the USA whereas the latter has been used in Europe for
many years. The word 'sensor' is derived from entire meaning 'to perceive' and 'transducer' is
from transducer meaning 'to leads cross'. A dictionary definition of 'sensor' is `a device that
detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be measured or
recorded; a corresponding definition of 'transducer' is 'a device that transfers power from one
system to another in the same or in the different form'.

A sensible distinction is to use 'sensor' for the sensing element itself and 'transducer' for the
sensing element plus any associated circuitry. All transducers would thus contain a sensor
and most sensors would also be transducers.

Types of sensors

Mechanical Sensors

Mechanical sensors measure a property through mechanical means, although the

measurement itself may be collected electronically. An example of a mechanical sensor is a
strain gauge. The strain gauge measures the physical deformation of a component by
experiencing the same strain as the component, yet the change in resistance of the strain
gauge is measured electrically. Other types of mechanical sensors include:

 Pressure sensors

Pressure measurements can be taken to determine a range of different values depending on

whether the pressure is relative to atmosphere, vacuum conditions, or other measuring factors.
Pressure sensors are instruments that can be designed and configured to detect pressure across
these variables. Absolute pressure sensors are intended to measure pressure relative to a
vacuum and they are designed with a reference vacuum enclosed within the sensor itself. These
sensors can also measure atmospheric pressure.
 
An important aspect of industrial pressure detection processes involves comparisons between
multiple pressure factors. Differential pressure sensors are used for these applications, which
can be challenging due to the presence of at least two different pressures on a single
mechanical structure. Differential pressure sensors are relatively complex in design because
they are often needed to measure minute pressure differentials across larger static pressures.
The principles of transduction and mechanical pressure sensing are common to most standard
pressure sensing units, regardless of their categorization as differential, absolute, or gauge
pressure instruments.

 Accelerometers

One of the most common inertial sensors is the accelerometer, a dynamic sensor capable of a
vast range of sensing. Accelerometers are available that can measure acceleration in one,
two, or three orthogonal axes. They are typically used in one of three modes:
 As an inertial measurement of velocity and position;
 As a sensor of inclination, tilt, or orientation in 2 or 3 dimensions, as referenced from the
acceleration of gravity (1 g = 9.8m/s2)
 As a vibration or impact (shock) sensor.

There are considerable advantages to using an analog accelerometer as opposed to an

inclinometer such as a liquid tilt sensor – inclinometers tend to output binary information
(indicating a state of on or off), thus it is only possible to detect when the tilt has exceeded
some thresholding angle.

Principles of Operation

Most accelerometers are Micro-Electro-Mechanical Sensors (MEMS). The basic principle of

operation behind the MEMS accelerometer is the displacement of a small proof mass etched
into the silicon surface of the integrated circuit and suspended by small beams. Consistent
with Newton's second law of motion (F = ma), as an acceleration is applied to the device, a
force develops which displaces the mass. The support beams act as a spring, and the fluid
(usually air) trapped inside the IC acts as a damper, resulting in a second order lumped
physical system. This is the source of the limited operational bandwidth and non-uniform
frequency response of accelerometers.

Types of Accelerometer

There are several different principles upon which an analog accelerometer can be built. Two
very common types utilize capacitive sensing and the piezoelectric effect to sense the
displacement of the proof mass proportional to the applied acceleration.

Capacitive

Accelerometers that implement capacitive sensing output a voltage dependent on the distance
between two planar surfaces. One or both of these “plates” are charged with an electrical
current. Changing the gap between the plates changes the electrical capacity of the system,
which can be measured as a voltage output. This method of sensing is known for its high
accuracy and stability. Capacitive accelerometers are also less prone to noise and variation
with temperature, typically dissipates less power, and can have larger bandwidths due to
internal feedback circuitry.

Piezoelectric

Piezoelectric sensing of acceleration is natural, as acceleration is directly proportional to

force. When certain types of crystal are compressed, charges of opposite polarity accumulate
on opposite sides of the crystal. This is known as the piezoelectric effect. In a piezoelectric
accelerometer, charge accumulates on the crystal and is translated and amplified into either
an output current or voltage.

Piezoelectric accelerometers only respond to AC phenomenon such as vibration or shock.

They have a wide dynamic range, but can be expensive depending on their quality (Doscher
2005)

Piezo-film based accelerometers are best used to measure AC phenomenon such as vibration
or shock, rather than DC phenomenon such as the acceleration of gravity. They are
inexpensive, and respond to other phenomenon such as temperature, sound, and pressure.
 Other types.

There are many other types of accelerometer that are less important to musical applications,
including:

 Piezoresistive
 Thermal
 Null-balance
 Servo force balance
 Strain gauge
 Resonance
 Magnetic induction
 Optical
 Surface acoustic wave (SAW)

 Potentiometers

A potentiometer is a manually adjustable resistor. The way this device works is relatively
simple. One terminal of the potentiometer is connected to a power source. Another is
hooked up to ground (a point with no voltage or resistance and which serves as a neutral
reference point), while the third terminal runs across a strip of resistive material. This
resistive strip generally has a low resistance at one end; its resistance gradually increases
to a maximum resistance at the other end. The third terminal serves as the connection
between the power source and ground, and is usually interfaced to the user by means of a
knob or lever. The user can adjust the position of the third terminal along the resistive
strip in order to manually increase or decrease resistance. By controlling resistance, a
potentiometer can determine how much current flow through a circuit. When used to
regulate current, the potentiometer is limited by the maximum resistivity of the strip.

 Gas and fluid flow meters

A flowmeter is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or volumetric flow

rate of a liquid or a gas.

 Humidity sensors

A humidity sensor also called a hygrometer, measures and regularly reports the relative
humidity in the air. They may be used in homes for people with illnesses affected by humidity;
as part of home heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems; and in humidors or
wine cellars. Humidity sensors can also be used in cars, office and industrial HVAC systems,
and in meteorology stations to report and predict weather.

A humidity sensor senses relative humidity. This means that it measures both air temperature
and moisture. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent, is the ratio of actual moisture in the air
to the highest amount of moisture air at that temperature can hold. The warmer the air is, the
more moisture it can hold, so relative humidity changes with fluctuations in temperature.
Electrical Sensors

Electrical sensors measure electric and magnetic properties. An example of an electrical

sensor is an ohmmeter, which is used to measure electrical resistance between two points in a
circuit. An ohmmeter sends a fixed voltage through one probe, and measures the returning
voltage through a second probe. The drop in voltage is proportional to the resistance, as
dictated by Ohm's Law. Other electrical sensors include:

 Voltmeter/Ammeter
 Metal detector
 RADAR
 Magnetometer

Thermal Sensors

Although all thermal sensors measure changes in temperature, there are a variety of types of
temperature sensors, each with specific uses, temperature ranges, and accuracies. Some types
of thermal sensors include:

 Thermometers
 Thermocouples
 Thermistors
 Bi-metal thermometers

Chemical Sensors

Chemical sensors generally detect the concentration of a substance in the air or in a liquid.
Some chemical sensors, such as pH glass electrodes are designed to be sensitive to a certain
ion. Some other types of chemical sensors include:

 Oxygen sensors
 Carbon monoxide detectors
 Redox electrodes

Optical Sensors

Optical sensors detect the presence of light waves. This could include light in the visible
spectrum, or outside the visible spectrum, in the case of infrared sensors. Some types of
optical sensors include:

 Photodetectors
 Infrared sensors
 Fiberoptic sensors
 Interferometers
Other Types of Sensors

There are many other types of sensors that don't fall into one of the broad categories
described here. Some of these sensors include:

 Radiation sensors, including Geiger counters and dosimeters

 Motion sensors, including radar guns and speedometers
 Acoustic, including sonar and seismometers
 Gyroscopes

Industrial applications of sensors

Heat sensors: bolometer, calorimeter

  Electromagnetic electrical resistance sensors: ohmmeter, multimeter

Electrical current sensors: galvanometer, ammeter

Electrical voltage sensors: leaf electroscope, voltmeter

Electrical power sensors: watt-hour meters

Magnetism sensors: magnetic compass, fluxgate compass, magnetometer, Hall Effect device,
Metal detectors

  Mechanical pressure sensors: altimeter, barometer, barograph, pressure gauge, air speed
indicator, rate of climb indicator, variometer

gas and liquid flow sensors: flow sensor, anemometer, flow meter, gas meter, water meter,
mass flow sensor  mechanical sensors: acceleration sensor, position sensor, selsyn, switch,
strain gauge

 Chemical sensors: detect the presence of specific chemicals or classes of chemicals.

Examples include oxygen sensors, also known as lambda sensors, ion-selective electrodes,
pH glass electrodes, and redox electrodes.
Factors to be consider when selecting a sensor.
Input Range

Input range is the maximum measureable range that the sensor can accurately measure.
Generally, quantities outside of the input range can be measured, but characteristics such as
accuracy and repeatability may be compromised when the input is outside of the specified
range.

Output Range

Output range generally refers to electronic sensors, and is the range of electrical output signal
that the sensor returns. However, the output range could be a physical displacement, such as
in a spring scale, or rotation, such as in a clock-style analog thermometer. The output range is
related to the input range by the conversion algorithm specific to the sensor type, and the
algorithm may include factors based on the calibration of the specific sensor.

Accuracy

Accuracy actually refers to the amount of error, or inaccuracy, that may be present in a
sensor. Accuracy can be stated as a unit of measurement, such as +/- 5 pounds, or as a
percentage, such as 95%. In most cases, increased accuracy results in an increased cost for a
sensor.

Repeatability

Repeatability, as the name implies, refers to how often a sensor under the same input
conditions will return the same value. If a sensor is designed to be used over and over again,
it is important that the output value is accurate over every measurement cycle for the life of
the sensor. Repeatability is determined by calibration testing of the sensor using known
inputs.

Resolution

Resolution is the smallest unit of measurement that the sensor can accurately measure. Some
transducers return output signals in discrete steps, and therefore the resolution is easily
defined. Resolution can be stated as a unit of measurement or as a percentage. For electronic
sensors, resolution is also dictated by the resolution of the signal conditioning hardware or
software.

These qualities are common to all sensors, no matter what characteristic is being measured.
All of these traits must be considered when selecting the right sensor for the specific needs of
a test.