BASICS

FUNDAMENTALS
OF PRESENTATION
FREEHAND

FREHAND DRAWING
DRAWING
Florian Afflerbach

FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESENTATION
DESIGN
FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESENTATION
CONSTRUCTION
PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
BUILDING PHYSICS AND BUILDING SERVICES
BUILDING MATERIALS
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
URBANISM
THEORY
BASICS

www.birkhauser.com
Florian Afflerbach

Freehand
­Drawing
Florian Afflerbach
Bert Bielefeld - Sebastian El Khouli

Entwurfsidee
Freehand
­Drawing

Birkhäuser
BIRKHÄUSER
Basel
BASEL
 Contents
Foreword _7

Basic principles of freehand drawing _8
Distinctions and terms _8
Design medium _10
Instrument of communication _11
Perception _12

Tools and techniques _14

Drawing substrates _14
Lines and the instruments for drawing them _22
Surfaces and the instruments for drawing them _32
Special instruments used in architectural design _43

Freehand drawing in architectural design _45

Drawing types _45
Indicators of scale _61
Continuing the design _65

Architectural drawing on site _67

Drawing types _67
Perspective drawing _70
Aids _78

Further developmenT _85

As-built drawing _85
Digitalisation and image editing _85

In conclusion _90

Appendix _91
Literature _91
Picture credits _92
The author _92
 Foreword
For architects, depicting their own work is a most important means
of presenting themselves to clients and the specialist world. In this
­context, the quality of a brief explanatory sketch or freehand drawing
­acquires particular importance, as they are often the only medium
through which the work can be explained to outsiders. Freehand draw-
ings are, additionally, an important planning tool that accompanies
­architects during the discovery of the idea and in the later planning and
concretisation processes.

Depicting a building by means of freehand drawings makes a num-

ber of demands on the draughtsman or woman and naturally requires
practice, but this skill can be acquired systematically – for instance by
constructing perspectives. Knowledge about materials, aids and tech-
niques help the person making the drawing to appropriate existing build-
ings and to understand their specific qualities better. These abilities are
essential to be able to examine and communicate design ideas. It is pre-
cisely the subjective approach involved in freehand drawing that enables
one to order one’s thoughts and to concentrate on the important design
approaches.

The volume Freehand Drawing forms an important element within

the topic of Fundamentals of Presentation. To enable students to produce
architectural ­drawings of a high quality, first of all the technical tools such
as pens and drawing substrates are explained. The chapter “Freehand
drawing in ­architectural design” describes different types of drawing and
specific approaches to design. In the chapter “Architectural drawing on
site” these themes are broadened to cover the area of drawing existing
buildings. As the further development of drawings is part of daily life, dif-
ferent possibilities in this area and with regard to processing images are
explained. Here, architecture students and other interested persons
are given a broad and practical basis for producing their own freehand
drawings of real quality.

Bert Bielefeld, Editor

7
Basic principles of freehand drawing
Distinctions and terms
The theory of art defines sketches and drawings as part of the graphic
arts. The instruments used for drawing (pencil, pastels etc.) are abraded
as they are drawn across a substrate, generally paper, or form a liquid
film (ink, watercolours etc.). The most obvious difference from painting
is that lines are dominant rather than areas of colours. Consequently,
sketches and drawings remain just a composition of lines, not colours
and are therefore never paintings. What the hand, using the drawing
­instrument, puts on paper are the primary means of a drawing: point, line
and surface. Sketches and drawings can be given greater expressive
power by using complementary means such as spatial staggering in depth,
colour, or the depiction of light and shade.

Freehand drawing is the basis for many kinds of artistic work: paint-
ing, sculpture and also architecture. It includes the sketch, a rapidly pro-
duced drawing in which depicting the typical characteristic is often more
important than reproducing individual qualities and which, even more so
than the drawing, aims at achieving a maximum of expression and power

Fig. 1: The Tagblatt Tower in Stuttgart, drawn using four different techniques (clockwise
from top left): pencil with watercolours, pencil, chalk on brown paper, charcoal

8
Fig. 2: Spontaneous sketches of ideas on a paper napkin (Antalya observation tower)

with little expenditure of technique and material. The drawing therefore

always offers more information than the sketch.

Freehand sketching and drawing is generally used during the early

stages of an architectural design, to depict ideas or concepts or to clar-
ify basic questions about the form, construction or urban situation of a
building. Sketches and drawings made at this phase can provide the
­basis for architectural models or technical drawings, which then make
the ­design more concrete. They can also be made with rulers and sten-
cils, if they have a design character. The boundary to technical drawing
is blurred. The sketch can also be used in the later phases of a project,
for example to show a detail for the detail design stage, > Fig. 54, page 53 or
to provide instructions for skilled tradesmen working on the building site.

If architecture is drawn on site, the sketch is not based on imagina-

tion but is the depiction of a concrete reality based on looking directly at
the building. > Fig. 3

Sketches and drawings are always a highly individual mirror as the

skilled hand, raw force and tenacious impatience can be read from them,

9
Fig. 3: Architectural sketch made on site (Fundação Iberê Camargo, Alvaro Siza, Porto
Alegre)

telling us much about how they were made and the particular nature of
the author. In contrast to photography they are made gradually and thus
interact with the person who produces them, who is in permanent visual
contact with what he or she has already put on paper.

Drawing and sketching in architectural design or drawing architec-

ture on site is determined by a selective way of working. Certain things
are omitted so that they do not distract, or important aspects are em-
phasised so as to depict them in a focused way. It can therefore be said
that the expressive content of the empty, untouched areas of a drawing
is equal to that of the treated areas. This moment of imprecision further
distinguishes the drawing from photography, which generally records
everything within the viewing angle of the lens, or from the CAD drawing,
which often includes unnecessary information. > Fig. 80, page 77: the brain can
imagine the appearance of the annexes as they have similar building forms.

Design medium
Freehand sketching is an elementary part of all design phases that
call for design, functional or construction-related decisions. It functions
as intellectual preparatory work, which is repeatedly rejected and re-
newed until the pure drawing of the final version is produced using the
methods of technical drawing.

10
 The combination of a roll of sketching paper and pencil, a place to
build models and the CAD program is the ideal workplace for the design-
ing architect. Freehand drawing is particularly useful for spontaneous
and creative work, as ideas can be put down directly on paper with min-
imal interruption to the flow of thought.

The early sketch made during the design stage, still unaffected by
any kind of political, financial or constructional pressure, is the moment
when the architect’s idea appears in its pure and unadulterated form. This
spontaneity and intuition underline the subjective nature of the freehand
drawing which, as it is made by hand, is directly connected to the author
and thus to the architect’s drawing language.

The increased use of CAD programs in the early design stages makes
drawing styles seem more uniform and interchangeable. Designers sub-
ject themselves to the rules of the CAD system in terms of graphics, scale
and norms, although the sketch is in fact graphically independent, with-
out scale and non-binding. A gap that apparently can no longer be closed
is opening up between the architect’s understanding and his hand, as
something that is virtual – the design – is also being produced virtually.

Later design phases, too, throw up problems that call for new ideas,
variations and improvements. Freehand sketching and drawing can also
use a greater degree of detail and a different scale to arrive at solutions
and can therefore accompany a project right up to its completion. > Chap-
ter Freehand drawing in architectural design, Continuing the design

Instrument of communication
The architect must be able to communicate his or her ideas and con-
cepts in a way that can be correctly read and understood by the viewer.
While still a student, teachers and fellow students are the main recipi-
ents for these ideas, whereas in professional life it is colleagues, clients,
tradespeople, public authorities or the general public to whom certain
contents must be conveyed quickly and directly.

The drawing is the language of the architect. As part of the design

process sketches are made all the time during brainstorming sessions,
and on the building site sketches are used daily in discussions with con-
struction workers. If the descriptive perspective drawing, legible by a lay
public, that is frequently called for in architecture competitions is drawn
freehand this has the advantage that, unlike finely detailed, photoreal­
istic computer renderings, it does not yet have a final character and does
not lay down a detailed architectural direction. Here it is not decisive
whether a perspective drawing is made with the help of technical ­drawing

11
Fig. 4: Hand-drawn perspective for a competition

instruments (ruler, compass, parallel straightedge or similar) or is drawn

freehand. The important aspect is the unfinished and incomplete quality
of the drawing, which leaves leeway for the imagination of viewers who
may have little understanding of architecture. The drawing becomes an
intermediary. > Fig. 89 below, page 86

Perception
Drawing buildings directly on site offers an excellent opportunity to
understand architecture better. The permanent interplay between direct
observation and the drawing being created allows the structures, pro-
portions and other formative aspects that describe the building to be
grasped precisely. What is seen and then drawn imprints itself on the
memory. The information gained in this way can be used for comparative
purposes in the next on-site architectural drawing, or in a future design
project. Architectural drawing on site does not mean simply the depic-
tion of what is seen but the reflective processing of form, function or
­construction.

The drawing is a collection of transported and interpreted impres-

sions that have made their way onto paper. The lines, colours and hatch-

12
Fig. 5: Visit to the Müller House (Adolf Loos, Prague)

ing are metaphors for what has been perceived. In recognising what was
drawn the viewer converts these metaphors back into reality. The draw-
ing is therefore not simply a tool for depicting but also (for both draughts­
person and viewer) an intellectual tool. The drawing illustrates what has
been considered and records what has been perceived. In precisely
­observing the subject, the person drawing it is confronted with new
­questions.

The city provides excellent opportunities for the architectural

draughtsperson who wishes to draw on site, through the abstract aspect
of the drawing it is broken down from three to two dimensions. Perspec-
tive drawing in the city includes making use of certain rules and guide-
lines in order to depict the architecture correctly and with a high level
of content. By adding people, vegetation, cars, data and atmospheric
­impressions, snapshots are made that illustrate experiences of time and
space. Yet the architectural drawing can never replace actually making
a visit to a building.

13
Tools and techniques
Drawing substrates
Drawing boards, drawing tables and T-squares have become so rare
in the professional life of the architect today that large sheets or rolls of
paper are practically never used. CAD programs with an infinitely larger
user interface and plotters that transfer the drawing to paper take over
the large-scale work. Consequently, the selection below is restricted to
drawing substrates in the form of smaller sheets of paper.

First of all we should focus on those substrates that can be consid-

ered for the design process. Essentially, every kind of paper substrate
can be used as the basis for a freehand drawing – including scraps of
­paper, notes or even beer mats or paper napkins.

Sketchbooks are valuable companions both during the design pro-

cess and for the architectural drawing on site. Information, ideas, archi-
tecture sketches and interesting things from everyday life can be ­recorded
in them permanently and developments documented.

Working with the sketching paper roll

The most important kind of paper in the design process is the sketch-
ing paper roll. This is very thin, transparent paper rolled around a cylin-
drical cardboard core. The sketching paper roll is generally around 30 cm
wide and has a length of between 20 and 100 m. It is available in differ-
ent paper strengths from 20 to 40 g/m² of wood-free cellulose, the thicker
papers (unit: g/m²) being less translucent. It is generally transparent-
white; brownish or corn yellow sketching paper rolls are rarer. They offer
the advantage that white pencils or chalks can be used on them to
­emphasise certain lines and surfaces.

The sketching paper roll can be used in every design phase whenever
ideas and studies must be given a sketched visual form and different ver-
sions and examinations are necessary. It offers a number of advantages.

Sketching paper rolls are relatively inexpensive. This aids the crea-
tive flow, as there are no financial repercussions if a sketch just made
has to be torn off the roll, crumpled up and tossed into the waste-paper
basket. This paper is there to be thrown away, as in this phase sheets
from rolls of sketching paper are the bearers of a wealth of good and bad
ideas that are examined on the next piece of paper from the long roll. In
this way the design gradually grows more concrete.

14
Fig. 6: Roll of sketching paper with a design sketch laid over as-built drawing

Fig. 7: Illustration of changes to a building: roll of sketching paper over a photograph

15
Fig. 8: Alternatives, produced with the roll of sketching paper

To produce different versions and variations and to examine their

contents, the roll of sketching paper is laid over an existing drawing. Here
it does not matter whether this is one’s own drawing, a drawing by a
­colleague, as-built plans from a current project, or plans made with the
computer. The roll of sketching paper can be laid over every kind of draw-
ing – and even across the computer screen.

Changes or improvements are repeatedly drawn on new translucent

layers of paper. The paper’s translucency makes direct comparison with
the earlier sketch possible. This procedure can be repeated until the
­desired goal is achieved.

But the sketching paper roll can also be used as drawing substrate
without any other drawing beneath it. In particularly tall or long buildings,
situations can arise where a long piece of paper is needed in order to
draw an elevation, a section or a certain perspective.

In drawing perspective by the intersection point method the sketch-

ing paper roll can also be used. > Chapter Freehand drawing in architectural design,
Drawing types The drawings needed for this method (elevation and plan) are
placed beneath the translucent paper and fixed in position. This allows
the perspective to be made on its own sheet of paper, separated from
the elevation and plan. > Fig. 64, page 60

Tracing paper
If the paper in the sketch roll is found to be too thin or not sufficiently
resistant, another kind of paper combines the quality of the sketching pa-
per roll with that of normal paper: tracing paper. It is thicker than sketch-

16
ing paper (80 to 200 g/m²) and consequently less transparent, which can
lead to the problem that the drawing beneath is not completely legible.

Tracing paper generally comes in sheets in DIN A formats and also,

but more rarely, in rolls. Compared to the sketching paper roll, tracing
paper is more suitable for drawing instruments with hard tips such as
ballpoint pens and classic ink pens with different line widths. Incorrect
lines can be scratched away using a razor blade or special kinds of eras-
ers. However, this also removes the uppermost layer of the tracing paper
and care must be taken to avoid scratching a hole in the paper.

Drawing paper
The most undemanding paper for freehand drawing is simple, bril-
liant white, wood-free drawing paper or drawing card, which resembles
multi-function printer paper. It has the character of an empty sheet of
­paper and at the start of a project represents in a metaphorical sense a
“tabula rasa” for free drawing without any influences.

It is available in different thicknesses from 80 to 300 g/m² and gen-

erally in DIN A formats. It is not ideally suited to any specific drawing
­instrument. > Tab. 1 This kind of paper is more an “all-rounder”. Lines drawn
on it with water- or alcohol-based pens bleed easily. If they are too ­watery,
watercolours cause the paper to tear or to become wavy. Hard tips, such
as ballpoint pens and hard pencil leads, often print through the ­paper
and, if a pad or block is being used, leave a relief-like imprint on the next
page. Lined paper is not really suitable for sketching. If a design is being
drawn at a particular scale, squared paper provides beginners with a sure
guide as regards dimensions. ◯

Grey and brown paper

Compared to white papers, of which there is a wide range, greyish
and brownish paper offer the advantage that white lines and areas can
be draw on them, and the brightest part of the drawing does not have to
be paper untouched by the drawing, as is the case with white paper.

◯ Note: The rule of thumb is: the finer the grain, the
thinner the paper, and the smoother the surface of the
paper the more suitable it is for hard drawing instru-
ments such as pencils or ink and felt pens. Markers can
also be used more easily on smooth paper, as the lines
and areas of colour do not bleed to such an extent.
Conversely, coarse-grained paper is better for water-
colours, soft pencils or charcoal and pastels. It should
be acid-free as this means it is resistant to ageing and
can also be used for inks and watercolours.

17
Fig. 9: Heights and depths using white and Fig. 10: Heights and depths with white and black on yellow paper
black on brown paper

This is ideal for emphasising areas or surfaces, space and atmos-

phere. For instance: in a perspective, colouring the sides of the building
that stand in the sun white and those in the shade black makes the line
drawing more spatial and atmospheric. It is also easier to indicate differ-
ences in the materials used in the planned buildings. The grey or brown
area of the paper that remains untouched by lines and blocks of colour
◼ then stand for a middle tonal value that is in neither sun nor shade. > Fig. 9

Sketchbooks
The prospective architect should keep a sketchbook in which the pro-
gress of a design can be documented and which offers the opportunity
to note down an idea, something seen or a piece of information. Sketch-
books are available in wide variety of shapes and sizes, but for an archi-
tect’s purposes some kinds are more suitable.

A freehand sketch or drawing is generally not to scale and therefore

is as large as you draw it. Nevertheless, the size of the sketchbook page
should be at least DIN A5 in horizontal or upright format. A large draw-
ing surface offers the advantage that, for example, the vanishing points
of a perspective frequently still lie on the sheet, or there is room enough
for a further idea on the same sheet. Therefore small sketchpads and ring
books with individual pages are unsuitable. If you need to make a smaller
drawing you can drawn a small frame or outline on the existing sheet.

18
Tab. 1: Combinations of different drawing grounds and drawing instruments (++ very good, + good, o middling,
- bad, – very bad)

Sketching paper roll

Multifunction paper

Multifunction paper

Watercolour paper
Grey and brown
up to 120 g/m²

from 120 g/m²
Drawing paper
Tracing paper

Marker paper
paper
Hard pencil - ++ o + + o o -
Soft pencil ++ + + o ++ ++ + -
Coloured pencil + + + o + o o —
Felt pen ++ + o + o + - o
Ink pen ++ ++ + + + + - +
Ballpoint pen — - + o o o — o
Pastels and charcoal - — o o ++ ++ + -
Markers ++ + - - - — - ++
Watercolours — — + o + — ++ o

Sketchbooks need to be filled. Drawing by drawing a fine collection

can be built up, a travel sketchbook, or the chronology of one’s own pro-
gress. Sketchbooks accompany their owner over a longer period of time
and should therefore have a sturdy cover with thread-stitched pages. This
kind of cover also can serve as a base or support when drawing. The ­paper
should be acid-free and have a thickness of at least 150 g/m². The kind
of paper depends entirely on the drawing instrument chosen. If you use
mainly pencil and watercolours, you should choose coarse-grain or even
watercolour paper. For markers and ballpoint pens smooth paper is more
suitable. > Tab. 1 ◼

◼ Tip: This technique can also be used with sketching ◼ Tip: Some sketchbooks have useful features that
paper or tracing paper. If using tracing paper the white improve everyday (sketching) life. Some have an
is applied to the back to avoid contact with the pencil attachment to hold the pencil, other have a pocket
or ink lines drawn on the front. This also has the advan- inside the back cover to take visiting cards or similar
tage that the area to be covered in white can be drawn information. With smaller sketchbooks an external
more clearly. ­rubberised band is an advantage, as it prevents the
book from opening accidentally when in a bag or
satchel. Sketchbooks with rounded corners prevent
dog-ears.

19
Fig. 11: Sketchbooks of different sizes and with different kinds of paper, some with a
bookmark or rubber band

Keeping a sketchbook
Everything that interests an architect can be kept in a sketchbook:
from sketched ideas about town planning to a window detail, written
notes and illegible doodles made during a talk given by a colleague,
­architectural drawings made during travels, everyday situations and
­objects of all kinds that are sufficiently interesting to make a drawing
worthwhile.

In drawings with an informative or even narrative character, writing

can be a meaningful addition. Some things are best understood in a draw-
ing, others are better written down: assessments about a material, smells,
descriptions of a colour for making a wash later, names (or even personal
signatures) of people you have to deal with in a project, or references to
certain impending or past events which you wanted to note quickly.

If a sketchbook is used chronologically, it can develop into a kind of

personal life story with the character of a diary that you can use as an
encyclopaedic store of knowledge for future design projects. Known as
journaling, this aspect is illustrated by the constantly growing range of
notebooks now available that cater for different professions, places or
personal interests.

20
Fig. 12: Open sketchbooks with notes, design sketches and on-site drawings

Keeping a sketchbook also forms a counterpart to digital photogra-

phy, which makes it possible to take large numbers of pictures every-
where and at all times. Sketchbooks you have filled yourself are full of
your own observations and through the author’s subjectivity they acquire
a pure form of individual identity. You can also record you own memories
in them. On looking later at sketches you have made, you recall the sub-
jects and being reminded of them again may even mean that they are
stored in your long-term memory.

21
Fig. 13: Somewhat illegible, intimate design sketches

Lines and the instruments for drawing them

Lines
Like the technical drawing, a freehand drawing also consists largely
of lines that vary in terms of form and weight from drawing to drawing.
They can be used to depict almost everything in drawing and sketching
architecture: from site boundaries, building outlines and edges to indi-
vidual storeys and to wall constructions, furniture and door handles. But
it is only through accentuation, different kinds of lines and the differen-
tiated use of strokes in different sizes and scales of drawings that the
sketch becomes legible and understandable. Sketches illegible to out-
side observers are intended only for the author and help transfer impor-
tant information to the next design stage. > Fig. 13

The lines that gradually create the design grow more concrete over
the course of time to form a sketch or drawing. Here the draughtsman or
woman constantly improves what has been drawn, rejects it, erases it or
–  in the best case scenario – finds it good. The draughtsperson always
sees what has been “done” a moment previously, engaging in an
­emotional relationship with what has been drawn. Object – eye – hand –
­pencil – paper: a complex sequence of activities and reactions is con-
cealed behind creative drawing.

In on-site architectural drawing the dimension of this interaction

changes: you do not compare what has been drawn with the image in

22
Fig. 14: On-site architectural drawing, where edges, changes of material, colour and light
(here shown as dotted lines) are abstracted and depicted as strokes.

your head but with the depiction of real architecture. We do not draw im-
aginary lines but rather we abstract outlines that do not exist in real
­nature. > Fig. 14 We interpret them as lines, although in fact only a change
of volume, material, colour or light takes place. We therefore draw the
visual boundary between two volumes (or material or colours), a bound-
ary between light and shade or between a volume and the air surround-
ing it as a line. ◯

Types of lines
Although freehand drawing and sketching tends to be a relatively fast
activity and must not comply with the rules of technical drawing, it nev-
ertheless makes sense to differentiate between the most common types
of lines: full lines, dashed or broken lines, and dotted lines. Differences
cannot be made between line thicknesses, as in each sketch this depends
on the instrument with which the lines are drawn. Nevertheless, sketches
that use a wide variety of different line thicknesses are more vivid and
more legible.

◯ Note: The dot-dash line familiar from technical draw-

ing is not commonly used in freehand drawing, as it
denotes axes and section lines, which are generally not
considered in the early design stages.

23
Fig. 15: Sketch elevation made with different line thicknesses; the volume at the bottom
left is emphasised by the use thicker outlines.

Full lines are those used to describe all the visible edges of objects
and building parts in a depiction. In section drawings the parts of the
buildings cut through are indicated by the use of thicker lines. In eleva-
tions the line of the ground is emphasised. Buildings in the foreground
are often given heavier outlines and shown with thicker lines than the
less important edges or parts of the building in the background. > Fig. 25,
page 31

Broken lines (also known as dashed lines) denote volumes, building

parts, or other important edges that lie behind or beneath the actual de-
piction. Dotted lines, on the other hand, describe the edges of building
parts that are over or above what is depicted. Dotted lines should truly
consist of dots. The need to use dashed or dotted lines in depicting build-
ing parts arises particularly frequently in floor plans or section drawings.
>  Chapter Architectural drawing on site, Drawing types

Drawing correctly
Straight lines should be drawn straight. Frequent mistakes include
lines that, due to the given radius between wrist and arm, are drawn
curved although in fact they should be straight. Care should also be taken
that a line consists of only a single line. To draw straight ground lines the
little finger can be led along the edge of the table or of the sketchbook at
the same time drawing a straight line parallel to this edge. A second line
should not be drawn over an interrupted or broken line in order to correct
it. The interrupted line can be continued at a slight distance. > Fig. 16

Lines that represent building corners, for example, should always

consist of two intersecting lines. The lines of a volume that lie behind

24
Fig. 16: Incorrectly and correctly drawn Fig. 17: Correct and incorrect corners, the lines of the building
lines, full lines, dashed lines and dotted ­ olumes in the background are separated somewhat from the
v
lines main volume.

a­ nother volume should not cut its lines and should be drawn somewhat
separated.

Hatching
Hatching allows us to create surfaces, shadows or to indicate materi­
als with the use of lines. It should not be confused with the different kinds
of hatching used to denote specific materials in technical drawings.
­Essentially, we distinguish between angled hatching, cross-hatching and
dotted hatching.

Diagonal hatching, whether simple or crosshatched, is intended to

emphasise the flatness of a building part or to indicate that part of a build-
ing lies in shadow. Then the lines of the hatching run in the direction of the
light source. If simple hatching is made vertically or horizontally this can
also indicate the material to be used. > Fig. 21, page 28 It is also possible to
make hatching denser at an edge or corner as a way of depicting ­curvature. ◼

◼ Tip: Hatching ought not to be drawn too rapidly.

Snaking thin lines, irregular distances between the
lines or changes in direction give an impression of care-
lessness. The individual lines of the hatching should be
drawn right up to the borders of the area to which the
hatching is applied. This calls for patience and preci-
sion but it is the only way to achieve the desired effect,
the depiction of a flat area.

25
Fig. 18: Different kinds of hatching, in the perspective the hatching lines recede towards a
vanishing point

Fig. 19: Detail drawings (sections and isometric) of a facade construction with different
line types and hatching

26
Fig. 20: Pencils, clutch pencils, graphite stick, eraser, sharpener and cutting knife

Pencils
The lead pencil, which is actually made of graphite with a clay binder
that is encased in wood, is one of the most important sketching tools. It
is undemanding, fast and flexible, economically priced and resistant
to  ageing. It is a sensitive drawing medium: you can draw both quick
sketches and detailed studies with it. A low amount of pressure on the
pencil creates a fine line that has a searching character. Once the per-
fect line has been found you can, using the same pencil, increase the
pressure to produce a more definite line.

For sketching the most suitable pencils are grades B to 4B (soft to

medium soft, B standing for black). The grading ranges from 8H (very
hard) to H, HB (normal), B to 8B. If you use pencils of different hardness
(or fineliners with different line thicknesses) in the same drawing, the dif-
ference in emphasis can produce a lively depiction. In general such draw-
ings seem to have greater variety, but the beginner is advised to use just
one pencil in a drawing. In this way you can begin to achieve full mastery
of the pencil, whereas changing pencils during drawing reduces sponta-
neity and interrupts the important continuity of the drawing process.

As well as the classic wood pencil there are also propelling pencils.
Clutch pencils have the same leads as pencils and are therefore also suit-
able for drawing. They are also available with very strong leads (approx.
6 mm thick) and these resemble graphite sticks, whose thick lead is cov-
ered only by a plastic coat. Graphite sticks can be used to draw flat ­areas.
Fine propelling pencils should not be used, as their extremely thin leads
do not allow different line thicknesses or heavy finger pressure. They are

27
Fig. 21: Tchoban Foundation, Museum for Fig. 22: Design for a weather station
Architectural Drawing, Berlin

more suitable for technical drawing. As, after a time, using a drawing in-
strument that is too short causes cramps in the hand, an extender should
◼ be attached to a pencil when half of it has been used up.

The eraser should be as white and soft as possible but at the same
time it should have distinct edges so that lines can be properly removed.
Blurring, that is rubbing lines and hatching with the finger, sheet or hand-
kerchief should be avoided. Every individual line, even in close hatching,
◼ should remain visible.

◼ Tip: If the complete drawing can be approximately ◼ Tip: A (cutter) knife should be used to sharpen
imagined before the first line is drawn it is worthwhile, ­ encils or coloured pencils, as it can produce a very
p
if you are right handed, to begin the drawing at the top long exposed lead. This lasts for a long time and does
left and to end in the direction of bottom right (for a not have to be re-sharpened during the drawing. If
left-hander from top right to bottom left). This prevents you regard it as important to have a lead point that
smudging the drawing surface with your hand. This remains the same, then a standard pencil sharpener
applies to pencils, charcoal sticks and pastels. will also do.

28
Fig. 23: Design perspective: a world of colour produced by combining different coloured pencils

Coloured pencils
Coloured pencils are made in the same way as normal pencils. A
pressed lead made of colour pigment is encased in wood. They are also
sensitive to pressure, allowing deep and light shades of a hue to be pro-
duced with the one pencil.

For sketching, 15–20 different colours are generally sufficient, as

coloured pencils can also be combined with each other. In sketching they
are particularly suitable for making the first colour concepts or for indi-
cations and information; in the later design process the use of coloured ◼
pencils creates atmosphere and liveliness.

Felt pens
There is an extremely large range of different felt pens (also fibre
pens, fineliners etc.). Essentially, all kinds of felt pens can be used for
sketching and drawing; the fine differences are only revealed in the de-
tail. Thicker felt pens are more suitable for freehand sketching; thin pens
(up to 1 mm point thickness) are also suitable for drawings made with
the use of a ruler and stencils.

◼ Tip: Wooden planking can be depicted by parallel

lines of red, brown, blue and green made with coloured
pencils. A metallic surface is produced by combining
lines of blue, green and grey.

29
Fig. 24: Ink pens with different line widths and felt-tip pens

In choosing felt pens, solubility in water is an important criterion (e.g.

on contact with watercolours). Water-resistant felt tip pens such as pig-
ment ink pens are also fade-resistant. They can be obtained in different
thicknesses and therefore resemble ink drawing instruments from the
technical drawing field (DIN 15). Water-soluble felt pens are available
in many different colours and can be used to show design changes or
­re-workings, or for general notes.

Ballpoint pens
Ballpoint pens produce lines by means of a small ball that transfers
the viscous ink in the pen to the paper. The ballpoint is a pressure-­
sensitive drawing tool: if the pressure is increased a thicker line is pro-
duced, and if less pressure is used the line is thinner. This variety of line
thicknesses makes the ballpoint suitable for depicting spatial volumes.

The ballpoint pen is an undemanding and speedy drawing tool. It can

be used on all sorts of paper, but the hard ceramic surface of the ball
makes it difficult to use on thin sketching paper. Only lines produced with
document-quality ballpoint pens are resistant to ageing and do not
change their appearance.

30
Fig. 25: Ink pigment drawing using different line thicknesses to emphasise the volumes
of the building, felt pens used to indicate shadow

Fig. 26: Design drawing (section and elevation) made

with a ballpoint pen

Fig. 27: On-site drawing made with a ballpoint pen

31
Fig. 28: Solid tone (opaque), halftone (transparent) and structured surface

Surfaces and the instruments for drawing them

Areas
A great deal can be achieved with pure line drawings, but some
­situations require instruments that can create flat areas or surfaces. If
surfaces are used in part of a sketch it stands out very clearly from the
rest of the drawing.

Hatching, which consists of individual lines, comes very close to

a drawing made with surfaces. But making hatching can be extremely
­tedious and time-consuming. In addition, hatching only achieves mono-
chrome suggestions of space or the nature of a material. In contrast, the
implements for creating surface areas can be used rapidly, and using
multiple tone values can heighten the depiction of space. Materials and
surfaces can be drawn in a way that is much closer to nature, while a
number of the instruments used to create surface areas can produce
more authentic shadows.

Types of surfaces
It is far easier to distinguish between different types of lines than
types of surfaces, as the latter are almost always tied to the kind of
­instrument used. However, the difference between solid tones, halftones
and structured surfaces is important. > Fig. 28

Solid tone surfaces are surfaces that are drawn with full tonal value
and are therefore opaque. Halftone surfaces do not have a full tonal value,
are not opaque and therefore have a transparent quality. They seem pre-
destined for use in depicting shadows. With structured surfaces the white
of the paper may appear through at certain places. This has to do directly
with the instrument being used. Common to all instruments used to
­create surfaces or areas is that they do not produce any visible lines.

32
Fig. 29: Form studies (pastels)

Pastels and charcoal sticks

Structured surfaces can be drawn with pastel chalks and charcoal
sticks. The uneven abrasion on the paper creates interesting structures,
which frequently have the appearance of stone surfaces. Due to their
­porosity, drawings made with pastels or charcoal must be given a coat
of fixative.

Grey and brown pastels are generally sold in boxes. They are avail­
able in black, white, ochre, sepia, red chalk, and various shades of grey.
A special effect can be achieved when they are used on paper other than
white. > Chapter Tools and techniques, Drawing substrates The rough quality of pastel
drawings makes it necessary to use large sheets of paper. They are par-
ticularly useful during the early design stages for making studies of form,
light and shadow. The hard contrasts produced by the full tone colours
give the drawings a particularly dramatic quality. > Fig. 1 below left, page 8 ◼

◼ Tip: Brown and grey pastels are often only 7 mm

thick, with a length of approx. 8 cm. Therefore it is a
good idea to break them into pieces 2–3 cm long before
using them. This makes them easier to handle and also
means that, in addition to the short end, the other side,
which is then not so long, can also be used to create
flat areas of colour.

33
Fig. 30: Neue Pinakothek Munich sequences (charcoal pencil)

Fat-free charcoal pencils are available in different degrees of hard-

ness. Their great advantage is that they can be easily used when one is
on the move as they have the same form as the standard pencil and there-
fore are not so easily broken. They produce a very dense black that ­allows
strong contrasts to be made. Charcoal drawings are generally highly
­expressive and particularly effective for depicting cubic, voluminous
buildings. Charcoal pencils are somewhere between line and surface
drawing instruments. They produce lines that are very thick and clear,
but it is also very easy to create surfaces and structures, for example of
masonry, with them.

34
Fig. 31: Marker pens with different kinds of tips

Marker pens
Alcohol-based marker pens are excellent for indicating colour, ma-
terials and shadows when drawing and sketching architecture. Sketches
coloured with marker pens have a vivid spatial quality. You have to work
very fast with markers as the sketch dries almost immediately.

Most alcohol-based marker pens have drawing tips at either end of

the pen, which have a different shape and degree of hardness. There are
softer brush tips, with which one can work in a painterly way, and harder
wedge or trapezoid-shaped tips that can be used to create areas of col-
our or lines of different thicknesses.

They are available in several hundred colours; however you really only
need various warm and cold shades of grey, a lighter and a darker red,
green, blue and yellow, as well as a few brown and beige shades, and of
course black. Marker colours are often stronger than you might think. Be-
fore sketching, the shade of colour should be tested. To create different
shades of a colour, a blender pen is needed that dissolves the colour of
the marker by means of a solvent. ◯

◯ Note: The blender pen (frequently called: “0”) can

lighten an area of colour at any required place or at the
edges. A colour gradient is obtained by first applying
the required colour with a marker pen to a smooth sur-
face (e.g. a sheet of glass). The colour is then taken up
by the blender. The colour gradient is now drawn, the
colour initially appearing in full tone and then gradually
thinning out to transparent white.

35
Fig. 32: Design sketch with markers, using different colour gradients

Fig. 33: Design fantasy, pencil coloured with marker pens, drawn on special paper with
shadows depicted transparently

Alcohol-based marker pens can be used on many different kinds of

paper. However, standard, open-pored paper absorbs a lot of the marker
colour, giving the drawing a more powerful quality. In sketchbooks a rough
sheet of paper must be inserted between the page being used and the
next one to prevent the colour soaking through. For drawing areas of col-
our smooth papers are most suitable, for instance the roll of sketching
paper.

36
Fig. 34: Kolumba Cologne, purely marker pen drawing, made on site

Drawings made exclusively with marker pens have a particularly

three-dimensional and atmospheric effect. Here one works from the light-
est to the darkest layer of a “family” of markers (e.g. warm shades of
grey). At those parts of the building that face towards the light the white
of the paper should be allowed to shine through, without a layer of marker
ink. ◼

◼ Tip: Materiality can also be excellently depicted with

marker pens. Horizontal or vertical clapboard cladding
can be shown by minimal overlapping of the individual
lines drawn with the broad, trapezoid-shaped tip of the
pen. The overlapping creates darker areas of the colour
used, which suggests the shadow joints between the
wooden boards. Concrete surfaces are often vertically
structured at their upper and lower ends due to weath-
ering. This impression can be created with the tip of the
light grey marker. The outlines of the individual form-
work panels and the turnbuckles are drawn with darker
grey.

37
Fig. 35: Watercolour box with brushes and a paper handkerchief as absorbent surface

Watercolours
In some cases it is essential to show the colour of the parts of a build-
ing, the vegetation or the sky. This can be in an architectural design or
while making drawings of existing architecture on the move. Water­colours
enable you to depict the colouring of materials, atmosphere and nature
in a realistic way.

A (metal) watercolour box is the most suitable; the standard kinds

available generally have between 12 and 24 colour pans. However, all you
really need are the primary colours yellow, red and blue (not necessarily
the richest shades) and 1–2 natural shades of green, a brown and an
ochre shade, and black. Brushes should be the series 4, 12 and 24. A
larger watercolour box may also have a surface on which to mix colours
and a compartment to store the brushes so that they are protected
against fraying.

Watercolours generally take the form of pressed, dried colour pig-

ments with which different shades or intensities of a basic colour can be
obtained by mixing them with water. This mixing also gives the water­
colour a glazing, i.e. translucent, quality. Layers of watercolour can be

38
placed one on top of the other, provided you have the necessary patience,
as you must wait until one layer has dried before applying the next one,
if you wish to avoid the new colour blending with the earlier one. In ­using
watercolours you generally work from light to dark areas on the sheet. At
the brightest part of the drawing there should be no layer of watercolour,
just the white of the paper. > Fig. 38 Monochrome watercolours are also
fascinating.

The translucent quality of watercolour paints makes them suitable

for depicting shadows. You do not always have to use a watercolour based
on black that depicts shadows as a grey film and darkens the area of col-
our beneath it. Depending on the particular mood of the drawing, shad-
ows can also be made using dark violet, dark blue or dark green hues.

A colour gradient to depict vaulted areas or the sky can be easily pro-
duced using watercolours. First the basic colour required is mixed. The
area that will finally have the deepest colour is painted first; this is gen-
erally done with a size 12 brush. Then the brush is very gently washed in
a glass of water and excess water equally gently removed by using a ­paper
handkerchief. The brush still holds the same colour, but the intensity is
slightly reduced. Now painting is continued on the still wet paper, again
covering only a small area at a time. This procedure is repeated until the
entire area required is painted or until the brush holds water only, with-
out any trace of colour. ◼

◼ Tip: If you are painting larger areas with water­

colours it is helpful to raise the sheet on the side fur­-
ther away from you. The colour mix should be applied
downwards, causing it to flow towards you. Water­
colour is applied until the lower edge of the painted
area is formed in the shape of a long drop. Then brush
can be filled again with colour and con­tinued at the
area already painted without creating any visible edges
or lines.

39
Fig. 36: Monochrome design watercolour

Fig. 37: Depicting curved or vaulted surfaces with watercolours

requires the use of colour gradients.

A pencil drawing coloured with watercolours is a delightful mix. Gen-

erally, it is difficult to draw in pencil on coarse, thick, watercolour paper
and therefore a smoother paper must be used, but this does not easily
allow several layers of watercolour to be applied. A compromise is nec-
essary. As few as possible layers of colour should be applied in order to
avoid damaging the paper. On this account this technique is not a pure

40
Fig. 38: Sketched, naturalistic colours of a building and its
­surroundings

watercolour but a colouring. The use of watercolours allows the impor-

tant things to be easily separated from the unimportant, and the com­
position is simplified. When not all of the drawing is coloured and it
thus becomes clear where the focus lies, the concentration makes the
depiction more interesting. ◼ ◯

◼ Tip: If using watercolours while on the move it is use- ◯ Note: Watercolours are not only available in the form
ful to carry with you a small screw-top jar filled with of compressed colour blocks. Watercolour pencils look
water. Paper handkerchiefs can be used to dry the much the same as normal coloured pencils but are
brush and to clean the box after drawing. water-soluble and can be painted over with water later.
Liquid artists watercolours in tubes offer more intense
colours than the blocks, but they are complicated to
mix on palettes and therefore not so suitable for rapid
freehand drawing.

41
Fig. 39: On-site drawing made with ink pen and watercolour pencils, later given a water wash

Fig. 40: Pencil drawing with watercolours: a classic in the

i­ llustration of architecture (building site Grossmarkthalle
­Frankfurt am Main)

42
Special instruments used in architectural design
Triangular scales
The triangular (architect’s) scale is a drawing and measuring tool,
about 30 cm long, with which one can draw and measure lines at differ-
ent scales. It is an indispensable tool in architectural design. On each of
the three faces there are two different scales, giving a total of six usable
scales. Each edge is allocated to a particular scale or pair of scales (e.g.
1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:25, 1:33, 1:50, 1:75, 1:100, 1:125, 1:150, 1:200,
1:250, 1:500 or 1:1000).

Triangular scales can be made of plastic or aluminium. If buying one

you should ensure that it has as many possible different scales as possi-
ble. Of course, the scale 1:2 can be easily converted to use for drawings
at a scale of 1:20 and 1:200 and so forth.

A triangular scale is placed on a scale design sketch in order to

­ etermine the scale, to check a particular dimension in the sketch, or to
d
change a dimension. The triangular scale is also suitable for measuring
existing plans or drawings that have no dimensions, but whose scale is
known. If you draw freely without any existing basis you can draw the
­desired length in metres directly to the desired scale.

Fig. 41: Measuring a sketched elevation (scale 1:500) with the triangular scale

43
Fig. 42: Ruler, set square, triangular scale, French curve, circle template

Rulers, set squares and templates

Rulers and set squares can be used to check rapidly made sketches
to see whether their dimensions and proportions need to be developed
further. Straight-edge rulers produce mono-dimensional drawings. Their
disadvantage is that they are suitable only for drawing straight lines. They
are, however, ideal for constructing perspectives with one or more van-
ishing points. > Fig. 23, page 29 The transparent set square, which is also used
for technical drawing, is very useful for drawing parallels and lines at right
angles, or any other angle required, to a given line. The length of the
­hypotenuse (the long side of the triangle) should be 32 cm. A grip makes
this implement easier to use.

French curves are available as prefabricated stencils. They come

from the field of mathematics, where they are used to draw parabolas
and functions. In architecture they are particularly useful for drawing
round design elements, especially in perspective. If a particular curve is
not available a flexible curve can be used. A circle template with circles
of different diameters is always useful.

44
 Freehand drawing in architectural design
Drawing types
Generations of architects have debated and examined which form of
illustration is most suitable for conveying an impression of their building
to themselves and to different groups of people. Looking at the depic-
tions of architecture as described in contracts and the basic forms of
­depiction used by architects work we find the following range of draw-
ings: site plan, floor plan, elevation, section, detail, perspective and then,
less commonly, axonometric. Architects use these drawings to express
different aspects of their designs. These aspects can be roughly broken
down into the following architectural categories: the urban situation, the
function, the construction, the proportions, the configuration of building
volumes, the way the building parts fit together, and the materials used
in the building. This applies to technical drawings made to a particular
scale as well as to freehand sketches, which at the start of a design are
generally made without any scale. When the design becomes more con-
crete or when the planning commission is based on an existing building,
the freehand sketches also employ a scale. You discover which drawing
at which scale is ideal for conveying the intended content through indi-
vidual experience and by drawing regularly. Designs should be continu-
ally developed and examined in several types of drawings.

Site plan, floor plan, section and elevation are planar depictions, i.e.
simple projections. They are not experienced in reality, as the elevation,
for instance, is an “unrealistic” drawing, made at right angles to the build-
ing from an infinite distance. We experience a real building very differ-
ently. The site plan and elevation describe the exterior of a building, while
the floor plan and section provide mostly information about the internal
configuration of the building. Axonometric projections are based on pla-
nar depictions but also show the third dimension, height. Perspectives
are central projections and are based on one or more vanishing points.

Pictogram
Pictograms are a special case. These are symbolic graphics that
­attempt only to convey the design idea or design variations. They must
not be based on any of the drawing types referred to above and must not
provide any concrete information or data about the design. The drawn
form of the pictogram is very free, but generally extremely clear in graph-
ical terms. They do not use any scale. > Fig. 44

45
Fig. 43: Sketches of different projections: floor plan, section, elevations (developed
design)

Fig. 44: Pictograms of different facade versions (conversion of an existing high-rise)

46
Fig. 45: Site plan with neighbouring buildings and a perspective
with the first impression of the exterior

Site plan
The largest scale drawing of an individual building or complex of build-
ings is the site plan. The site plan shows the location of all building parts
on the site and its immediate surroundings, whose surface areas are also
shown. The building that is the subject of the design is shown as a top
view. Site plans are generally drawn at a scale of 1:500, at earlier design
stages and in larger building projects also at 1:1000.

It makes sense also to show the immediate surroundings of the

planned building. These can include neighbouring buildings, vegetation
or infrastructure elements. Site plans often contain legends, levels (height
above sea level) and arrows that indicate entrances or circulation. North
is generally to the top of the sheet, a north arrow (or pointer) should
­always be used. The building should be drawn in such a way that it stands
out clearly from the surrounding developments. This can be achieved by
heightening the contrast, by using thicker lines, or by the use of colour
or surface textures. > Figs. 36, page 40, and 45 The site boundaries are indi-
cated with a dashed line. > Figs. 46 and 47

47
Fig. 46: Immediate surroundings highlighted by use Fig. 47: Schematic ground floor plan with depiction
of coloured areas on the computer of the site

Floor plan
A floor plan is a horizontal cut through a building. Architects always
look down from above, that is to say, a cut is made through the building
and everything that can be seen below the line of the cut is shown. This
line is chosen so that all the openings and the circulation systems can
be seen. The floor plan shows the arrangement of rooms on the different
floors, each floor being drawn separately. Floor plans reveal spatial
­sequences and functions. Sketches of ground floor plans should show
the nature of the surrounding area of the site.

Dark or black-coloured walls outlining white rooms are one of the

principal characteristics of a floor plan sketch. They reveal the building
typology, separate rooms from each other, or indicate the structural sys-
tem. In the early stages of the design the floor plan sketches do not yet
have these typical characteristics. In such cases, simple coloured areas
may be used to indicate sequences of spaces that will eventually provide
the configuration of the building. > Fig. 48 Floor plans of this type are gen-
erally at a scale of 1:200. In the later planning stages floor plans must
◼ be drawn at scales of up to 1:50.

◼ Tip: If the shape or position of the further floors of

the building differs from the floor plan shown it makes
sense to indicate them using full, dashed or dotted
lines (see Chapter Tools and techniques, Lines and the
instruments for drawing them).

48
Fig. 48: A floor plan takes shape through the arrangement of rooms, sorted by colour
according to their function.

Fig. 49: Sketch section at the design stage with depiction of the surroundings

Section
The section is made by placing a vertical section plane in the design
on which everything that you see when looking in a specific horizontal
direction is then depicted. The section plane should be chosen in such a
way that all the important room heights, the way the structure works and
the circulation of the building can be read. What lies close to the section
plane is drawn clearly; building parts that are further away can be drawn
more lightly in elevation. > Fig. 50

49
Fig. 50: Sectional drawing made at the design stage showing surrounding buildings and
trees

During the early design phases the sketched section is a most

i­mportant means of illustration. Often it is needed in order to clarify
­decisive spatial situations. The scale of building sections and elevations
depends on how far the design of the floor plans has advanced. If the
floor plans are drawn at a scale of 1:100 it makes sense to draw the sec-
tions and elevations at this scale too. Urban planning sections through
terrain are generally drawn at a scale of 1:500.

To grasp the complexity of a building a number of sections are gen-

erally needed (at least one cross section and one longitudinal section).
As with the floor plan the walls and ceiling slabs cut through are coloured
dark or crosshatched, and important edges that are not directly visible
are indicated by dashed or dotted lines. The position of the top of the sur-
rounding terrain should be shown in every section and is depicted by a
strong line. If the design involves changing this level the original edge of
the terrain can be shown as a dashed line. Elements that provide a sense
of scale, such as people, vehicles and vegetation, give section and ele-
vation drawings a certain lively quality and make them easier to read.
>  Chapter Freehand drawing in architectural design, Indicators of scale

50
Fig. 51: Elevations of one design at different scales in a sketch

Elevation
The elevation (or view) is a planar drawing that shows one external
face of a building. It could be regarded as a sectional drawing in which,
however, the section plane is not inside the building but outside and
­directly in front of it. The elevation depicts the proportions of a design or
reveals the relationship of the planned building to its surroundings (neigh-
bouring buildings, nature etc.). The relief of a building (facade, windows,
projections) should also be visible and can be shown by means of shad-
ows. This gives an essentially planar drawing such an elevation a certain
depth. Building parts in the background are, as in the section, drawn more
faintly and with separated lines.

During architectural design the elevation can be sketched directly

beside, above, or below a plan drawing, as the lengths required are
­already given. It is important that the ground line on which the building
stands be emphasised, and that the planned building be clearly distin-
guished in the drawing from the neighbouring buildings.

51
Fig. 52: Elevation developed from sketched floor plans

Detail
If you wish to define the construction or materials of a building pre-
cisely, you must proceed to drawing at a smaller scale. What are called
the details of the building are shown in section, elevation or perspective
drawings. Particularly important are detail sketches of those places
where the different parts of the building are pieced together, where
­materials meet, where construction meets design. The term “detail draw-
ing” can cover drawings made at very different scales. A very detailed
depiction at the scale of 1:1 to 1:5 is clearly a detail, but so is the depic-
tion of a facade at the scale of 1:50, as this offers far more detailed
­information than the scale normally used for an elevation drawing.

In detail sketches it may be necessary to define certain materials

precisely. There are standards that lay down the kind of hatching or lines
used to depict materials. In a large-scale section the cut building parts
are indicated by thicker lines. To allow visual checks to be made fre-
quently, a part of the relevant internal and external elevation and a floor
plan are drawn alongside the detail section drawing (vertical or horizon-
tal section).

52
Fig. 53: Large-scale staircase detail with indication of colours and materials

Fig. 54: Small-scale development of details using different types of drawing

53
Fig. 55: Floor plan axonometric, elevation axonometric and isometric projection.

Axonometric projections
Axonometric projections combine the advantages of planar and
three-dimensional drawings as they combine both kinds of depictions: in
some kinds of axonometric projections, the depths and heights of rooms
can be measured from the drawing. These drawings are frequently used
in the architect’s daily life to depict simple spatial relationships. They are
often based on existing drawings and in such cases adopt the scales of
these drawings. The three simplest and most common axonometric pro-
jections used in architectural design are the floor plan axonometric, the
elevation axonometric, and the isometric projection. > Fig. 55

The floor plan axonometric projection (or military projection) is based

on the floor plan, i.e. the dimensions of the floor plan are retained and
can read off the constructed axonometric projection. The heights are
generally reduced by one third. If a floor plan drawing of a current design
already exists, then a spatial depiction can be very quickly drawn using
a roll of sketching paper. The disadvantage of the floor plan axonometric
is the large visible surface of the top view.

The floor plan axonometric as an exploded drawing (which can also

be made on the basis of an isometric) is very informative but relatively
time-consuming. Here, the different floors, building parts or planes of
the construction are shown separated from each other but linked by
­connecting lines and by the geometric severity of the axonometric pro-
jection.

The elevation axonometric projection (also sometimes called cava-

lier projection) is based on the elevation. The elevation of the building is
viewed frontally; the volume develops behind it at an angle. The depth of
the building volume is shortened, generally by a third or a half. This form
of axonometric projection is easy to produce if an elevation of the design
is already available.

54
Fig. 56: Floor plan axonometric projection as an Fig. 57: Rapidly sketched isometric to explain a spatial
­ xploded drawing
e situation, with elevation

The isometric (“iso” comes from the ancient Greek and means equal)
offer true lengths in all directions, however the floor plan is distorted and
shown without a right angle. Therefore the isometric cannot be made on
the basis of an existing drawing. > Chapter Freehand drawing in architectural design,
Continuing the design But the additional effort involved in making this kind of
drawing is worthwhile, as the isometric has the illustrative character of
a bird’s eye view. The isometric is often used in drawing overview plans.

Free perspectives
A perspective drawing differs in one important point from the floor
plan, elevation, section and axonometric: it has one or more vanishing
points. That is to say parallel edges, building parts or buildings are not
drawn parallel to each other but meet at a vanishing point. Perspectives
are particularly suitable for making a building understandable in a clear,
communicative way that lay people can grasp. Such perspectives are of-
ten drawn from the eye level of someone passing by a building, as the
aim is to depict spatial impressions realistically. In addition to the outer
spatial configuration, the perspective also shows particularly clearly the
form and proportions of a building and how it is integrated in urban ­design.
>  Fig. 39, page 42

In situations in which designs based on planar drawings such as floor

plan, section and elevation must be quickly examined in spatial terms,

55
Fig. 58: Rapidly drawn perspective (not constructed) at the height of a passer-by for an urban design ideas com-
petition

Fig. 59: Sectional perspectives of sports halls

bird’s eye perspectives, sectional perspectives and perspectivised ele-

vations are used. These are rarely based on the laws that govern the con-
struction of perspectives but nevertheless communicate the design idea.

In the perspective that a lay person can easily read, the horizon,
which in such rapidly made perspectives is generally not drawn, usually
lies in the area of the ground floor of the building. This creates the illu-
sion of a realistic passer-by’s view of a building in its spatial setting,
whether this is the city or the country.

Bird’s eye perspectives are three-dimensional drawings looking

down from the sky, i.e. the station point of the perspective is above the

56
building. Like the site plan they show both the building and its surround-
ings. You see a distorted top view of the building itself and at least one
elevation. > Fig. 37, page 40

The combination of section and perspective known as the sectional

perspective is a most communicative form of depiction. It can show the
architectural characteristics known from the section, while giving the
drawing a spatial dimension.

The perspectivised elevation suggests, in perspective, an area in front

of a building, and in this way counteracts the absence of perspective in
a classic elevation. > Fig. 43 below, page 46, and Fig. 45, page 47 As long as the ele­
vation does not suffer in graphical terms, it can improve the otherwise
rather abstract elevation of a building.

Constructed perspective
Freely drawn perspectives cannot always completely satisfy or con-
vince the designer and the viewer, as they are not geometrically con-
structed and are consequently imprecise. To produce a correct perspec-
tive, even in freehand drawing, a construction method that comes from
descriptive geometry can be used. The basis of this method is shown
­below for an orthogonal building, using two vanishing points.

To construct a perspective in this way you require a floor plan and at

least one elevation of the design. These drawings must be put on the
­paper, at the same scale, before the perspective is constructed – in the
form of a sketch, copy or print. Ideally, however, the perspective should
be drawn on transparent paper; the drawings referred to above can be
placed beneath the transparent sheet. > Fig. 64, page 60

Fig. 60: Schematic construction of a

­ erspective (the perspective will be drawn
p
in the crosshatched area)

57
Fig. 61: Preparation and construction of the vanishing points

Fig. 62: Transfer of the true height and construction of the perspective

On the sheet the perspective is constructed from bottom to top. Near

the bottom edge of the sheet is the station point (SP). Now the floor plan
must be positioned in such a way that the desired perspective can be
drawn. The distance to the station point must be determined, and the
floor plan must be swivelled until an interesting view is found. The eleva-
tion is placed above the floor plan, not centrally but to the left or right of
the floor plan. The perspective is created alongside the elevation and
above the floor plan. The picture plane (PP) is drawn through the floor
plan as a horizontal line, parallel to the ground line of the elevation. Its
position determines the size of the final perspective. Ideally it should be
positioned so that it cuts at least one important corner or edge of the
building. In the elevation drawing the vertical position of the horizon (HO)
is chosen. It is drawn parallel to the ground line of the elevation and to
the picture plane in the upper part of the sheet. > Fig. 60

58
Fig. 63: Changing the position of the picture plane, the horizon and the station point and
swivelling the building

This preparatory work should be carried out before constructing the

perspective. Now the vanishing points needed are constructed. To do this
lines are drawn parallel to the orthogonal outside edges of the floor plan
and are extended to meet the picture plane. At each of the points where
they meet this plane a vertical line is drawn up to the horizon. These two
new points are the two vanishing points. > Fig. 61 ◯

◯ Note: Although this construction method is relatively

time consuming it produces only a small perspective.
It also requires a good understanding of the procedure
and the variables. Only the main principles are pre-
sented in this book. Construction methods employing
one or three vanishing points are not dealt with, nor are
the construction of shadows or perspectives of non-
orthogonal floor plans.

59
Fig. 64: Perspective based on the point projection construction method

In the next step the building volume is transferred from the plan to
the perspective to be drawn. To do this lines are drawn from the station
point to the important corner points of the building in plan and contin-
ued to the picture plane. From these points on the picture verticals are
drawn. Here the corner point of the floor plan that cuts the picture plane
should also be included. Only at those points where the plan drawing cuts
the picture plane can real heights be transferred from the elevation to
the perspective.

Now the perspective can be created step by step. From the first edge
of the building vanishing lines are drawn to the next building edge, the
pos­ition of which has been defined by the verticals already drawn. Seen
from the eye-point the right-hand sides of the building sides always van-
ish to the right vanishing point and left-hand sides to the left vanishing
point. > Fig. 62

In this method, four variables determine the appearance of the con-

structed perspective. > Fig. 63 If you change the position of the picture plane
in relation to the floor plan this changes the size of the drawing. Only those
building parts on the picture plane retain their size. The horizon deter-
mines the vertical height of the station point. If the elevation drawing cuts
the horizon you obtain a view of the building from above or below. Shift-
ing the station point immediately changes the perspective. If it is close to
(far from) the floor plan the perspective can seem very dramatic (flat). If
the floor plan is turned until it reaches the desired position in relation to
the station point, this changes the position of the vanishing points. > Fig. 63

60
Indicators of scale
In the technical architectural drawing – such as the floor plan – fami­
liar forms for fittings or furnishings such as toilets, staircases or doors
serve as a scale that gives the viewer a grasp of the proportions. These
indicators of scale are enormously important for the outside viewer,
whether clients, colleagues or lay people. They should be included in all
architectural drawings –both the architectural design and the drawing
made on site. They also include drawings of trees and plants, people,
street furniture, vehicles, and in some cases also the sky.

People
Showing people in architectural drawings is of great importance.
They give the virtual building a vertical dimension that everyone can
i­mmediately understand. They are indispensable above all in elevations
and sections; > Fig. 49, page 49 and in perspectives passers-by or users of
the building dimension the space that the design intends to convey. > Fig. 23,
page 29 They are more rarely found in floor plans where they are not ob­
ligatory. The manner in which people are depicted depends on whether
they accompany the design in an additive manner or are intended to in-
dicate how the space is dimensioned. Like everything else people can be
­depicted in a variety of ways. > Figs. 15, 53, 58, 74 and 90

Views of architecture drawn on site can also be given a scale by add-

ing people. If these drawings are perspectives then, before starting to
draw, you should consider your position relative to other people. If you
stand when drawing then (assuming a straight plane) the heads of all
standing adults should be shown on the horizon line, no matter how near
or far away they are. > Fig. 74, page 72 Here, too, you are confronted with the
basic decision about what level of importance should be given to the peo-
ple depicted. The main focus should always be on the architecture.

Fig. 65: A sketch of a space initially without dimensions. Attempts to dimension it with different depictions
of people give the space very different sizes.

61
Fig. 66: Trees as positive and negative, the focus is on the composition as a whole

Vegetation
Where they seem relevant in a drawing, trees can be depicted in many
different ways. There are innumerable kinds of trees and many of them
change their appearance with the seasons. How one depicts trees is
­always a question of the composition or the focal point on the sheet. If
the attention is to be directed to a building that is surrounded by trees,
these should be drawn faintly and vaguely. > Fig. 50, page 50 If the drawing is
intended more to convey an overall impression, the trees and the build-
ing can be given roughly equal emphasis. > Fig. 66 Whatever the case, the
depiction of vegetation helps to integrate the architecture into its estab-
lished setting. > Fig. 25, page 31 Trees should not be drawn too small, as this
makes the building appear proportionally too large.

To make a (deciduous) tree appear more three-dimensional in sum-

mer the mass of leaves with the trunk should first of all be shown as an
outline drawing. The trunk and the branches can be added, but it is more
important to break the tree up into so-called “leaf-clouds” whose struc-
ture is more defined on their shadow side. It should be noted that “leaf-
clouds” that have one side in shadow and one in the light appear more
three-dimensional. >  Fig. 10, page 18, and Fig. 27, page 31 Conversely, in winter
trees consist only of the structure of the trunk and the branches, which
grow thinner towards the top of the tree. In depicting trees a combina-
tion of line drawing (pencil or fineliner) with a number of surface areas
(marker pen or watercolours) is particularly charming. > Fig. 36, page 40

62
Fig. 67: Different kinds of trees

Bushes, grass and other kinds of incidental vegetation should be

i­ndicated only by a variety of lines or suggestions of irregular textures,
and should never be too dominant.

Vehicles
Much like architecture and the human body, motorised vehicles are
made up almost exclusively of basic geometric shapes added together.
Most of the parts of a car can therefore be constructed relatively simply
in a drawing. In elevation and sections they are generally needed only in
the form of silhouettes, but in perspectives they are three-dimensional
volumes. In designs that stand on busy streets in particular, cars must
be drawn so that they fit properly into the given space in terms of per-
spective – i.e. they must be drawn correctly with regard to the vanishing
point. > Fig. 68

Sky
If the horizon (the horizon that actually describes the top of the vis-
ible land or building mass) can be seen on the sheet, the depiction of the
sky acquires particular importance. Like almost everything else the sky
can be depicted in a number of different ways. Hatching can convey a
certain dramatic quality if the lines become denser towards the horizon
or point towards a vanishing point. This effect can also be achieved by a
gradient using watercolours or marker pens. Whatever the case, care
should be taken that the upper area of clouds is not given any colour but

63
Fig. 68: Like the buildings, the car on the road vanishes towards the vanishing point.

is left white. Only the underside of the clouds should be depicted. > Fig. 38,
page 41 The same applies when you hatch clouds: in the lower part of the
cloud close to the horizon the hatching lines are condensed, and the
­upper part of the cloud is left untouched. A sky can be edged with nearby
trees, neighbouring buildings or electricity wires, no matter whether it is
just hatched or depicted with watercolours. Whether and in what way the
sky is present in an elevation or a perspective can also supply informa-
tion about the topographical surroundings of the site of the planned
­building.

Degree of abstraction
A floor plan at a scale of 1:100 is intended for a certain stage of the
planning process (design planning). This scale also suggests that, in com-
parison to earlier planning stages, the drawing is larger in terms of the
area of paper needed, and that more must be depicted. This could take
the form of the way rooms are furnished, details of the construction or
of the building services. In contrast in such plans the urban context will
hardly be visible.

It is not only in the field of technical drawing that particular scales

are allocated to the different planning stages. Freehand drawing should
also obey certain rules in order to ensure that legibility is preserved, for
lay people as well. This is a difficult topic to deal with as sketching is
­always dependent on the individual style and expression of the draughts­
person. Essentially, however, the size of the drawing should always match
the content shown.

64
 A design is often made on the basis of an existing drawing with a
known scale. Where this is not the case, a triangular scale can help. Free-
hand sketches without a basis should not be too large, as they are gener-
ally used in the early planning stages where details have yet to be ­clarified.

In architectural drawing on site, the size of a perspective can greatly

influence its expressive strength. People, vegetation, vehicles and urban
furniture enrich every drawing through atmosphere and by suggesting
­dimensions. They function extremely well in terms of indicating scale,
whereas other things tend to hinder the understanding of space. The
­depiction of individual stones in a wall or roof tiles from a great distance
can strongly influence the apparent size. In addition, repetition of the
same structures can often seem childish; it is far preferable merely to
suggest such structures. As in the early planning stage of a design, a
greater distance from the object being drawn demands a higher degree
of abstraction.

Continuing the design

Only the very first sketch of a design consists of pure thoughts,
and every sketch that follows reacts to what has been drawn before by
­rejecting it, accepting it or developing it further. But sometime or other
the point comes where the information in the sketches must be carried
a step further. The sketch consolidates at a certain scale and finds the
way from abstraction to concretisation.

The steps that a design has to undergo before it is realised are in prin-
ciple comparable to the architect’s services, as described in the profes-
sional scale of fees. During the basic evaluation, the design and approval
plans and the later technical and economic design phases, the design
constantly changes in the way it is depicted and, as a result, also changes
the scale. The types of drawing that emerge show the design from all side
and at different levels of depth, support it or reveal its flaws.

The freehand sketch reveals its advantages as a mediator between

the different scales and planning stages. A drawing that previously only
existed at a larger scale can be transferred to a different scale through
the draughtsperson’s experience. The visual language changes. At this
stage, leave may be taken of the medium of freehand drawing in order to
concretise and dimension the design by producing technical drawings. If
what had been hoped for does not emerge as a result the sketch can be
used again, which advances the design even though it involves going back
a step in either scale or thought. This is how a design develops, through
advances and setbacks, and the design method does not compete but
switches between freehand and technical drawing, model and simulation,
and engages with them in a meaningful symbiosis.

65
Fig. 69: Changing visual languages in consecutive design steps

Based on a printed-out photo of a model, the building volume can be

examined using a roll of sketching paper. CAD applications often have
axonometric view areas in which planar drawings such as floor plans or
elevations can be shown in parallel perspective. If we print out this view
area it can provide the basis for a useful and informative axonometric.
>  Fig. 56, page 55 Equally, a digitalised drawing can be imported into any CAD

program. It is positioned so that it lies visibly on its own construction

plane so that the lines conceived can be drawn over with vectors.

When the end of a design phase approaches and concrete results

are required, the medium of freehand drawing need not be abandoned.
For example, competition entries that use plans and perspectives drawn
freehand stand out among many presentation plans made completely on
the computer. Their authenticity gives the viewer the feel that the author
has holistically engaged with his or her work. Hand-drawn details are just
as suitable as CAD details to accompany the specifications for a particu­
lar trade. > Fig. 19, page 26 The points of contact between analogous and
­digital design media are numerous and varied.

66
 Architectural drawing on site
The special thing about drawing on site – however banal it may
sound – is being present in front of the architecture, its phenomenologi­
cal appearance, observing the building directly and then transferring this
to the drawing. Drawing on site means drawing an existing piece of
­architecture which our eyes see and which penetrates our brain and
which, with our hand, we reproduce on a sheet of paper. This illustrates
the difference both to design sketches, which are derived from the imag-
ination, and to photography, which rarely works in a cognitive way.

Through the repeated act of looking closely, drawing on site encour-

ages the development of a building archive in which patterns, geometries,
structures, forms and typologies can be stored. The draughtsperson
­appropriates a building individually and produces a two-dimensional
equivalent of the image that he or she has perceived, at an undefined
scale. ◼

Drawing types
When we look at a building on site, we find ourselves in a specific
r­ elationship to it in terms of perspective. This means that the perspec-
tive is the sole realistic type of drawing you can draw without a further
examination of the building. This is the great difference from projection
drawings. A site plan, an elevation, or an axonometric cannot be pro-
duced on site without walking around the building; you will not be able
to draw an elevation correctly if you are not positioned at right angles to
the building; you will not be able to draw a floor plan or a section if you
have only looked at the building from outside.

◼ Tip: A drawing that you have started on site should,

wherever possible, also be finished on site. You should
never draw from photographs as this prevents atmos-
pheric and spatial impressions from appearing in the
drawing, neglects some aspects and exaggerates oth-
ers. Drawing on site offers an opportunity to refine your
perception and therefore a chance to show by means
of particular aspects what was important to you at the
particular time. Nobody can assume another person’s
perception. Nevertheless the scene should also be
­photographed so that afterwards you can compare the
reality with what you have perceived.

67
Fig. 70: Drawing excursion to Runkel: despite similar conditions and the same rules of drawing, individual
­ rawing styles still emerge.
d

68
Fig. 71: Drawing excursion to Dietkirchen: the choice of drawing instruments influences the depiction.

69
 However, since an architect uses a variety of methods of illustration
in order to make certain ideas in the design understandable, you should
attempt on site to make other drawings as well as perspectives. If, say,
the focus of interest is on the construction of the building, you should try
to make a section or draw a detail. However, this means you must first
enter the building, walk around it and examine it closely. This inspection
encourages the cognitive penetration of the building through understand-
ing the logic of its structure.

Perspective drawing
Someone who makes freehand drawings of real architecture cannot
use the constructed perspective method as they do not have the floor
plan and elevation needed. Nevertheless, by observing certain principles
rules and laws it is still possible to draw a correct perspective. Perspec-
tive is particularly useful for the depiction of space. A measurable spa-
tial depth, which is imitated in all perspectives, cannot be taken a freely
drawn perspective, as perspectives do not have any scale.

The depiction of space is regulated by five principles:

1. The first principle of perspective illustration is that of the spatial
constant. It describes the relationships between the sizes of
­objects in the depth of the space. Objects of the same size are
shown smaller the further away they are.
2. The principle of staggering is that any object behind another is
­hidden. Care should be taken that the lines do not overlap, as if
they do they cannot be interpreted in spatial terms.
3. The principal of correct level of detail can be compared with archi-
tects’ plans, which use different scales. Objects in the foreground
are close and are therefore depicted in detail; objects that are
closer to the horizon are further away and therefore some of the
precise detail is lost. Here the draughtsman or woman varies the
degree of abstraction.
4. Someone who has a good long-distance view in the city or the
country recognises that the layers of air and vapour cause tonal
values to fade or grow weaker towards the horizon. This is the
­atmospheric principle. The same object, seen at a greater
­distance, tends to blur visually in the background.
5. The fifth principle of perspective drawing deals with shadows,
which with all their different facets can create strong spatial
­effects.

The way the picture is built up is an important decision that must be

made before starting every drawing, and may decide on the success or
failure of the work. A drawing is always only a depicted part of the sur-
roundings. There are complicated ways of showing the whole of these

70
 Fig. 72: The five principles of perspective
illustration: spatial constant, staggering,
correct level of detail, atmosphere,
­shadows

surroundings in perspective, but essentially a part or section must be

chosen – consciously or unconsciously. First of all, the picture plane must
be determined, that is, you must decide what you want to draw. The im-
aginary picture plane (PP) lies between you and the object you draw.
>  Fig. 73 It is like an invisible plane slid between draughtsperson and sub-

ject, and projects what the observer sees onto the drawing sheet at a
­reduced scale.

71
Fig. 73: Between architecture and draughts- Fig. 74: Three-dimensional volumes in relation to the position of
man lies the picture plane: the drawing the horizon
sheet.

Before starting the drawing you must discover your relationship to

the subject of the drawing. Is it above or below you? Where is the hori-
zon? How many vanishing points are there? The horizon (H) is always
at our eye level, whether we are lying on the ground (frog perspective),
sitting or standing. If all the people gathered on a level square were of
the same size, then their eyes would all be at the same height and there-
fore directed towards the line of the horizon. > Fig. 74 Depending on inter-
est the subject of the (draughtsperson’s) desire is either above the hori-
zon (H), at the same height as the horizon or below it. Vanishing points
(VP) always lie on the horizon line (except for tilted planes and three point
perspectives).

The station point from which a building is viewed influences the kind
of perspective (central, two-point or three-point perspective). If you look
at a building or an interior space at right angles, you must draw the per-
spective with a single vanishing point (central perspective). The special
aspect of the central perspective is that only the lines of building edges
that are parallel and run in space converge at the central vanishing point;
all the other lines have no vanishing point and therefore never meet. If
you are not looking at the building at right angles but at an outside cor-
ner of the building, you have a diagonal or two-point perspective. Left-
hand building parts converge towards a left hand vanishing point, right
hand building parts towards the right-hand point. As the name suggests,
the two-point perspective has two vanishing points. All the vertical edges
of the rectangular volume remain vertical. If we draw an angled view and
at the same time look upwards, for instance at the base of a high-rise) or

72
Fig. 75: System of the central perspective, two-point perspective, and three-point perspective

look downwards, (for instance out of the window of a high-rise building),

a third vanishing point is added. This is then – with a rectangular build-
ing – the three-point perspective. Theoretically we could draw a spheri-
cal perspective that depicts the space surrounding us in all directions. In
a rectilinear world one would always have six vanishing points, four them
every 90° in the four points of the compass and one each for the high
point and the low point. The high point and low point lie on what is called
the “vertizon” (V), the equivalent of the horizon. ◼ ●

◼ Tip: Essentially, the nearer you are to the building ● Important: A significant difference from the techni-
you are drawing, the closer together the vanishing cal architectural drawing is the depiction only of what
points are on the drawing sheet (see Fig. 63, page 59). is visible, i.e. no edges of volumes that lie behind or
If you move further away from the building and draw it in front of the building being drawn are indicated by
again you will notice that in relation the vanishing dashed or dotted lines. Unless, that is, various lines are
points are now further away from the building, possibly needed to construct building parts: lines to discover
even no longer on the drawing sheet. In single point the horizon, vanishing points or construction lines for
perspectives the vanishing point is generally near the complicated building parts can be retained in the fin-
centre of the sheet. ished drawing, as they form part of the development
and comprehension process of the drawing. Correc-
tions are also allowed. The aim is to find the correct
line and to depict the subject of the drawing correctly.

73
 Construction of an on-site perspective
The perspective most commonly used in on-site drawing is the diag-
onal or two-point perspective with two vanishing points. The individual
steps of the construction are described below.

If, with your arm outstretched, you hold the pen or pencil horizon-
tally in front of your eyes and imagine the line produced, you obtain the
position of the horizon. This can be transferred to the sheet as a straight
horizontal line. In the present situation this can be done on the lower part
of the sheet, as at the moment the level of your eyes (approx. 1.50 m
above the level of the ground) is in the lower part of the building. Now
you can see what is to be drawn above and below the horizon. With a
­two-point perspective it is advisable to draw the building edge closest to
the point where you are standing as a vertical. > Fig. 76

Finding the vanishing points is most important. First of all, the ­actual
length of the building edge is drawn on the verticals. This also determines
the size of the drawing. The pencil is an ideal instrument for measuring
the lengths, angles and proportions. It can be placed directly against the
lines of streets, building edges, or sloping roofs. If you measure the ­angles
of the lines running from the end points of the building edges and con-
tinue these lines to the horizon you obtain the two vanishing points. The
width and height of the building you are looking at can be measured with
the pencil: fix your thumb at a certain point on the pencil and read this
length in relation to the entire length of the pencil. > Fig. 77

Taking further measurements completes the volume of the building

in all directions. The position of the projecting pediment can be deter-
mined by drawing two diagonals through the rectangular area. The main
◼ openings of the building are also drawn. > Fig. 78

◼ Tip: To arrive at comparable results you should

always hold your arm outstretched against the subject
of the drawing, no matter what you wish to measure. In
measuring angles a watch face can also be helpful. A
sloping roof must not always be described by a number
of degrees, the detail “two o’clock” can also suffice.

74
Fig. 76: Determining the position of the horizon and a near building corner with the drawing pen or pencil

Fig. 77: Finding the vanishing points and measuring the building’s height and width

Now the drawing can be completed. Secondary openings, ornament

and details are added. The foreground and background frame the build-
ing. Applying shadows gives the architectural drawing a certain plastic-
ity. > Fig. 79

In the simpler central perspective first of all look you for the point
on the end face (for instance of the building) that is exactly at right an-
gles to the station point. This point lies on the horizon. From the corner
points of the end face of the building – or perhaps an opening or an im-
aginary surface – lines are drawn from the direction of the vanishing point.
>  Figs. 90 and 91, page 87

75
Fig. 78: Completing the volume by measuring

Fig. 79: Completing the drawing

Site plan and floor plan

If you wish to have an overview of the place where the building stands
a small site plan sketch is ideal. The site plan is essential for depicting
the urban setting. You can attempt to survey the space with the help of
the perspective but walking across it is also extremely useful. Walk
around the building, which is ideally freestanding, taking paces of equal
length. To make an approximately correct site plan, it is useful first of all
to draw a chequerboard grid on the sheet. Then – depending on the size
of the place – the width and length of each square represents ten to
twenty paces. You should now walk across the area and attempt to insert
the building at the right position in this grid. You can also do it at a smaller
scale by just looking at the building and drawing its outline rather than a
site plan. Here you walk around the outsides of a freestanding building
and count your paces. This helps you discover the outline or footprint, i.e.
the relationship of width to length. If it is possible to get inside the build-
ing you wish to draw, you can continue drawing the floor plan in the
­interior and in this way depict the building’s function.

76
Fig. 80: Axonometric projection made on site

Floor plan axonometric

If the outline of the floor plan has been drawn you can attempt a fur-
ther type of architectural drawing, the axonometric depiction. This is,
alongside the perspective, the drawing that is best able to provide infor-
mation about the configuration of the building volume. On the basis of
the plan drawing (generally immediately above or below it) using ex-
tended construction lines, make an attempt to depict the building in three
­dimensions. Walls and columns, for example, are given certain heights.
Through further observations, as the result of walking around and inside
the building several times, you can then complete the drawing.

Elevation and section

If you wish to convey the special proportions of the building on site
the elevation drawing is recommended. Alongside the perspective this
is most useful drawing for depicting the proportions of a building. You
can achieve command of the correct degree of abstraction at different
scales (i.e. drawing sizes) by producing several elevations, each time at

77
a different distance from the building. You should attempt to ignore the
marginal central perspective offered by your view of the building. With
access to the building, you can sketch a cross section based on the
­elevation, which shows the structural system of the building or its circu­
lation system.

Aids
Grid and frame
With a transparent grid of lines or a mesh, which can easily be made
on a sheet of film, you can recognise several important aspects. If, like
most sheets of drawing paper, the sheet of film is roughly in the format
2:3 it can be used as a basis for positioning a drawing on the sheet, by
holding it at the desired distance away from yourself and looking at the
building through the transparent film. If you hold one of the horizontal
lines directly in front of your eyes you also obtain the horizon. You also
see all the building verticals, which for a one- or two-point perspective,
are always drawn as verticals. The transparent grid provides further aid
if you have difficulty in transferring the correct proportions of the build-
ing and its surroundings to the sheet of paper. The structure of the grid-
ded sheet of film can be applied lightly to the sheet with the drawing. You
now examine the “contents” of each square and draw these, square
by square, onto the sheet. Gradually the sheet is filled with the correct
proportions.

A frame, which can also be made with the thumb and index finger of
both hands, can help to find the section or part of the reality in front of
you that you wish to draw. It gives you a feeling for what you can fit on
the sheet, and helps avoid unpleasant surprises with regard to the size
of drawing. The area of the frame always represents the drawing sheet.

Preliminary sketch
Before making a larger perspective drawing it is sometimes advis­
able first of all to draw a small preliminary sketch of what you plan to do.
This should help deal with problems as regards the relationship in which
you stand to the building, where the horizon is, and how many vanishing
points there are and whether they are on the drawing sheet at all. It
should give you a feeling for how the drawing can be positioned on the
sheet. The frame of the preliminary drawing represents the outer edges
of the drawing sheet. The horizon is quickly found and entered in the lower
third of the sheet, then by measuring the angles the two essential van-
ishing points can be found. The rough outline of the building can now be
added faintly. The quick note represented by the preliminary drawing
trains your ability to grasp and perceive, both of which are essential for
drawing on site. The miniature drawing also helps to decide how large to
make the drawing that follows the preliminary one.

78
Fig. 81: Using a sheet of film with a grid of lines that divides up the building, which is
­ istorted in perspective, into areas of equal size
d

Fig. 82: Use of the frame

79
Fig. 83: Miniature preliminary drawing based on the content of the frame (here a two-point
perspective, station point in the lower part of the building)

Construction aids
In diagonal perspectives the sides of buildings are often so distorted
that you cannot grasp the visual centre point of the building without be-
ing irritated by this distortion. To determine where the visual centre point
of a building seen in perspective lies, take the pencil with your thumb at
the centre of its length and hold it in front of your eyes. Now move the
pencil towards or away from you until the length of the pencil exactly cov-
ers the building that you want to draw. If you look again at your thumb
and note the point of the building that is hidden behind it, you obtain the
centre point of the building and of the drawing you are about to make
and can position it better on the sheet.

For instance, in order to depict regularly spaced street lamps in per-

spective you must first of all choose a distance (D) between two street
lamps. Then you determine the middle line (M) of the two lamps and con-
nect this with the vanishing point (VP). From the top of the first lamp you
now draw a diagonal through the middle point of the second lamp and
extend it to meet a bottom point on the lower vanishing line. This is the
point at which the third lamp stands.

You find the middle point of vertical lines in a perspective by meas-

uring the actual length or height of the lines. In contrast, the middle point
(M) of rectangular areas is found by drawing an “X” through a rectangu-
lar area in perspective. Centrally positioned building elements (flags, tow-
ers, windows) can then be more easily constructed from this middle point.

80
Fig. 84: Finding the visual focus of the building

Fig. 85: Construction aids

Circles are always found within squares, ellipses within a rectangle. From
the square or rectangle with an “X” drawn through it we arrive at the cir-
cle or the ellipse through the intermediate step of the octagon.

81
Fig. 86: Approach to drawing with outlines (see also Fig. 73,
page 72)

Outlines
Drawing a perspective correctly is often difficult. There are, however,
a number of approaches to depicting the object correctly. In drawing out-
lines or intermediate spaces first of all the contour is depicted that sep-
arates, say, the stone building from the airy sky or defines the void/space
between two volumes. On this basis the relationships between two vol-
umes are first determined, not the volumes themselves. Once the main
outline, which can be drawn intuitively or by measuring, is established
on the sheet the building can be completed below the outline. While mak-
ing the outline compare the lengths, angles and relationships just drawn
with those you drew just a short time earlier. The outline is thus a scale
for itself and later has a considerable influence on the composition of the
drawing as a whole.

Shadows
Light makes buildings, objects and people visible but it is shadows
that make them seem alive in reality. If you are able to identify and ­depict
shadows a drawing becomes more spatial and has greater relief. There
are different ways of transferring this spatiality to the two-dimensional
drawing substrate. The path of the sun should be noted and followed
while making a drawing, as in the course of producing an elaborate draw-
ing it can change (and along with it the shadows). When the sun shines
different kinds of shadows can be identified on buildings. The side fac-
ing towards the light of a rectangular building is brighter than the side
of  the building opposite. The sides of the building between them are,

82
Fig. 87: An object’s own shadow and cast shadow (light source on the left)

in terms of brightness, somewhere in between. A distinction is drawn be-

tween own shadow and cast shadow. Own shadow (OS) is, as a rule,
lighter than cast shadow (CS). If own shadow and cast shadow meet they
produce what is called core shadow. Pure shadow drawings have a spe-
cial kind of attractiveness. Here the focus is on depicting the different
tonal values of the shadows. Medium light tones are avoided and particu­
larly light and dark areas are exaggerated. The brightest surface remains
white. If the drawing is made on grey or brown paper the brightest area
can also be made using a white pencil, which achieves a similar effect.
>  Fig. 10, page 18

Instruments for when you are on the move

You should feel at ease with your own drawing instruments or uten-
sils. They should be agreeable to use and, for daily use, they should all
fit easily into a bag. The equipment needed for drawing in the city need
not be elaborate; it must only suffice for what you intend to do.

A fisherman’s seat, a stool or even a draughtsman’s stool are recom-

mended to every urban draughtsman or woman. If you do not have a stool
you have to find a position where you can sit comfortably for a length of
time, but which then may not offer the view you want. During the colder
part of the year, fingerless gloves, which allow you to hold the pencil prop-
erly, are very useful. What are known as fold-back clips are handy to pre-
vent the wind whipping up the pages while you are drawing on site. Draw-
ings made with a lot of graphite or charcoal should be treated with a

83
 Fig. 88: The draughtsperson’s utensils

fixative to ensure a long life. If you do not have this protective layer (gen-
erally available in spray cans) with you, a temporary solution is to lay a
◼ ◯ loose empty sheet over your drawing.

◼ Tip: Drawing architecture on site marked by external ◯ Note: In public space, your choice of drawing sub-
influences: a strong wind, hot sun, bright backlight, jects may place you at prominent and busy places and
annoying pigeons and inquisitive passers-by or unpleas- squares. You should not let yourself be discouraged
ant smells, the public realm that cannot be influenced, by the comments of passers-by. If you feel watched by
atmospheric morning light or a spontaneous feeling for an audience behind you, you should close your sketch-
a particular piece of architecture. Drawing buildings book briefly until the inquisitive glances have turned
on site also means observing rules. You should be cer- elsewhere. You do not need to put up with this kind
tain that it is permitted to draw at the chosen spot. It is of thing: after all, the author of the drawing is the only
indeed often the case that drawing is allowed where ­relevant person, not the public at large. You should
photography is forbidden, but where this is uncertain observe the influences and rules, particularly if the
you should make enquiries. drawing takes a longer period of time.

84
 Further development
As-built drawing
Design sketching can also be combined with drawing architecture
on site. For instance, where you intend to prepare a design for an empty
inner city site, you should first of all visit the site. With the sketchbook
all the relevant data and impressions of the site can be noted and the
spatial situation recorded in a drawing. After this urban design analysis
a perspective of the empty site, without the future design, can be made
directly. You should look for a perspective that shows the main charac-
teristics of the site.

When the design has matured in terms of function and form it can
be integrated into the drawing made on site using sketching paper or trac-
ing paper. The planned volume, which previously existed only in the form
of planar projections, can now be evaluated in spatial and urban planning
terms. Care should be taken to insert the design correctly into the draw-
ing in terms of perspective, taking into account the horizon and vanish-
ing point(s).

Naturally, this can also be done on the basis of a photograph of the

site or even of the model of the surroundings. First of all, however, the
horizon and vanishing points must be determined, which can be drawn
using sketching paper.

Digitalisation and image editing

Freehand drawings are always originals, of which only one exists. In
some cases, however, digital reproductions are needed, whether for
screen presentations, presentation drawings or website contents. The
digitalisation of a drawing is almost always followed by editing the image
on the computer, no matter whether the drawing was pixelated by a scan-
ner or a camera. This is true of both design drawings and on-site ­drawings.

Digitalisation
If sketches or architectural drawings are required in digital form for
a particular purpose, there are essentially two ways in which this can be
done.

Scanning drawings with a flatbed image scanner is a very good and

authentic solution. The scanner has image processing software that al-
lows the settings to be adjusted. The resolution should be 300 dpi, which
is high, but still acceptable in terms of data volume. The drawing is laid
flat and evenly on the scanner. As a result the distance of the drawing to

85
Fig. 89: Photograph of the empty site, construction of the perspective, insertion of the
design volume, developing the image, completing the illustration

86
Fig 90: Scanning vs. photographing a drawing

Fig. 91: Drawing before and after cleaning

the light source remains the same, allowing you to expect a homogenous
result. If only a DIN A4 scanner is available, larger documents can be
scanned in sections and later pieced together with the image editing pro-
gram in the panorama or sorting function. Care should be taken that the
individual data are always scanned and saved in the same way.

Drawings can also be photographed. If you want to do this indoors

you should ensure even, ideally indirect, lighting so that no reflections
impair the depiction of the drawing. Reflections occur in particular with
pencil drawings and drawings made on tracing paper. The photograph
must be taken perpendicular to the drawing so that it is not distorted.
The photographer’s shadow should not be cast. The direct flash function
of the camera should always be deactivated. If you attempt to make a
photographic reproduction outdoors, in principle the same rules apply:
no reflections, no shadows, and even lighting. In this way, both with an
overcast sky and in bright sunshine, good results can be achieved.

87
Postprocessing a design drawing
After the drawing has been digitalised, image editing is usually nec-
essary to allow the drawing to be used for other purposes. For instance,
after a drawing on sketching paper has been scanned or photographed,
grey areas and edges caused by unevenness may often impair the image.
Bleeding may be evident directly beside lines, or the original grey or black
of the lines may not be recognisable.

With a purely line drawing for which only pencil or fineliner was used
it makes sense to reduce the saturation level of the entire image so that
it still has a number of different shades of grey (caution: do not active
“greyscale” editing as this changes the compatibility of the file). If the
drawing now looks rather pale, correcting the gradation curve can help.
Using the white pipette (black pipette) a white (black) area is marked
in the drawing. In this way all blurred grey areas in the drawing can be
removed, and the individual lines now appear more clearly. Changes to
image brightness and contrast produce similar results.

Having been cleaned up the drawing offers a good basis for further
editing and processing with areas of colour, colour gradients and trans-
parencies. A collage-like mounting of people, trees and other indicators
of scale in a hand drawing can achieve a delightful effect. Here, it is im-
portant that the additional elements be allocated to a separate layer in
the image editing program so that later changes can be made. > Fig. 89 ­below

Postprocessing an on-site drawing

An architectural drawing that was made on site can also be subse-
quently edited, for instance on the basis of a photograph. Care should
be taken that the place remains authentic and is not falsified by incor-
rectly cast shadows, exaggerated colours, or changes to the depictions
of material.

In Fig. 92 right, the background was first completely covered with a

mid-grey and then the lightest areas (the windows and the soffit of the
arch) created by removing this colour. Special effects here include the
angled entry of light, created by means of a white transparent surface,
and the reflections on the floor, transparent duplicates, turned upside
down, of the respective original layers in the image editing program.
Fig. 93 underlines the horizontality of the design by the atmospheric
­addition of sky and vegetation as a gradient and through the emphasis
of the horizon. Here, too, the depicting the shadows correctly is most
­important.

88
Fig. 92: Original and digitally processed on-site drawing

Fig. 93: Digital processing of on-site drawings

89
In conclusion
Drawing is the architect’s language. The technical drawing is not as
personally formulated as the freehand sketch but is tied to certain con-
ventions. When such a drawing is made by hand the placing of focal points
and particular care can create an individual style. However, the use of
CAD programs in the early design stages makes drawing styles more uni-
form and interchangeable and increasingly reduces the proportion of
freely drawn ideas in a design. Even while still a student the growing com-
plexity of the tasks that confront the architect reduces the use of the
freehand drawing, which is often seen as excessively time-consuming.

But it is precisely the spontaneous and intuitive freehand drawing

that can transfer the ideas of the designer to a sheet of paper in a pure
manner. Here, sketching is learnt by trial and error. To be able to use this
medium in a confident and effective way, certain techniques and tools
must be tried out. In the later stage of the design it forms a perfect syn-
thesis with model building and technical drawing.

Sketching architecture on site provides a valuable service. It offers

the draughtsman or woman a very personal abstraction of what has been
perceived. The archive of architectural structures and quotations that is
gradually built up through drawing existing architecture can be later
drawn upon when designing. But here, too, drawing architecture cannot
claim to replace other disciplines of architectural education. Visiting a
building in its setting in urban space or in the landscape, going inside it,
touching it and discovering its various functional, constructive or design
characteristics are also an essential part of perceiving and understand-
ing a building.

90
 Appendix
Literature
Jonathan Andrews: Architectural Visions. Contemporary Sketches,
­Perspectives, Drawings, Braun, Salenstein 2010
Alejandro Bahamón: Sketch: Houses, Loft Publications, Barcelona 2008
Herman van Bergeijk and Deborah Hauptmann: Notations of Herman
Hertzberger, Nai Publishers, Rotterdam 1998
Bert Bielefeld (ed.): Basics Architectural Presentation, Birkhäuser
­Verlag, Basel 2014
Matthew Brehm: Sketching on location, Kendall Hut Publishing
­Company, Dubuque 2012
Gabriel Campanario: The Art of Urban Sketching, Quarry Books, Beverly
2012
Francis D. K. Ching: Architecture: Form, Space & Order, John Wiley &
Sons, Hoboken 2007, 3rd edition
Magali Delgado Yanes and Ernest Redondo Dominguez: Freehand
­Drawing for Architects and Interior Designers, Parramon Paidotribo,
Barcelona 2005
Brian Edwards: Understanding Architecture Through Drawing, E & FN
Spon, London 1994
Helmut Germer and Thomas Neeser: 1D The First Dimension: Drawing
and Perception – A Workbook for Designers, Birkhäuser, Basel 2010
Danny Gregory: An illustrated life. Drawing inspiration from the private
sketchbooks of artists, illustrators and designers, How Books,
­Cincinnati 2008
Eric Jenkins: Drawn to Design. Analyzing Architecture Through Freehand
Drawing, Birkhäuser, Basel 2013
Cathy Johnson: Artist’s Journal Workshop. Creating your life in words
and pictures, F&W Media, Newton Abbot 2011
Natascha Meuser: Construction and Design Manual. Architectural
­Drawings, DOM publishers, Berlin 2012
Grant W. Reid: Landscape Graphics. Plan, Section, and Perspective
Drawing of Landscape Spaces, Watson-Guptill Publications,
New York 2002
James Richards: Freehand Drawing and Discovery: Urban Sketching and
Concept Drawing for Designers, John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken 2013
Francesca Serrazanetti and Matteo Schubert: La mano dell’architetto.
The hand of the architect, FAI – Fondo Ambiente Italiano/­Moleskine
srl/Editrice Abitare Segesta, Milan 2009

91
Picture credits
Figs. 2, 22, 57: Ulrich Exner
Figs. 6, 44, 45, 51: © 4a Architekten GmbH | Florian Afflerbach
Figs. 7, 8, 15, 88: Martin Schäpers
Figs. 19, 54: © kadawittfeldarchitektur | David Baros
Figs. 23, 53: © 4a Architekten GmbH | Ernst Ulrich Tillmanns
Fig. 48: Boris Szélpal
Fig. 58: © Volkmar Nickol Architekten | Omar Jaramillo
Fig. 66: Gottfried Müller
Figs. 92, 93: Arno Hartmann
Fig. 12 shows sketchbooks by Arno Hartmann, Tina Jacke and Florian
Afflerbach
Fig. 59 contains sketches by Ulrich Exner and © 4a Architekten GmbH |
Florian Afflerbach
Figs. 70 and 71 contain drawings by Adrian Fischer, Alexander Görg,
Arno Hartmann and Florian Afflerbach
All other figures: Florian Afflerbach

The author
Florian Afflerbach, Dipl.-Ing. (FH) Architekt M. A., is a research assis­
tant at the Chair for Spatial Design at Siegen University and the Chair for
the Depiction of Architecture at the TU Dortmund. He is a co-founder of
Schaff-Verlag für Architekturvermittlung, Hamburg.

92
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