UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

UNIT 3

TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

ELECTRONIC THEODOLITE
 Theodolites or transits are used to measure horizontal angles. These have evolved as
follows:

 Vernier theodolite (open face and Vernier equipped instruments)

 Optical theodolite (enclosed with optical readouts with direct digital readouts or
micrometer equipped readouts)
 Electronic theodolites (enclosed with electronic readouts)

 Electronic theodolites operate like any optical theodolite with one major difference that
these instruments have only one motion (upper) and hence have only one horizontal
clamp and slow motion screws.

Characteristics of electronic theodolites

 Angle least count can be 1" with precision ranging from 0.5" to 20"
 Digital readouts eliminate the personal error associated with reading and interpolation of
scale and micrometer settings.
 Display window/unit for horizontal and vertical angles available at either one or both
ends.
 Some digital theodolites have modular arrangement where they can be upgraded to be a
total station or have an EDMI attached for distance measurements.
 Vertical circles can be set to zero for horizon or zenith along with the status of battery
shown in the display window.
 Typical specifications for digital theodolites are generally given as follows:
o Magnification: 26X to 30X
0
o Field of view (FOV) 1.5 .
o Shortest viewing distance 1.0 m
o Angle readouts, direct 5" to 20"
o Level sensitivity: plate level vial 40"/2 mm, circular level vial 10"/2 mm

Principle of EDMI
 The general principle involves sending a modulated Electro-magnetic (EM) beam from
one transmitter at the master station to a reflector at the remote station and receiving it
back at the master station. The instrument measures slope distance between transmitter
and receiver by modulating the continuous carrier wave at different frequencies, and then
measuring the phase difference at the master station between the outgoing and the
incoming signals. This establishes the following relationship for a double distance (2D):

 Where m is unknown integer number of complete wavelengths contained within double

 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING
distance, Φ; is the measured phase difference and λ is modulation wavelength, and k is
constant. Multiple modulation frequencies are used to evaluatem , the ambiguity .

Principle of EDMI (Wolf and Ghilani, 2002)

Various EDMIs in use are based on two methods:

 using timed pulse techniques such as those used in variety of radar instruments.
 using measurements of a phase difference which may be equated to one part of a cycle
expressed in units of time or length.

Pulse methods have advantages over the phase difference methods but their weight and
power requirement is such that they cannot be classed lightweight portable instruments.

(i) Pulse techniques

 All such measurements incorporate a very precise measurement of time usually expressed
in units of nanoseconds (1x10-9 s), which a EM wave takes to travel from one station to
another. In this method, a short, intensive pulse radiation is transmitted to a reflector
target, which is immediately transmitted back to the receiver. As shown in Figure 1.4, the
distance (D) is computed as the velocity of light (V) multiplied by half the time (Δt/2) the
pulse took to travel back to the receiver (D = V x Δt/2).
 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

Principle of EDMI based on pulse measurement (Schoffield, 2002)

(ii) Phase difference techniques

 The relationship between wavelength and associated phase difference can be illustrated
by the Figure 1.5 which shows that for a given complete cycle of EM wave, the phase
difference can be expressed both in terms of angular (degrees) and linear (fraction of
wavelengths) units. In phase difference method used by majority of EDMI, the
instrument measures the amount δλ by which the reflected signal is out of phase with the
emitted signal

Relationship between Wavelength and phase difference (Wolf and Ghilani, 2002)
 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

EDM instruments may be classified into the following three types:

1. Micro wave instruments

2. Infrared wave instruments

3. Light wave instruments.

1. Micro Wave Instruments

These instruments make use of micro waves. Such instruments were invented as early as 1950 in
South Africa by Dr. T.L. Wadley and named them as Tellurometers. The instrument needs only
 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

12 to 24 V batteries. Hence they are light and highly portable. Tellurometers can be used in day
as well as in night. The range of these instruments is up to 100 km. It consists of two identical
units. One unit is used as master unit and the other as remote unit. Just by pressing a button, a
master unit can be converted into a remote unit and a remote unit into a master unit. It needs two
skilled persons to operate. A speech facility is provided to each operator to interact during
measurements.

2. Infrared Wave Instruments

In this instrument amplitude modulated infrared waves are used. Prism reflectors are used at the
end of line to be measured. These instruments are light and economical and can be mounted on
theodolite. With these instruments accuracy achieved is ± 10 mm. The range of these instruments
is up to 3 km.

These instruments are useful for most of the civil engineering works. These instruments are
available in the trade names DISTOMAT DI 1000 and DISTOMAT DI 55.

3. Light Wave Instruments

These instruments rely on propagation of modulated light waves. This type of instrument was
first developed in Sweden and was named as Geodimeter. During night its range is up to 2.5 km
while in day its range is up to 3 km. Accuracy of these instruments varies from 0.5 mm to 5
mm/km distance. These instruments are also very useful for civil engineering projects.

The advantage of using EDM instruments is the speed and accuracy in measurement. Several
obstacles to chaining are automatically overcome when these instruments are used.
Total Station Error Sources

All theodolites measure angles with some degree of imperfection. These imperfections result
from the fact that no mechanical device can be manufactured with zero error. In the past very
specific measuring techniques were taught and employed by surveyors to compensate for minor
mechanical imperfections in theodolites. With the advent of electronic theodolites, the
mechanical errors still exist but are related to in a different way. One must now do more than
memorize techniques that compensate for errors. One must clearly understand the concepts
behind the techniques and the adjustments for errors that electronic theodolites now make. The
following paragraphs provide the major sources of error when using a theodolite and also the
particular method employed to compensate for that error.

a) Circle eccentricity

Circle eccentricity exists when the theoretical center of the mechanical axis of the theodolite
does not coincide exactly with the center of the measuring circle. The amount of error
corresponds to the degree of eccentricity and the part of the circle being read. When represented
graphically circle eccentricity appears as a sine wave. Circle eccentricity in the horizontal circle
can always be compensated for by measuring in both faces (opposite sides of the circle) and
using the mean as a result. Vertical circle eccentricity cannot be compensated for in this manner
since the circle moves with the telescope. More sophisticated techniques are required.

(1) Some theodolites are individually tested to determine the sine curve for the circle error in that
particular instrument. Then a correction factor is stored in ROM that adds or subtracts from each
angle reading so that a corrected measurement is displayed.

(2) Other instruments employ an angle-measuring system consisting of rotating glass circles that
make a complete revolution for every angle measurement. These are scanned by fixed and
moving light sensors. The glass circles are divided into equally spaced intervals which are
diametrically scanned by the sensors. The amount of time it takes to input a reading into the
processor is equal to one interval, thus only every alternate graduation is scanned. As a result,
 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

measurements are made and averaged for each circle measurement. This eliminates scale
graduation and circle eccentricity error.

b) Horizontal collimation error

Horizontal collimation error exists when the optical axis of the theodolite is not exactly
perpendicular to the telescope axis. To test for horizontal collimation error, point to a target in
face one then point back to the same target in face two; the difference in horizontal circle
readings should be 180 degrees. Horizontal collimation error can always be corrected for by
meaning the face one and face two pointings of the instrument.

(1) Most electronic theodolites have a method to provide a field adjustment for horizontal
collimation error. Again, the manual for each instrument provides detailed instruction on the use
of this correction.

(2) In some instruments, the correction stored for horizontal collimation error can affect only
measurements on one side of the circle at a time. Therefore when the telescope is passed through
zenith (the other side of the circle is being read), the horizontal circle reading will change by
twice the collimation error. These instruments are functioning exactly as designed when this
happens.

(3) When prolonging a line with an electronic theodolite, the instrument operator should either
turn a 180-degree angle or plunge the telescope and turn the horizontal tangent so that the
horizontal circle reading is the same as it was before plunging the telescope.

c) Height of standards error:

In order for the telescope to plunge through a truly vertical plane the telescope axis must be
perpendicular to the standing axis. As stated before there is no such thing as perfection in the
physical world. All theodolites have a certain degree of error caused by imperfect positioning of
the telescope axis. Generally, determination of this error should be accomplished by a qualified
technician because horizontal collimation and height of standards errors interrelate and can
magnify or offset one another. Horizontal collimation error is usually eliminated before checking
for height of standards. Height of standards error is checked by pointing to a scale the same
zenith angle above a 90-degree zenith in "face-one" and "face-two." The scales should read the
same in face one as in face two.

d) Circle graduation error

In the past, circle graduation error was considered a major problem. For precise measurements
surveyors advanced their circle on each successive set of angles so that circle graduation errors
were “meaned out.” Current technology eliminates the problem of graduation errors. This is
accomplished by photo-etching the graduations onto the glass circles and making a precise
master circle and photographing it. An emulsion is then applied to the circle and a photo-reduced
image of the master is projected onto the circle. The emulsion is removed and the glass circle has
been etched with very precise graduations.

e) Vertical circle error

It is important to check the vertical circle indexing adjustment on surveying instruments on a

routine basis. When direct and indirect zenith angles are measured to the same point, the sum of
the two angles should equal 360°. Over time, the sum of these two angles may diverge from 360°
and consequently cause errors in vertical angle measurements. While averaging the direct and
indirect zenith angles easily eliminates this error, on many jobs it may not be cost effective to
make two readings. Acceptable accuracy may still be maintained for many applications with only
a direct reading; however, as long as the index error is kept to a minimum by periodically
performing a vertical adjustment, such as TOPCON’s "Vertical Angle 0 Datum Adjustment."
Most total stations are provided with some type of electronic adjustment to correct the vertical
circle indexing error. This adjustment takes just a few seconds and will insure that you get good
vertical angle readings with just one measurement. Consult the manufacturer’s manual for
instructions on making this adjustment.

f) Pointing errors:

Pointing errors are due to both human ability to point the instrument and environmental
conditions limiting clear vision of the observed target. The best way to minimize pointing errors
is to repeat the observation several times and use the average as the result.
g) Uneven heating of the instrument.

Direct sunlight can heat one side of the instrument enough to cause small errors. For the highest
accuracy, utilize an umbrella or pick a shaded spot for the instrument.

h) Vibrations

Avoid instrument locations that vibrate. Vibrations can cause the compensator to be unstable.

i) Collimation errors

When sighting points a single time (e.g., direct position only) for elevations, check the
instrument regularly for collimation errors.

j) Vertical angles and elevations

When using total stations to measure precise elevations, the adjustment of the electronic tilt
sensor and the reticule of the telescope becomes very important. An easy way to check the
adjustment of these components is to set a baseline. A line close to the office with a large
difference in elevation will provide the best results. The baseline should be as long as the longest
distance that will be measured to determine elevations with intermediate points at 100- to 200-ft
intervals. Precise elevations of the points along the baseline should be measured by differential
leveling. Set up the total station at one end of the baseline and measure the elevation of each
point. Comparing the two sets of elevations provides a check on the accuracy and adjustment of
the instrument. Accuracy requirements may dictate that more than one set of angles and
distances is measured to each point. Some examples are distances over 600 feet, adverse weather
conditions, and steep observations.

k) Atmospheric corrections

Meteorological data corrections to observed EDM slope distances may be significant over longer
distances. Usually for most topographic surveying over short distances, nominal (estimated)
temperature and pressure data is acceptable for input into the data collector. Instruments used to
 CE6404 SURVEYING II/ UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

measure atmospheric temperature and pressure must be periodically calibrated. This would
include psychrometers and barometers.

l) Optical plummet errors

The optical plummet or tribrachs must be periodically checked for misalignment. This would
include total stations with laser plummets.

m) Adjustment of prism poles

When using prism poles, precautions should be taken to ensure accurate measurements. A
common problem encountered when using prism poles is the adjustment of the leveling bubble.
Bubbles can be examined by establishing a check station under a doorway in the office. First,
mark a point on the top of the doorway. Using a plumb bob, establish a point under the point on
the doorway. If possible, use a center punch to make a dent or hole in both the upper and lower
marks. The prism pole can now be placed into the check station and easily adjusted.

n) Recording errors

The two most common errors are reading an angle incorrectly and/or entering incorrect
information into the field book. Another common (and potentially disastrous) error is an
incorrect instrument or rod height. Although electronic data collection has all but eliminated
these errors, it is still possible for the surveyor to identify an object incorrectly, make a shot to
the wrong spot, or input a bad target height (HR) or HI. For example, if the surveyor normally
shoots a fire hydrant at the ground level, but for some reason shoots it on top of the operating
nut, erroneous contours would result if the program recognized the fire hydrant as a ground shot
and was not notified of this change in field procedure.

o) Angles

As a rule, a surveyor will turn a doubled angle for move-ahead, traverse points, property corners,
or other objects that require greater accuracy. On the other hand, single angles are all that are
required for topographic shots. Refer to the total station operating instructions for repeating angle
methods where required.
 CE6404 SURVEYING II/ UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

p) Slope to grid and sea level EDM corrections

Slope distances will be reduced to horizontal distances in the data collector, and then reduced to
a grid distance if a grid scale factor (or combined scale sea level factor) is input into the data
collector. For most topographic survey applications involving short side shots, the grid scale
factor is ignored (e.g., 1.000 is used). This would not be correct for control traverses covering
larger distances. Scale factors can be obtained directly in CORPSCON.

q) EDM calibration

All EDM instruments should be periodically (at least annually) checked over a NGS Calibration
Baseline or a baseline established by local state surveying societies.

TOTAL STATION–OPERATION, USES & ADVANTAGES

Total station is a combination of Electromagnetic Distance Measuring Instrument and

electronic theodolite. It is also integrated with microprocessor, electronic data collector and
storage system. The instrument can be used to measure horizontal and vertical angles as well as
sloping distance of object to the instrument. Microprocessor unit processes the data collected to
compute:

1. average of multiple angles measured

2. average of multiple distance measured

3. horizontal distance

4. distance between any two points

5. elevation of objects and

6. all the three coordinates of the observed points.

 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

Data collected and processed may be down-loaded to computers for further processing. Total
station is a compact instrument and weighs 50 to 55 N. A person can easily carry it to the field.
Total stations with different accuracies, in angle measurement and different range of
measurements are available in the market.

Fig: Parts of total station

 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

Brief Description of Important Operations

Distance Measurement: Electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument is a major part of

total station. Its range varies from 2.8 km to 4.2 km. The accuracy of measurement varies from 5
mm to 10 mm per km measurement. They are used with automatic target recognisers. The
distance measured is always sloping distance from instrument to the object. Angle
Measurements: The electronic theodolite part of total station is used for measuring vertical and
horizontal angle. For measurement of horizontal angles any convenient direction may be taken as
reference direction. For vertical angle measurement vertical upward (zenith) direction is taken as
reference direction. The accuracy of angle measurement varies from 2 to 6 seconds.

Data Processing : This instrument is provided with an inbuilt microprocessor. The

microprocessor averages multiple observations. With the help of slope distance and vertical and
horizontal angles measured, when height of axis of instrument and targets are supplied, the
 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

microprocessor computes the horizontal distance and X, Y, Z coordinates. The processor is

capable of applying temperature and pressure corrections to the measurements, if atmospheric
temperature and pressures are supplied.

Display: Electronic display unit is capable of displaying various values when respective keys are
pressed. The system is capable of displaying horizontal distance, vertical distance, horizontal and
vertical angles, difference in elevations of two observed points and all the three coordinates of
the observed points.

Electronic Book: Each point data can be stored in an electronic note book (like compact disc).
The capacity of electronic note book varies from 2000 points to 4000 points data. Surveyor can
unload the data stored in note book to computer and reuse the note book.

Use of Total Station

The instrument is mounted on a tripod and is levelled by operating levelling screws. Within a
small range instrument is capable of adjusting itself to the level position. Then vertical and
horizontal reference directions are indexed using onboard keys. It is possible to set required units
for distance, temperature and pressure (FPS or SI). Surveyor can select measurement mode like
fine, coarse, single or repeated.
When target is sighted, horizontal and vertical angles as well as sloping distances are measured
and by pressing appropriate keys they are recorded along with point number. Heights of
instrument and targets
can be keyed in after measuring them with tapes. Then processor computes various information
about the point and displays on screen. This information is also stored in the electronic note
book. At the end
of the day or whenever electronic note book is full, the information stored is downloaded to
computers.

The point data downloaded to the computer can be used for further processing. There are
software like auto civil and auto plotter clubbed with AutoCad which can be used for plotting
contours at any specified interval and for plotting cross-section along any specified line.
 UNIT 3/TOTAL STATION SURVEYING

Advantages of Using Total Stations

The following are some of the major advantages of using total station over the conventional
surveying instruments:

1. Field work is carried out very fast.

2. Accuracy of measurement is high.

3. Manual errors involved in reading and recording are eliminated.

4. Calculation of coordinates is very fast and accurate. Even corrections for temperature and
pressure are automatically made.

5. Computers can be employed for map making and plotting contour and cross-sections. Contour
intervals and scales can be changed in no time.