CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

INTRODUCTION

Language competency can be analysed in two different aspects– oral and written

language. Oral language deals with spoken delivery. On the other hand, written language deals

with written composition. In the tertiary curriculum, language acquisition was divided into

different subjects that will cater the development of students’ language fluency. This subjects

deal with either oral or written competencies. Included in the list is Creative Writing, which

gives the students the opportunity to put their ideas about a certain topic into writing. It requires

knowledge and artistic perception about a certain subject. Part of putting one’s idea into words is

the ability to use each word appropriately to create a message accurately. Coherently, lexis plays

a main role in learning a language and using it. However, inappropriate usage of a word may

result to an error, specifically, a lexical error which rooted from incorrect word use in a particular

context.

In learning the English language, the concepts, the biggest down to the smallest details of

every word must be learned. However, learning these concepts is not as easy as non-native

speakers think. Studying the language comes with the different rules and complexities present

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whether written or oral form. Lexical errors dealing with the correct word classification and

choice is one of the complicated parts of learning the language. A non-native speaker of the

language will find it hard to deal with classifying the correct part of speech a certain word

belongs affecting one’s ability to choose what word goes right in the essay or even in the

sentence. The smallest details as well as the basic foundations about learning the language

becomes the problem specifically because it is not taught in schools of any level.

The lexical classifications of the English language that bears its complexities come in one

form. One of the errors of non-native speakers when it comes to using the language is the

confusion about the function of the word on a certain text. Classifying the function of a word in a

context whether it is a noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction,

interjection, article is quite confusing. With this in mind, a non-native speaker will have the

difficulty on understanding the function flexibility of a word both depending on its part of speech

and interaction with the other words in a certain text.

This dilemma of complexities in word classification remains one of the difficulties in

learning the English language. Resulting from this dilemma, word choices are also at risk. A

dilemma of choosing a word that will correspond with the other words will be difficult since it

greatly depends on the perceived function of the word. These two problems will be the

aggravating agent on a higher frequency of grammatical errors in writing specifically.

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 With this at hand, writing to communicate well and to present the linguistic competency

are at stake. These affects the individual competency of students at school and even professionals

in their field. On the shallower context, misunderstanding appears to be possibly aligned with the

dilemma of choosing the inappropriate word. This, as perceived, affects the professional and

domestic aspects of the society.

Consequently, the researchers aim to investigate the lexical errors committed by the

students in their written essays in order to determine the highest frequency of errors present and

their possible reasons and the impact of these errors in the overall context.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on finding the lexical errors that are present and are commonly

found on the essay compositions of the respondents. On the process, each lexical error classified

based on its nature thus identifying them according to Carl James’ Taxonomy of Lexical Error

divided into either formal or semantic errors. In this sense, errors affecting the context of the text,

impacts on the comprehension are place into consideration.

English Majors are identified as the respondents of the study for they are the primary

receivers of the language acquisition process. As future educators, it is a requirement for them to

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be fluent in English, either written or oral. With this, their lexical errors should be put into

consideration, analysed and decreased if not eradicated.

The researchers will focus on written composition particularly in essays. Lexical errors

will be analysed in written non-fiction in the Creative Writing subject. This subject focuses on a

written composition thus providing them also the appropriate knowledge on the standard of

writing. Along with this, language competency in written communication are also tested such as

word classification and choice.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Error Analysis Theory

According to Larsen (1998), an error is an inaccuracy made by the learner who has not

fully learned the rules of the target language. Humans, specifically the learners, will encounter

many problems in learning and using the second language or foreign language, like the

pronunciation, vocabulary, structure, etc. and there are many reasons for these faulty inferences

about the rules of the target language. A non-native speaker of the language usually transfers his

or her idea into the target language he or she learns, which will possibly cause errors.

However, these errors became the root for some researchers to analyse these errors and to

formulate a theory that could help in identifying these errors. Error analysis was then proposed

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by Corder and colleagues in 1960s. It is a method to investigate the kind and quantity of error

that arises, especially in the fields of applied linguistics. This theory focuses on recording the

errors that appear in learner language, identify whether those errors are systematic, and explain

the reasons behind such errors, if possible. In order to carry out the method of error analysis,

Corder (1967) created a model which comprised the following stages:

1. Collection of data

2. Identification of errors

3. Classification into error types

4. Statement of relative frequency of error types

5. Evaluation of Errors

The above stages start with collection of a sample of a learner language, such as their

composition. Next is identifying the errors in the sample of a learner language. Third is

categorizing those errors into types. Corder distinguishes three types of errors according to their

systematicity:

a) Pre-systematic errors occur when the learner is unaware of the existence of a particular

rule in the target language.

b) Systematic errors occur when the learner has discovered a rule but it is the wrong one.

c)

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 d) Post-systematic errors occur when the learner knows the correct target language rule but

uses it inconsistently (i.e. makes a mistake).

Fourth is explanation of errors which is concerned with establishing the source of the

error, if possible. Lastly, errors will be evaluated whether these are local or global errors to help

the learners learn the target language by correcting these errors.

Hence, this error analysis theory will serve as a pattern for the researchers, particularly, in

analysing lexical errors in the written composition of second language learners. The theory aims

to give systematic steps to analyse such errors in language learning and use. The conducted study

will be guided on the steps to follow in investigating the lexical errors found in the written

composition of ESL learners through the Error Analysis theory.

Carl James’ Taxonomy of Lexical Error

ESL/EFL learners unavoidably commit various types of errors, which is indeed part of

learning a language. Errors can be interlingual or intralingual (Corder, 1971). Interlingual errors

are attachable to the native language. They arise when the learner’s L1 behaviours (patterns and

systems) hinder and prevent them from acquiring patterns in the target language (TL). Hence,

interlingual errors are the result of a negative transfer from the L1 to the TL. In contrary,

intralingual errors are those due to the TL itself.

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 Coherently, lexis plays an important role in learning a language. According to

investigative studies such in Meara (1984) and Lennon (1991), lexical errors are the most

frequently arising category of errors in English. Incorrect lexical choices could make

communication vague because the message could be misunderstood.

This directed some researchers to analyse these lexical errors. Though there are many

conducted studies with different perspectives about lexical error, they all agreed with one exact

definition of it: “A lexical error is the wrong word use of a lexical item in a particular context in

comparison with what a native speaker of similar characteristics as the L2 learner (age,

educational level, professional and social status) would have produced in the same circumstances.

Lexical errors, can also be defined as a breach in a lexical norm of the language, which is

normally observed by native speakers (Leach, 2005).”

Also, classification of errors into types is included in the analysis of lexical errors. It is

important to categorize each error found in the sample learner language in order to identify its

explanation and possible causes. In line with this, a lexical error taxonomy was proposed by Carl

James (1998). James’ lexical error taxonomy categorizes lexical errors into two major types:

formal errors and semantic errors. Formal errors comprise three sub-categories, while semantic

errors are sub-divided into two categories. Some details of the whole taxonomy will be listed

below.

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 A. Formal Errors

Formal errors are divided into three types: Formal misselection, misformations, and

distortions (James, 1998). The sub-types and examples for each type are stated below:

I. Formal misselections

These are “synforms” that share some phonemes/graphemes., i.e. similar lexical

forms (visual and sound similarity). The four major types of these synforms are: the

suffix type (E.g. competition/competitiveness), the prefix type (E.g. reserve/preserve), the

vowel-based type (E.g. seat/set), and the consonant based type (E.g. save/safe).

II. Misformations

These are words that do not exist in the TL. The source of errors is from the

learner’s L1. Thus, they are “intralingual errors.” James (1998) classifies misformation

errors into three types: Borrowing (L1 words are used in the TL without change), coinage

(i.e. inventing a word from L1), and calque (i.e. translation of a word or a phrase from L1

words).

III. Distortions

These words do not exist in the TL. However, the errors are the result of

misapplication of the TL without transfer from L1. James (1998) divides distortions into

five types: Omission (intresting instead of interesting), over inclusion (dinning room

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 instead of dining room), misselection (delitous instead of delicious), blending (travell

instead of travel).

B. Semantic Errors

James emphasizes two sub-categories of semantic errors: confusion of sense relations and

collocation errors.

I. Confusion of sense relations

Confusion of sense errors encompasses four types of errors: (1) using a

superonym for a hyponym, (2) using a hyponym for a superonym, (3) using inappropriate

co-hyponyms, (4) using a wrong near synonym.

II. Collocation errors

Collocation is a word or phrase that is frequently used with another word or

phrase.

Thus, this lexical error taxonomy of Carl James will indeed give an efficient paradigm in

classification of the lexical errors that inevitably committed by ESL/EFL learners. This

taxonomy intends to give a clear understanding about such errors that may lead the teachers and

learners to reflect and think of a possible solution to correct, or perhaps, create strategies in

improving the second language acquisition.

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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Error Analysis Theory

Analysing Lexical Errors in Essays

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

b. number of errors in Percentage of formal errors present

using affixes in creative writing essays

c. number of errors in

word borrowing

d. number of errors in

spelling
a. number of errors in Percentage of semantic errors

word choices present in creative writing essays

Percentage of lexical errors present Understanding of the overall

in creative writing essays context of the essay

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 The research paradigm shows the two variables involved in the overall study. The

independent variable represents the number of errors that can be possibly found in a written

essay according to its nature. On the counterpart, the dependent variables are presented by the

percentage of these errors classified according to Carl James’ Taxonomy of Lexical Errors. The

results will identify the percentage of lexical errors found in the essays of the student

respondents and its effect to the overall relationship and understanding of the context.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The researchers aim to analyze the lexical errors in creative writing essays of third year

English major students. The research to be conducted will serve as a source of information for

the students, the school, and the teachers.

Students. The research to be conducted will serve as a source of information for the

students to know the specific errors that need improvement and the strategies that would help

them to correct these errors in writing an essay in Creative Writing subject.

School. The results of the study will help the school to identify the problem of the

students in this issue and what solution to implement.

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 Teachers. The researchers aim to have a valuable contribution in giving the teachers a

hint in improving the teaching strategies in teaching effectively, specifically in creative writing

essays.

Curriculum. The research to be conducted will also help on what should be included in

the curriculum that could be effective in learning, specifically, about the creative writing essays.

Other researchers. The research to be conducted will serve as a source of information

for other researchers that will go to conduct a study related to our study.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

The study aims to analyze the Lexical Errors in Creative Writing Essays of 3rd year

BSED Major in English Students of Bulacan State University-Sarmiento Campus that includes

the two sections: BSED English 3A and 3B. The researchers will randomly sample 30 students

coming from the two sections, 15 respondents each. The respondents will be evaluated by a

survey test and a questionnaire.

The study aims to analyze the common lexical errors in written grammar, specifically in

identifying the word classification and word choices that affects the students’ ability in writing

and the students’ study vocabulary. The study will be tested in the subject Creative Writing,

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 particularly in essays written in the subject mentioned. Other branches of grammar are beyond

the scope of the study.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The study aims to answer the following:

1. What is the percentage of formal errors present in creative writing essays?

a. Formal misselection

b. Misformation

c. Distortion

2. What is the percentage of semantic errors present in creative writing essays?

a. Confusion of sense relations

b. Collocation errors

3. What are the impacts of these lexical errors to the overall context of the essay?

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 Lexical errors - Errors relating to words or the vocabulary of a language as distinguished

from its grammar and construction.

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 Carl James’ Taxonomy of Lexical errors - The framework in analysing the lexical

errors in students’ writing based upon James’ (1998) lexical error taxonomy. James

categorizes it into two major types: formal and semantic features.

 Formal errors - Formal errors are divided into three types: Formal misselection,

misformations, and distortions (James, 1998). Formal misselections are “synforms” that

share some phonemes/ graphemes: sub- categorized into (1) the suffix type, (2) the prefix

type, (3) the vowel- based type, and (4) the consonant based type. Misformations or

“intralingual errors” whereas the source of errors is from the learner’s L1. James

classified it into three namely: (1) borrowing, (2) coinage, and (3) calque. Distortions are

words that result from misapplication of the target language (TL) without transfer from

L1.

 Semantic errors - There are two types of semantic errors based on James’ taxonomy:

Confusion of sense relations and collocation errors. Confusion of sense relations consists

of four types of errors: (1) using a superonym for a hyponym, (2) using a hyponym for a

superonym, (3) using inappropriate co-hyponyms, (4) using a wrong near synonym. On

the other hand, collocation is a word or phrase that is frequently used with another word

or phrase.

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  Error Analysis - . It was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced

by behaviourism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions

between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors.

 Language Competence - Deals with knowledge of the language and the ability to use

that knowledge to interpret and produce meaningful texts appropriate to the situation in

which they are used.

 Vocabulary Acquisition - It is the process of learning new words of a language.

 Word Classification - Also known as word class or part of speech; a category to which a

word is assigned in accordance with its syntactic functions such as noun, verb, pronoun,

preposition, adjective, adverb, interjection, article, and conjunction.

 Word Choices - Word choice refers to a writer's selection of words as determined by a

number of factors, including meaning (both denotative and connotative), specificity, level

of diction, tone, and audience (Nordquist, 2018).

HYPOTHESIS

In conducting this study the following assumptions were made:

1. There is a high percentage of formal misselection compared to misformation and

distortion in the Creative Writing essays of the respondents.

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2. There is also a high percentage of confusion of sense relations compared to collocation

errors in the Creative Writing essays of the respondents.

3. Lexical errors made impacts to the overall context of the essay of the students such as

miscomprehension and language incompetence.

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 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

LOCAL LITERATURE

“If you know the feeling of rage turning into tears that do not fall, you can guess how I

felt when one of my students answered “boys” upon being asked what the verb was in the

sentence ‘The boys go to school every day.’” (Senobio, 2015)

In Marvin Senobio’s article “Why English is Very Hard to Learn” for the newspaper,

Daily Inquirer, he stated reasons why students don’t learn English though it is part of the

curriculum in schools. English tend to be set aside by students when they are in the primary years

in Elementary thus giving effect to struggle in learning the rules in the next years such as simple

concepts like parts of speech.

These reasons are under the behaviour of the students in learning concepts in English,

specifically parts of speech. Students that are affected by this attitude of the environment will

have studying habits thus increasing the frequency of errors in classifying words into word

classes.

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 Senobio also mentioned that if there is English lack of practice, there is also English

malpractice as to how textbooks may contain information having errors. It is true that it can be

corrected but what are out of control of the teachers are the materials that students choose to read

which are not used in schools. By this, students learn concepts that are not in line with the

concepts of the English language.

This concept is the model of the study basing on the way teachers present the topic about

the parts of speech basing in textbooks that are distributed. The inappropriate teaching strategy

of the teacher may lead to increasing rate of errors in word classification of the students.

The aim of the study is to find the specific reason why students still commit mistakes in

classifying words into word classes. Sta. Ana talked about these imperfections and an agenda for

it to be corrected. However, before correcting, the reasons should be made known.

In 2015, a study was conducted by Romualdo A. Mabuan entitled “An Analysis of

Webblogs Grammatical Errors of Filipino Learners of English as Second Language” with the

freshmen university students enrolled at a Study and Thinking Skills class from two degree

programs BS International Hospitality Management and BS International Travel and Tourism

Management at Lyceum of the Philippines University- Manila as the participants. Errors were

classified into seven major categories classified into sub- categories from the students’ blog posts,

survey, and focus group interviews. The research also suggests appropriate project mechanics to

effectively integrate blogging in the language classroom.

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 The students have an average English learning experience of 10 years and based on their

TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) scores which was administered by the

university in the beginning of the semester, their English proficiency levels at the time of the

study ranged from lower intermediate to intermediate. After the initial procedures such as pre-

project and post- project survey questionnaires, deciding for the blogging platform,

demonstration of technicalities on how to “blog”, students’ common grammatical errors

committed in blogging as reflected in their blog posts were analysed, coded and classified

throughout the five- week implementation of the “Blog Project”. The results show that the most

common grammatical errors committed were tenses, subject- verb agreement, prepositions,

morphology, articles, verbs and pronouns.

Mabuan stated “These grammatical errors committed by the students in their blog posts

may be attributed to some factors such as first language interference and negative transfer from

L1 to L2.” Furthermore, these errors reveal that even if the students are familiar with form of

English grammar, they still lack the knowledge about the governing rules. Thus, the study

suggests that the teachers should focus on these weaknesses so that grammar- based instructions

can be modified so as it will be purposive, thus help the students improve the fluency and

accuracy of their English writing skills.

A study entitled “Learners Errors and their Evaluation: The Case of Filipino ESL

Writers” (2012) written by Leah Gustilio and Carlo Magno was published in the eight volume of

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the Philippine ESL Journal. This study focuses on the lexical errors present in the essays of the

respondents, analysing them and identifying the significant relation with the rates given on these

written forms. With this in mind, lexical errors are the primary tools to identify the linguistic

competence of students, in writing essays as to be specific.

Errors are defined as the deviations from a certain norm or standard as to lexical errors

are defined as the deviation from the rules of language as specifically to word formation and

function. Researches and methods are used to identify these errors and as well provide possible

ways that can lessen, if not eradicate them in a written context. Error Analysis (EA) views errors

as valuable information for three beneficiaries: for teachers, clues them on the progress of the

students, for researchers which provides evidence on how language is acquired and learned, and

lastly for learners themselves which gives them resources for learning. (Maicusi and Lopez, 2000)

And so, lexical errors are treated to be the secondary condition that affects the rating of

the ESL teachers as to when it is very minimal to be fully noticed. On the contrary, lexical errors

that include wrong word choices that correspond to the context of the text are the primary aspects

that teachers should take into consideration. In this sense, vocabulary has played an important

role on classifying the linguistic competence in written language.

A study was published on JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research conducted by Carwin P.

Murillo and Ismael N. Talili of Mindanao University of Science and Technology Cagayan de

Oro City, Philippines entitled “Lexical Error as Common Interference in Students’ Translations

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Using L2.” This study aims to analyze the lexico-mechanical elements in students’ translations

wherein the researchers found out that the students committed error as a kind of interference than

mistake. Most of the students mostly committed lexical errors due to the interference of their

mother tongue.

According to the researchers, ‘the occurrence of lexical errors is caused by the

inappropriateness of the words used in the content that gives meaning.’ In this matter, the mother

tongue of the students interfered to their L2 vocabulary acquisition thus affecting their

competence in language. Additional to that, students’ writing ability is affected by this issue

which gives an impact to their writing compositions due to their lack of vocabulary and

knowledge to the second language.

Therefore, researchers will conduct a study that will identify the errors in the essays of

the third year English students. Moreover, the researchers will find out whether these errors are

caused by the interference of their L1.

In this sense, the researchers will focus on identifying the errors that are commonly found

on the essays of language learners who are specializing in the said field. Errors are to be

classified and as well analysed on its effects the overall meaning of the text as to the reader’s

perception and understanding.

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FOREIGN LITERATURE

Vocabulary has been proven to be crucial in establishing writing quality. Likewise,

lexical errors have shown to be an important composition assessment criteria and quality

predictors (Llach, 2011).

A book entitled “Lexical Errors and Accuracy in Foreign Language Writing” (2011)

written by Maria Pilar Agustin Llach discussed about the definition of lexical errors gathered

from different researches. Defining this complicated term, Llach also discussed about the

taxonomy one used on identifying the lexical error present in a written context and the reasons

thereof. These theories are basically based on the development and acquisition stages of a

language learner affecting the degree of understanding of a certain aspect presented.

Lexis and grammar have been put in a blurred line whenever either have to be defined

and interchanging its definitions or even not being able to define the two in a clear state. As

grammar focuses on the overall context of a language piece based on the rules on word

interactions, lexis is primarily focused on the word storage one language speaker have as to using

it in an appropriate context. Lexis, in simpler term is the vocabulary one speaker has on either

spoken or written language. Llach have defined vocabulary as the primary highlight on assessing

one’s ability and competency on learning the language. In this sense, the quality of a written

work is based on the frequency of errors at hand. Considering this, language learning can also be

defined as the process and rate of vocabulary acquisition.

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 Based on these theories, second language acquisition is highly affected on the aspect of

developmental language acquisition and vocabulary growth. Depending on this, the difficulty to

learn a certain word is based on the difficulty of the word itself based on form, function and

meaning. ‘The more difficult a word is to learn, the more lexical errors can be expected to affect

this word’. (Llach, 2011)

On a written context, lexical competence ranges in a wide array of components. This does

not only focus on knowing the meaning of a word but as well the context of the word based on

its function on a sentence or en when paired with other words. As a consequence, careful choice

of words is to be taken in consideration. Lexical errors are now defined based on the appropriate

choice of words to attain a satisfactory, if not perfect, meaning of the author’s purpose. Thus,

‘knowing a word’ means knowing how to use it appropriately in context, in combination with

other words and in particular communicative situations and texts (Ambroso, 2000).

Vocabulary have been the primary driving force on linguistic competence thus presenting

that lexical errors are the bases of the assessing student’s performance on either a spoken or

written language. As a conclusion, lexical errors have to be taken into account as such is one of

the primary measurements of a language learner’s competence on the certain language.

A study was conducted by Bahrun Ahmin entitled “Lexical Error in Writing English

Words made by the Students from Junior High School” from the Muhammadiyah University of

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Makaassar (2014). The study focuses on the lexical error in writing English nouns and adjectives

made by the eighth grade students. The students was asked to write descriptive essay where the

researcher classified every lexical error into noun and adjective, then classified the lexical errors

based on Legenhausen theory, which are categorized into three types, they are formal

misselection: error in suffix, prefix, vowel- based type , misformation:coinage, borrowing, and

calque and distortion: omission, over inclusion, misselection, and disordering.

According to Bahrun, “Lexical aspect is a very crucial thing to be learned and can be

considered a very complicated problem because many English learners often make lexical errors

when they produce English sentences.” In this matter, many errors were made because of the

student’s lack of knowledge in word classifications, in the study, specifically, in nouns and

adjectives thus the learners find difficulty to produce coherent and meaningful texts if their

mastery of English lexis is still restricted. Therefore, there are still many lexical errors in English

sentences.

Consequently, the researchers will conduct a study to determine the students’ knowledge

restriction of lexical items and how it affects their production of English sentences.

A journal entitled “English Lexical Errors Committed by Algerian Learners: The Case of

Second Year University Students” (2015), published on Sciences Humaines by Meriem MAZRI

of Université des Frère Mentouri Constantine, Algérie, aims to analyse the lexical deviations of

the respondents’ writing compositions following James’s Taxonomy (1988) thus find the reasons

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of these errors. MAZRI examines the five-paragraph essays of the students and later on found

out that errors of distortion are the most frequent lexical error type present followed by

collocations.

Moreover, MAZRI stated that, ‘the main source of errors is the learners’ serious lack of

vocabulary knowledge in form and meaning.’ In this serious matter, students’ lack of vocabulary

leads them to borrow or translate equivalent words from their learned L1. Therefore, affects the

process of vocabulary acquisition in L2 and language competence of the students.

In this sense, English competency depends on the students’ knowledge of the word itself.

The lack thereof results in the increase possibility of errors in either spoken or written language.

A learner of the language must then build the foundation of English staring with acquiring the

information about the structure, function and meaning of the word to be used in a certain context.

A study published on SUST Journal of Humanities by Mohamed SattiHamad and

Abdulla Yassin from Sudan University of Science and Technology entitled “Investigating

Lexical Errors and Their Effect on University Students’ Written Performance in Sudan” (2015)

aims to examine the lexical errors committed by the respondents and its effect to their written

performance. The researchers found out that university students committed these lexical types of

errors: word choice, transliteration and omission.

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 According to the researchers, ‘lexical errors may be partly attributed to the interference of

the mother tongue.’ With this, the students’ errors in writing performance are influenced by their

L1. It could be possibly that the inter-language errors are due to the mother tongue of the

students. The lack of exposure of the students in L2 caused them of inability to think in English

or perhaps their knowledge and understanding in English sentences are still very much

influenced by their L1.

A book entitled “Journal of the Saudi Association of Languages and Translation” (2009),

specifically the “Analysis of Lexical Errors in Saudi College Students’ Compositions” conducted

by Nadia A. Shalaby, Noorchaya Yahya and Mohamed El-Komi on pages 65 to 90, discusses

about the lexical errors made by the female ESL students. It also gives an elaborated explanation

about the concept of lexical error that causes wonderings to the researchers about its exact

definition and set of lexical error categories.

In accordance to the review of related studies of the book (p.67-71), there are many

studies that include the taxonomy of lexical error categories. Duscova (1969) used only four

categories of lexical errors: confusion of words with formal similarity, similar meaning, and

misuse of words and distortions, which is obviously general. Else, Acande, Adajeji and

Okanlawon (2006) who used only these categories of lexical errors: over generalization of rules,

wrong analogy and wrong spelling, which is too limited. Another study conducted by Sheshsha

(1993) about lexical errors presented five categories of errors: confusion of words with similar

26
meaning, inappropriate collocation, literal translation, and divergence, then exterminated it into

two major types, intra- lingual and inter- lingual. Furthermore, Hemchua and Schmith (2006)

introduce a lexical error taxonomy (adapted from James 1998). The proposed lexical error

taxonomy includes two major categories: formal errors and semantic errors and under each

category, there are classifications and sub- classifications. Their taxonomy presents 24 different

types of lexical errors that recognize the wide range of lexical errors categories. All the reported

studies present taxonomy in wide perspectives that somehow consider lexical error categories,

but it’s indeed obvious that the studies scarcely obtained a complete list of lexical error

categories. However, an exact definition for “lexical error” was given based on the review of

literature: a lexical error is the wrong word use of a lexical item in a particular context in

comparison with what a native speaker of similar characteristics as the L2 learner (age,

educational level, professional and social status) would have produced in the same circumstances.

Lexical errors can also be defined as a breach in a lexical norm of the language, which is

normally observed by native speakers. (Llach, 2005, p.16)

As a result, the researchers integrate the concept of lexical errors through its sub-

categories in classifying the lexical errors committed in the ESL learners’ composition.

Additionally, recognizing the category of each of those errors will give a clear understanding

about the reasons and how those errors happen. This concept is one of the important ideas in

27
language learning and use that would help the researchers address the most frequent lexical

errors committed in ESL learners’ compositions.

LOCAL STUDIES

A study entitled “Error Analysis of LSU Students’ Written Composition” (2010)

conducted by Marylene N. Tizon from La Salle University analyzes the different errors of the

students in their written compositions. The study categorizes the errors committed by the

students from seven colleges and one school: College of Engineering, College of Nursing,

College of Education, College of Business and Economics, College of Accountancy, College of

Computer Studies, College of Arts and Sciences and the School of Hospitality Management. The

respondents were instructed to write an essay a week before Christmas about the topic, “What

Christmas Really Mean?” and then analyze the errors in the students’ written compositions. This

study interpreted errors as being either global or local proposed by Brown (2000).

First, global errors influence the structure of the whole sentence. It comprises two sub-

categories: morphological errors including verb tenses, forms and subject-verb agreement,

articles or determiners, noun endings, etc. and syntactic errors including sentence structures, run-

ons, and fragments. Second, local errors are usually a slight violation of one portion of a

sentence that allows the listener to internalize the intended meaning. Local errors cover lexical

28
errors including word choice, word form, informal usage, etc. and mechanical errors including

punctuation, spelling and capitalization.

Thus, this study will assist the researchers as another basis in identifying the different

errors committed in students’ written composition. Though these errors are inevitable, the aim of

this study to determine such errors will help the students, teachers and fellow researchers to

understand the errors’ nature and roots.

Kara S. Panolong conducted a study about English major students in Benguet State

University with the title of “Error Identification of Written Discourses of English Major

Students: An Underpinning for a Program Study” (2015). This study focuses on the different

kind of errors that the respondents commit whenever they are asked to write an essay thus

identifying them based in the different aspects of language as to morphology, syntax and lexis.

Upon gathering data, Panolong also identifies different factors that possibly affect such result

with a significant difference.

In the study of language, errors have been an inevitably parts of the process. These errors

are the primary tools in identifying the progress of language acquisition and rate of linguistic

competency. However, ESL learner have avoided errors and corrected them. In this sense, errors

have been the primary tool to improve language instruction.

29
 Stating errors that are present in the essays, lexical errors are then classified to be one of

the errors visibly present. These are classified into misused verbs, adjectives and adverbs, and

errors in diction, word order and word choice. These results present the degree of tolerance that

learners of the language incorporate to the respective nature of these errors. Lexis has been one

of the common errors but is not taken into consideration as compared with syntactical errors. In

this sense, full development of language learning is directly affected as to vocabulary

improvement is not taken into account.

In 2015, a study was conducted by Ronald Candy S. Lasaten in Mariano Marcos State

University; Laoag City entitled “Analysis of Errors in the English Writings of Teacher

Education Students” that focuses on linguistic errors in English writings of teacher education

students. It also cites the possible causes of these errors and suggests implications to language

learning and teaching. The written compositions of the students were analysed based on the

Taxonomy of Errors patterned after the model of Darus and Ching (2009).

The result shows that the most common linguistic errors of the students are verb tense,

error in sentence structure, punctuations, and lexical errors such as word choice, spelling, use of

prepositions and articles. The study also found out that these errors are cause mainly by learner’s

lack of knowledge of the target language which is English, particularly, with the restrictions of

the rule. Moreover, some are attributed to the first language transfer or interference. Also, it has

something to do with the learner’s narrow range of cognitive knowledge in the target language.

30
 A study was conducted by Erwin L. Puricia entitled “Discursive Analysis of the Written

Compositions of STEM Grade 11-A Students: A Grounded Theory” (2018) on Calbayog City

National High School. This study aims to identify the errors students commit in writing their

own compositions consequently proposing ideas to lessen, if not eradicate, these errors. In this

sense, the researcher also aims to propose a theory that will be the basis of the solution to the

occurring problem in language acquisition.

The analyzed data results shows the different errors present in the students’ compositions

then classifying them based on nature tabulated to present the significant difference on the

linguistic competence. Lexical errors are classified according to word choice, word form and the

informal usage of words in the context of the composition. On this sense, it shows a significant

difference of the accumulated rate of error thus showing that errors of this nature contribute

mostly on the rate of errors in the compositions.

As the result of this, the researcher formulated a theory that presents a solution of

students engaging with the everyday communication with other students to positively affect the

written language competency. As an addition, one must view errors as the facet to improve and

eradicate these errors to improve language competency. This theory formulated is known as

‘Error Response and Word Interactive Nuncipation’ (ERWIN). (Purcia, 2018)

In connection to the theory proposed by Puricia, the researchers then provides additional

evidence of the significant difference of lexical errors and the linguistic competence of students.

31
This is based on the understanding present when a certain piece is read basing on the lexical

competence of the author thus word form and meaning.

FOREIGN STUDIES

A study conducted by Begoña Sarrionandia Gurtubay of Universidad del País

Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, entitled “Lexical Error Analysis In The Written Production

Of Students Of English As A Second Language: A Pilot Study” (2009), aims to offer an inventory

of lexical errors made by Spanish students of English, to present the taxonomy of errors at the

lexical level as well as to categorize intra-linguistic and inter-linguistic lexical errors according

to the strategy used by the learner. Gurtubay examines the written examination of the

respondents wherein they were instructed to complete their essay for only 30 minutes.

Gurtubay stated that, “learners of English as a Second Language with intermediate level

of competence after a period of instruction present inter-linguistic errors by transference in a

greater frequency than intra-linguistic errors.” Mother tongue has its own grammar structure

that’s why it affects the students in creating a sentence with the use of second language.

Therefore, learners tend to commit an inter-linguistic error due to the influence of the students’

mother tongue or intra-language. Limited knowledge in L2 is inclined with the language

32
competence of the students. In this sense, English foreign learners still based their performance

on their mother tongue.

The researcher then will conduct a study that will identify the lexical errors in essay of

the selected students and whether the students still based their work on their mother tongue.

A study was conducted by Nathan Wells entitled “A Lexical Error Analysis of Advanced

Language Learners’ Writings” (2013) from the University of Wisconsin-River Falls. This study

focuses on advanced language learners (ALLs) learning the English language and as well all its

complexities in the sense of lexical instruction. Wells examines written works, such as essays, to

identify what type of lexical errors are frequently committed by ALLs thus possibly suggesting

an appropriate individualized way of instruction to solve the problem.

Three beliefs are stated primarily focusing on the importance and the lack of appropriate

action for vocabulary acquisition. Vocabulary acquisition is treated to be the foundation of

learning English thus seeking the full understanding of a certain word. In this sense,

understanding is based on the form, denotative meaning and grammatical function of the word

being analyzed. A language learner must know the phonological form of the word thus being

able to be used when heard first; the denotative functions dealing with synonymous terms thus

following a standard on how to be used in a sentence; and the lexical classifications of the word

accompanied by other words used as the basis on word meaning. This, as stated by Nathan Wells

(2013), leaves much room for the learners to err.

33
 Wells stated that error domains are the parts of language that contributes to the high

percentage of errors in written works of ALLs. This idea is the basis of the claim that a word

appearing may not appear erroneous since it only deals with the individual meaning not affected

by other conditions. However, if paired to other words, the meaning diverts into a different view,

more specifically affected by its function in the sentence thus dealing with the dilemma of

appropriate word choices. Wells concluded by citing that lexical errors are mainly based on the

limited semantic understanding of words.

In the study “Lexical Errors and Communication Breakdown in Students’ Written

Productions” (2015) by Tiwa, Kouadio Marius, the researcher aims to analyze the impact the

errors of students make in comprehending the overall meaning of an essay. The study focuses

mainly on the lexical errors that a student commits and the reason of such event. In this sense,

possible modes of instruction are then formulated as a step for improvement of the students

themselves.

Tiwa (2015) defined lexical errors as the ‘deviation from the standard rule of language

lexicon’. In this sense, it can be identified as events when mistakes on word choices basing on

the sentence context and word forms are made. This is the foundation of language acquisition

that should be taken in consideration to build a firm foundation on learning the language.

However, errors in lexical selection or the appropriate word choices are taken lightly as

compared to other errors, grammar to be an example. Improper word choices then bear a

34
negative effect of the comprehension of the overall context of the written work. Getting closer to

the topic, these errors are then the primary reasons why there are misconceptions and

miscomprehensions in students’ essays.

A study entitled “Lexical Errors in Writing at the End of Primary and Secondary

Education: Descriptions and Pedagogical Implications” (2015) was conducted by Ma. Pilar

Agustin Llach of Universidad de La Rioja. This study aims to describe and compare the

production of lexical errors in the primary and compulsory years of secondary education. Llach

examines the production of borrowings, coinages, calques, semantic confusions and

misselections from the writing composition of the respondents to identify what lexical errors

among these five are frequently committed by the selected primary and secondary students thus

proposing an instruction approach that focuses on the specific errors spotted that will help to

improve learners’ lexical accuracy.

According to Llach, ‘the nature of lexical error development is not straightforward.’ In

this matter, lexical errors could be possibly increased or decreased depending on the linguistic

competence of the students. As the L2 language knowledge increases, the students’ vocabulary

also increases. Therefore, some lexical errors in learners’ inter-language decrease. However,

even with the more advanced level of language knowledge continue to commit lexical errors.

Simply because, many students are still of limited linguistic and lexical competence. Therefore,

35
students’ lack of lexical and linguistic knowledge is the reasons why there are lexical errors

occur in the writing composition of the students.

A study conducted by Wenfen Yang, entitled “A Tentative Analysis of Errors in

Language Learning and Use” (2010) from the School of Foreign languages, Qingdao University

of Science and Technology in Qingdao, China, describes the errors committed by the learners in

language learning and use to give a better understanding and to elaborate the reasons and factors

that contribute to these errors. It also discusses the three levels of errors which are misspellings,

lexical errors and pragmatic errors. Misspellings are errors committed when operating

graphological substance systems and there are four types of misspelling: punctuation errors,

typographic errors, dyslexic errors and the confusing words. Lexical errors are committed

because of several reasons including the boundaries between lexis and grammar, influence of

vocabulary in learning, non-native speaker of the language. Pragmatic errors happen when a

speaker misencodes a message. Of all the three levels of error mentioned, lexical errors are said

to be the most frequent to second language learners.

Lexical errors are elaborated through a precise distinction of lexis from grammar

(Chomsky, 1980). Grammar is systematic and regular because there is a set of rules to follow in

putting words together to create sentences, unlike lexis, it is unsystematic and irregular. Lexis

takes an important role in learning the language. Vocabulary carries a substantial part in

language learning, as learners believe, especially in the fundamental stage. One must know how

36
to classify a single word when put together with others words to create a sentence. Words, on the

other hand, are flexible in the sense that their meanings can be more than one. For example, the

word ‘call’ is classified as verb, yet it may also function as noun, and as an adjective as in ‘call

centre.’ It is evident how vague the concept of lexis that makes it unsystematic and irregular.

There is no stable rule to follow because language is dynamic. Words that accept changes lead to

a change in the form of word which also establishes a change in the word meaning. Moreover,

lexical errors are classified into two categories: formal errors and semantic errors. Formal errors

comprise formal misselection, misformations and distortions. Semantic errors indicate confusion

of sense relations and collocation errors.

Hence, this concept will serve as a guide in classifying the errors committed in the

learners’ compositions, as well, the roots behind these errors whether the mother tongue, the

teaching strategy or other factors contribute to such lexical errors.

In this sense, the researchers will integrate this mode in identifying the errors present in

the essays of students thus classifying them in according to nature. On a more thorough thought,

impacts of these errors are taken into account as to its effects on the overall context of the

composition.

37
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH DESIGN

The researchers choose the Descriptive study as a research design. It is a quantitative

study that concentrates on the characteristics of the population that is being studied. As to its

connection to the study, the researchers are trying to determine the results from the variables of

the research Analyzing Lexical Errors in Creative Writing Essays of 3rd year Bachelor of

Secondary Education Major in English students at Bulacan State University-Sarmiento Campus.

The first set of variables are the number of errors in word choices, number of errors in

using affixes, number of errors in word borrowing, and number of errors in spelling as the

independent group in relationship with the percentage of lexical errors present in creative writing

essays. The second set of variables are the percentage of formal errors present in Creative writing

essays and percentage of semantic errors present in creative writing essays as the dependent

variables consequent to the comprehension of the overall context of the essay.

The researchers choose descriptive study in their research because this research design is

relevant to the study in finding the relationship of the two variables given. Furthermore, the

researchers will only have a full analysis on the common lexical errors future educators commit

38
specifically in writing essays, as the design primarily focuses on “describing” the subject of the

research without discovering why the phenomenon happened.

a. Quantitative

Quantitative research gathers quantifiable information for the statistical analysis from the

data collected. The researchers use the quantitative method through the essays of the 3rd Year

BSED Major in English Students. These outputs serve as an evidence whether what type of

lexical errors did the students frequently committed. It will also be found and attached at the last

part of this chapter.

DEMOGRAPHIC

The researchers conduct the study in Bulacan State University-Sarmiento Campus

(BulSU-SC) located at Brgy. Kaypian, Palmera in San Jose del Monte, Bulacan. The said

university is a satellite campus of Bulacan State University Main located in Malolos, Bulacan.

BulSU-SC has a population of 4,671 students currently enrolled for the school year 2018-2019.

The study was conducted specifically to students taking up the Bachelor of Education with a

population of 1,519 and 457 students taking Secondary Education. Narrowing down, the study

focused with English majors of 457 students. Out of these students, the researchers chose 3rd year

English major students with a population of 87 as their main respondents.

39
 These students are made the respondents for the study because they have already

undergone a certain subject that the researchers focused on—Creative Writing. As an addition,

the students also have been under the teaching interventions of the professors in the university. In

this sense, there have been interactions between the language skills and the teaching methods of

the teachers that impacts on the English skills of the students in terms of writing that have been

well practiced in the previous years. This situation is appropriate for identifying and analysing

possible lexical errors found on written outputs of first-hand language learners.

a. Sampling

The respondents are chosen from the 87 students of the 3rd year English major students.

There are 15 representatives from the two sections of the English majors. In total, there are 30

respondents acting as the origins of the essay outputs to be analyzed for possible lexical errors.

INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION

The researchers gathered data by collecting creative writing essays of 3rd year college

students from both sections. These essays are composed of three to five paragraphs about any

topic but must be written back when they are in their 2nd year. These essays are to analyze for

lexical errors.

40
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The researchers will make formal letter asking a permission from the administration to

conduct the data gathering procedure. Thus the next step will be the schedule upon the

respondents which will be the Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English students,

asking from the respondents a representative for the said scheduling upon the concerns of the

data gathering such

as outputs from their creative writing subject which they have taken from there last year. The set

outputs from the random 15 respondents which will be a combination of 30 respondents from the

BSED English 3-A and BSED English 3-B. These outputs gathered will be analyzed by the

researchers thus concerns on analysing lexical errors of the respondents on using the English

language in their written works specifically on their creative writing subject. Each analyzed

written work will be read and checked by the researchers identifying the lexical errors and

frequency the respondents commit errors basing on their knowledge and usage of the language.

Analyzing the results, the data will be put into chart or graph which will show a clearer

image on how often the respondents commit errors thus also concerns with the knowledge of the

respondents on using the language as a medium on their written works. In comparison, results

will also justify the impact of these errors to the overall context of the written work.

41
METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The researchers will use a number of statistical treatments in analysing the data gathered

by the research study. The researchers will use analysing data through knowing the frequency of

errors that students commit. After which, the researchers will get the percentage of each kind of

lexical error to the overall number of lexical errors.

Narrowing down, analysing the results of the data gathering process requires the use of

the said three statistical methods. The data will be tabularized in the form of tallying the number

of lexical errors that each essay contains thus the frequency of errors according to its category.

This table will be used to get the percentage of each lexical error gathered as compared to the

whole by adding the frequency in each item and dividing it into the overall number of each

lexical error category.

Formula: Where:

Σ𝑥 P is the percentage
𝑃= × 100
𝑁
∑x is the summation of the number of

lexical errors in each category

N is the total number of lexical errors

42
 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The researchers conducted a study that analyses the lexical errors present in Creative

Writing essays of the respondents in the objective to answer the different research questions as to

the percentage of each and the corresponding effect to the context.

The researchers gathered data from the written materials provided by the 30 respondents

from the 3rd year BSED English major students. These materials are essays mostly composed of

a minimum of three paragraphs. Each was analysed for lexical errors that falls under the different

categories of lexical errors. The results of the study are as follows:

LEXICAL ERRORS

FORMAL ERRORS SEMANTIC ERRORS

Confusion
Number of Formal Collocation
Misformations Distortion of sense
Essays Misselection errors
relations
Essay 1 Were (we’re) By (as) Goes by
Were (we’re) Even (passes by)
though
(despite)
Essay 2 Died suddenly From (for) Ventilator
(suddenly died) Watched (respirator)
(observed) To his body
Occur (through his
(discharged) body)
So hard
(difficult)

43
Essay 3 Litter trained Live (stay)
(litter box Just being
trained) (to be)
Essay 4 Close (chose) School
(university)
Though
(but)
With (of)
Essay 5 Cost Very big
(payment) round of
applause
(round of
applause)
Misfire
(disappoint)
Essay 6 Where (when)
Show off
(showcase)
Exhausted
(exerted)
Essay 7 To (for)
Of (on)
Essay 8 Wuth (with) Most talk
topic (most
discussed
topic)
Most watch
(most
viewed)
Essay 9 Professors One
Campus (unified)
(Campus
Professors)

44
 Essay 10 Girl’s Equality Freedom Significant
education (inequality) from wants for girls and
(girls’ (freedom to women
education) choose what (significant
they want) for women)
Husband (a
man)
In (from)
In (for)

Table 1 List of Lexical Errors

Table 1 shows the gathered data of the researchers from essays 1 to 10. The table shows

the different lexical errors that are present in each essay. Each data contains two classes of words:

the lexical error and the correct form of the word which are enclosed in a parenthesis. The

researchers list down these words according how they are classified.

The first part of the data gathered contains 39 lexical errors that are divided into five

different categories: formal misselections, misformations, distortion, confusion of sense relations

and collocation errors. These ten essays contain 8 formal misselections, 2 misformations, 2

distortions, 18 words on confusion of sense relations and 9 collocation errors.

In this sense, most lexical errors fall on words on confusion on sense relations of lexical

errors taking 46.15 % of the overall number in the first ten essays. It is followed by collocation

errors, formal misselections, misformations and distortions that take 23.08 %, 20.51 %, 5.13% of

the lexical errors present respectively.

45
Essay 11 Students of first Thought Lined
year (first year (idea) (included)
students) Thought Lackness
(opinion) for
Like (for something
example) (lack of
To ease (to facilities)
lessen) Lacking of
Counter act something
(solution) (lack of
facilities)
Essay 12 CR (comfort High school
room) (secondary
Kinda… (kind school)
of) Trashes
Must be attain (wastes)
(must be the By (of)
responsibility) In (about)
Essay 13 Most (must) Drowning
(incident)
In (when)
To (for)
In (on)
Essay 14 In (on)
Essay 15 May (can)
Need (have)
To (in)
In (of)
Essay 16 Was
highlighted
(highlights
were)
Essay 17
(No lexical
errors)
Essay 18 Thru (through) Of (among
the)

46
 Essay 19 Are (were) Rate
(assess)
Rate
(assessment)
Essay 20 Lead (led) Travl (travel) In (on) Mishap
Itenerar At (the) (accident)
(itinerary)

Table 1.1 List of Lexical Errors

Table 1.1 shows the gathered data from essays 11 to 20. There are 11 lexical errors

recorded under the formal errors category, which comprises three sub-categories: formal

misselection, misformation and distortion. In the semantic errors category, there are 27 lexical

errors found.

From the essays collected, the 11 lexical errors under the formal errors category are

divided into three: the first three lexical errors fall on formal misselection, the other five lexical

errors come from misformation, and the other three remaining go under distortion. Moreover, the

27 lexical errors recorded under semantic errors are dividing into two: 21 errors fall on confusion

of sense relations and the 6 remaining go under collocation errors.

The percentage of errors present from these essays is described in each category. Under

the formal errors, formal misselections got 7.89 %; misformations got 13.16 % and 7.89 goes

under distortion. On the other hand, confusion on semantic relations got 55.26 % and collocation

errors got 15.79 %.

47
Essay 21 Is (it) Sudden rise Inconstant
(escalation) (dynamic)
Good learning
(effective
education)
Essay 22 everything that Standstill (halt)
could have
possibly go
wrong was
going wrong
(everything
wrong that we
expect to
happen, really
happens)
Essay 23 Worst From (of)
(worse)
Its (it’s)
Essay 24 Are (our) SRYSLY And (that)
(seriously) Of (for)
Essay 25 By God For (from)
free-will
(free-will by
God)
Essay 26 This (these) Tips (trips) over reacting
Teacher’s (understatement)
(teachers) unwanted
This (these) doings
(inappropriate
deeds)
in (to)
Essay 27 This (these) On (about)
Its (it’s) Spot it out
(notice)
Essay 28 Successful Follow or obey
(succeed) (obey)

48
Essay 29 Assisst Go in the school
(assist) on time (go to
the school on
time)
Essay 30 Habits
(impression)
Administrative
aids
(administration)

Table 1.2 List of Lexical Errors

Table 1.2 shows the gathered data of the last ten essays of 3rd BSED English students.

There are total of 30 lexical errors comprising of two categories: formal errors and semantic

errors. There are 13 formal errors which consist of 9 formal misselections, 1 misformation and 4

distortions. On the other hand, semantic errors from the essays are 17 in count from the

combined number of 13 confusion of sense relations, and 4 collocation errors.

From the data gathered, confusion of sense relations covered 43.33 % of the total number

of lexical errors hence the majority. This is followed by formal misselection with 30 %,

distortion and collocation errors both 13.33 %, and misformation with 3.33 % of lexical errors

respectively.

49
 LEXICAL ERRORS

FORMAL ERRORS SEMANTIC ERRORS

Number
Formal Confusion of Collocation
of Misformations Distortion
Misselection sense relations errors
Essays
Essay 1 2 2 1
Essay 2 1 4 2
Essay 3 1 2
Essay 4 1 3
Essay 5 1 2
Essay 6 3
Essay 7 2
Essay 8 1 2
Essay 9 1 1
Essay 10 1 1 4 1
Essay 11 1 5 3
Essay 12 3 4
Essay 13 1 4
Essay 14 1
Essay 15 4
Essay 16 1
Essay 17 (No lexical errors)
Essay 18 1 1
Essay 19 1 2
Essay 20 1 2 2 1
Essay 21 1 2 1
Essay 22 1 1
Essay 23 2 1
Essay 24 1 1 2
Essay 25 1 1
Essay 26 3 1 3
Essay 27 2 2
Essay 28 1 1
Essay 29 1 1
Essay 30 2

50
TOTAL 20 8 9 53 19

Table 2 Total Number of Lexical Errors

In combination of the data gathered, there are total 109 lexical errors found on the 30

essays written by the respondents. There are a total of 20 formal misselections, 8 misformations,

and 9 distortions, 53 confusion of sense relations and 19 collocation errors. In this sense,

majority of the lexical errors fall under the confusion of the lexical errors followed by formal

misselections, collocation errors, distortions and misformations.

Lexical Errors

Formal Misselection

18% 18% Misformation

7% Distortion

8% Confusion on Sense
Relations
49%
Collocation Errors

Figure 1 Lexical Errors

Figure 1 shows the different percentage taken up the different types of lexical errors.

Confusion on sense relations took 49% of the overall lexical errors found on the essays of the

51
respondents followed by both formal misselections and collocation errors with 18% of the

percentage. With this, the study shows that most of the students commit errors when choosing

appropriate words from a set of words with the same meaning (synonyms).

Formal Errors

Formal
Misselections Confusion on Sense
22%
Relations
Confusion on Collocation Errors
Collocation Errors Sense Relations
21% 57% Formal Misselections

Figure 2 Formal Errors

errors found on the essays from the respondents followed by distortions and misformations with

24 % and 22 % respectively. In this sense, the data shows that most of the formal errors that the

respondents commit deals with formal misselections characterized by words interchanged due to

the similarity to form and sound.

52
 Semantic Errors

Confusion on Sense
Relations
26%
Collocation Errors
74%

Figure 3 Semantic Errors

The data in Figure 2 shows that most of the semantic errors made by the respondents

when writing fall under confusion of sense relations that take up 74% of the total. On the other

hand, 26% of these lexical errors fall under collocation errors. In this sense, it can be concluded

that respondents commit errors of confusion on lexical errors characterized by interchanging

superonym and hyponyms or using a near synonym.

53
 Formal and Semantic Errors

34%
Formal Errors

66% Semantic Errors

Figure 4 Formal and Semantic Errors

Figure 4 shows the comparison between formal errors and semantic errors found on the

essays of the respondents. Majority of the errors are semantic errors (66%) that deal with the

appropriate choice of words rather than formal errors (34%) that deal with classification of words.

In this sense, it is greatly perceived that most students find a hard time choosing an appropriate

word that will correspond with the meaning they are trying to convey.

54
 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

CONCLUSIONS

From the beginning, this conducted study aims to determine the lexical errors,

specifically the most frequent errors, committed in the Creative Writing essays of 3rd year

English major students of Bulacan State University- Sarmiento. As a result, the researchers

found that majority of the lexical errors came from semantic errors that covered 66% of the total

number of errors while it was followed by formal errors that covered 34% of the total number of

lexical errors. This result can be perceived that most of the 3 rd year English major students fail to

choose the appropriate term to make their statements as exactly as what they really want to

express. It is evident because these lexical errors, whether formal or semantic, indeed affect the

overall context of the gathered written compositions of the students: the message becomes

confusing for the readers, the thought of the written compositions becomes vague, and all these

effects of lexical errors lead to confusion of the message.

These lexical errors rooted from several factors, such as insufficient knowledge and

faulty interpretations about the rules of a language. However, these learning insufficiencies can

be

55
fulfilled by systematic and appropriate teaching of the language, including its rules and

complexities. Hence, the teacher’s role is very important to ensure the correction of such errors

in language learning and use.

RECOMMENDATION

In the course of the study, the researchers have found different alternative that future

researchers may conduct. Since the result focuses mainly on the percentage of lexical errors

basing on its classifications, the researchers only conducted the study to know which is present in

each essay and as well the corresponding number of each. For future studies to be conducted,

researchers can change the basis on identifying the lexical errors thus including errors on word

classes of the respondents. In this sense, the results will be more specific for classifying.

As the study was conducted by gathering results from the previous essays the respondents

have written, the researchers only had analysed the lexical skill of the students from the past.

This does not provide a progressive perspective of the respondents’ skill that may have changed

over time. For this reason, future researchers may conduct a study that checks the progression of

the respondents’ skills by gathering previous essays and letting them make an essay on the spot

for comparison.

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 It is hoped that this study will be a good help for future researchers as to making it a

guide in conducting future researches in the same field. In addition, this may also help in making

a small change in the framework of education thus focusing more on the lexical errors that the

students commit. In changing the focus, the education system may now have big increase in the

skills of the respondents in their English skills.

57
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